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THOMAS A. EDISON IN HIS LABORATORY. 














TOMB OK NAPOLEON L, PARIS 



























STANDARD 
AMERICAN BOOK 

of KNOWLEDGE 


CONTAINING 

rnsiriSE SPECIAL ARTICLES OF RESEARCH UPON ALL THE LATEST TOPICS OF 
SCIENCE ARTS, MECHANICS, EDUCATION, HISTORY AND TRAVEL, SUCH As, 

THE AUTOMOBILE, AERIAL TRANSPORTATION, LIQUID AIR, CINEMATO¬ 
GRAPH, SUBMARINE NAVIGATION, WONDERS OF THE ARMY AND 
NAVY, TELEPHOTOGRAPHY, WIRELESS TELEGRAPH, UNDER¬ 
GROUND PNEUMATIC TUBES, WAR BALLOONS, DIS¬ 
COVERIES IN MEDICINE AND SURGERY, CIVIL 
GOVERNMENT, EXPANSION, ETC. 

All the Latest Inventions and Discoveries 

INSTRUCTIONS IN THE USE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ; ELOCUTION; PENMANSHIP. 
,NSTRUCT.ONS orrespondence _ sqc|al et|QUETTE; b ooK-KEEP.NG; 

COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS, ETC. 

Courtship, Marriage and Social Life 

rnnn HEALTH AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT; GYMNASTICS; SPORTS AND PASTIMES; 
INDOOR OCCUPATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS; HELPS FOR HOUSEKEEPER ; 

Valuable receipts; cultivation of plants, flowers, etc. 

The Countries of the World 

mAxnmrAI AND STATISTICAL INFORMATION; LATEST DISCOVERIES IN ELECTRICITY 
ASTRONOMW UGHT AND HEAT; READY RECKONER: DICTIONARY OF DATES 
AND HANDY FACTS; TABLES OF INTEREST, WEIGH TS, MEASURES, E . 

THE WHOLE FORMING A 

Complete Guide and Self-Instructor 

ON SCIENTIFIC, COMMERCIAL, HISTORICAL, ARTISTIC AND. ALL OTHER SUBJECTS 

BY HENRY DAVENPORT NORTHROP 

Author of •• Story of the New World,- "Golden Manual," " Feerles, Rec.er, Etc., Etc. 

Magnificently Embell ished with4 00 Pine Engravings 

NATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
No. 241 AMERICAN STREET 
PHILADELPHIA, PA. 






two copies received. 
Library of Ccrsgpag^, 
Office c f the 

MAS 2 9 1900 

K&glster of Copy right 14 




# 



57048 


4G ( ( OS' 

< N? 


ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1900, BY 

GEORGE W. BERTRON 

IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, AT WASHINGTON, D. C. 


o 

4 

« f * 

C 1 


SECOND COPY* 

V»~3 c 

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-5I\ -5A -^\ *^\ -^\ -oA -^\ -^\ -^\ -^\ -^\ ->A J* 




LL Useful Information on all Subjects and for all People, truthfully describes 
this new and peerless volume. The first subject treated is Education, the 
Training of Mind and Body. How to Write and Speak Correctly comes 
next, including full instructions in Penmanship, Grammar, Elocution, Delsarte 
System of Physical Culture and Expression, Synonyms and Antonyms. 
How to Remember, or Loisette’s Famous Memory System, is fully explained. 

Courtship and Marriage should be carefully read by all parents and young people. 
In glowing, eloquent language it teaches the true Relations of the Sexes, the Laws of 
Love, How to Choose a Wife or Husband, what Temperaments should Marry, how to 
make Married Life Happy, how to avoid the mistakes and follies of love-making, how to 
plant and nurture that sweetest and most beautiful of all flowers, domestic bliss. 

Helps for Housekeepers may be said to form a volume by itself, including the Care of 
Plants, Flowers and Household Pets ; a very large and choice collection of the newest and 
best Receipts for all kinds of Cooking, Renovating Clothing, Furniture, etc., and for 
Cosmetics. 

Good Health and How to Preserve It, is fully treated, with more than fifty Graphic 
Illustrations of Gymnastics, showing how to develop and strengthen every part of the body. 
This is followed by What to Do in Emergencies, in other words, How to Save the Lives 
of Persons in danger from accidents, poisons, etc. This is followed by Etiquette of Polite 
Society; the Art of Correspondence, including Forms for Letters; Sports and Pastimes, etc. 

Then come The Largest Things on the Globe—the Highest Mountains, Longest 
Rivers, Largest Trees, Buildings, etc.; Greatest Inventions, Earthquakes, Conflagrations, 
Works of Art, Libraries, Railroad Magnates, Land-owners, etc. Would you know the 
Date of any Important Occurrence ? Here is the full list, a history by itself. 

The reader now beholds, depicted in brilliant colors, the Grand Panorama of Nations— 
the Countries of the World, containing Historical, Geographical and Statistical Informa¬ 
tion—the Proud Achievements of Great Discoverers, Navigators, Commanders, Statesmen, 
and Patriots, with the Laws, Customs and Thrilling Events, comprising a full description 
of all Civilized Countries. 

The Latest Discoveries in Electricity; the Wonders of Astronomy; Photography by 
the new X-Rays; Phenomena of Light; Famous Gems; Indoor Amusements; Weather 
and Weather Signals, are among the multitude of subjects fully treated. Then comes a 
Vast Compendium of Curious Facts, gathered from History, Science, Literature, Treasures 


111 
















IV 


PREFACE. 


of Art; Discoveries of every description ;• all arranged and presented in a foi in most conve* 
nient for the reader. This part of itself is a vast storehouse of piactical knowledge. 

The Department of Business includes the Best System of Book-keeping ever taught 
in America, and can easily be learned by every boy and gill. This is followed by full 
instructions showing How to Do Business, and furnishing horms for Notes, Checks, Drafts, 
etc. The convenience of having these in correct form is apparent to all who have business 
to transact. 

Every man should have such information as will enable him to be his own lawyer, and 
with this volume, which contains a full set of Legal Forms, he has a Hand-Book of Law 
that is always ready for use. Here are forms for Agreements, Mortgages, Contracts, Wills, 
Leases, all in the correct phraseology and suitable for reference or copy. Pull directions 
are given for drawing Notes, Checks, Drafts, etc., and forms are given. 

The Lightning Calculator shows at a glance the cost of any article at any price; and 
it Aever makes a mistake. This is a vast saving of time and trouble, enabling one to make 
reckonings almost instantly without going through the tedious process of multiplication, 
addition and division. In short, this volume is a time-saver, a practical help and is 
prepared and intended for constant use in every household. 

There is a vast collection of Important PMcts, relating to the Government of the 
United States; Presidents and Vice-Presidents; Electoral Votes; Discoveries and Settling 
of Countries ; Wealth of the Principal Nations; Money and How to Make It; Value of 
Metals; Interest Rules and Tables; Exports of Various Countries ; Tables of Mortality; 
Tables for Telling the Age of any Person; Percentage of Nutrition in Various Articles of 
Food, etc., etc. This part is an encyclopedia, stored with the most useful information, 
while at the same time it is full of entertainment for all readers. 

Every one prizes a book that puts much into a small space; that conducts the reader 
at once into a flower garden, and does not compel him to roam through acres of weeds 
before coming to a single blossom. This peerless work has gems of knowledge on every 
page, and the part containing facts for reference is both a surprise and delight. 

The Population of the United States during the Nineteenth Century is shown by a 
comprehensive table, which is interesting to all intelligent readers. Here the marvellous 
growth of our country is fully shown, as “ westward the course of Empire takes its way.” 
This table is one of the most suggestive in the volume. 

This outline, necessarily brief and imperfect, will aid the reader somewhat in forming 
an estimate of the Contents, which cover every subject of importance and value. A full 
Index completes the volume. 

The publishers feel that the effort to furnish a complete and comprehensive work that 
is a fountain of unlimited knowledge and a self-educator on every subject upon which the 
reader needs to be informed, has been entirely successful. The vast stores of information 
are drawn fiom sources that are accurate and reliable, thus rendering this volume a 
standard work. Moreovei, it is fully up to date, containing the latest discoveries in every 
department of science, history, education, and all other branches of knowledge. 



PAGE 



PAGE 

EDUCATION. 17 

Training of Mind and Body. 17 

True Motto... 18 

Self-Culture.•. 19 

Value of Rfady Information. 20 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 21 

How to Writf and Speak Correctly . 21 

Penmanship. 23 

How to Speed Correctey. 27 

Use of Capitae Letters. 29 

Ruees of Punctuation. 31 


Generae Principees of Grammar ... 39 

Errors in Writing and Speaking ... 47 

VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION ... 53 


Exercises in Breathing. 54 

Articueation. 56 

Pronunciation. 56 

Force. 57 

Stress. 58 

Meeody . 58 

Pitch. 58 

Infeection. 60 

Time and Pauses. 60 

Emphasis. 62 

Gesture, with Ieeustrations ..... 63 

Exampees Ieeustrating Eeocution . . 73 

DELSARTE SYSTEM OF PHYSICAL CUL¬ 
TURE AND EXPRESSION. 79 

What Deesarte Taught. 82 

CUETURE OF THE BODY. 87 

Free Gymnastics. 89 

HOW TO REMEMBER. 90 

Loisette Memory System. 90 

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 98 

COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE.118 

The Temperaments.121 

What Temperaments Shoued and 

Should Not Marry.127 

The True Genteeman.132 


Curse of Extravagance.134 

Animae Propensities.1& 4 

How Love-Making Shoued Be Con¬ 
ducted .135 

Beind Errors of Courtship.148 

Love Begets Love.149 

Proposae and Acceptance.151 

How to Make Married Life Happy . . 155 

The Modee Husband . 162 

The Model Wife. 170 

HOUSE PLANTS AND FLOWERS.180 

The Liey.180 

Verbenas, Petunias. 182 

Pansies.184 

Chrysanthemums.185 

Mignonette, Sweet Pea.18( 

Carnations and Picotees.190 

Daheias.192 

The Rose.196 

CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS ... 197 
HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER .... 214 

Receipts for Everyday Use.214 

Receipts for Cooking.215 

ooups.216 

Fish.221 

Meats and How to Carve Them .... 225 

Pouetry and Game.. . 238 

Sauces for Meats.242 

Vegeta bees.244 

Saeads.246 


Bread, Biscuit, Roees, Cake, Etc. . . . 248 
Receipts for Renovating Ceothing . . 252 
Receipts for Renovating Furniture . 258 


Receipts for Cosmetics.260 

GOOD HEALTH AND HOW TO PRE¬ 
SERVE IT.262 

Wholesome Food and Air .262 

Heaethfue Dwellings .264 

Good Drainage.265 


V 






















































































VI 


CONTENTS. 


Abundance of Fresh Air . . . 
Best Methods of Ventilation . 

Water Supply. 

Use of Disinfectants. 

Truths to be Remembered . . 

Free Gymnastics. 

Exercises with Dumb-Bells . . 
The Swing and Stirrups . . . 


PAGE 

. . 267 
. . 268 
. . 272 
. . 275 
. . 278 
. . 280 
. . 295 
. . 303 


WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES .... 320 


Drowning. 

Accidents by Fire.323 

Hemorrhage.323 

Fainting .324 

Sunstroke.324 

Persons who are Frozen .326 

Poisons.327 

Hydrophobia .327 

Scalds and Burns .328 

Cuts and Wounds .329 

Simple Cure for Sprains. 330 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY .... 331 


Introductions and Salutations . . , , 332 


Art of Conversation.333 

Visiting Cards.335 

Calls and Visits.338 


Weddings and Wedding Anniversaries 341 


Dinner Giving ..... ....... 344 

Breakfasts, Luncheons and Teas . . . 347 

Evening Parties.350 

Receptions and Suppers.350 

Etiquette of Funerals.354 

Dress for Special Occasions.355 

‘"HE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL. 361 

Artistic Home Decorations.361 

Charming Colors.362 

Cosy Recesses.362 

THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE .... 367 

Forms for Letters.367 

Notes of Invitation.368 

Love Letters.370 

Letters of Congratulation.373 

Letters of Condolence.375 

Business Letters.377 

SPORTS AND PASTIMES.382 

Lawn Tennis.. 

Football.. 


PAGE 

Base Ball .. 390 

Cricket ..392 

Golf. 402 

Foot Racing. 405 

Rowing. 407 

Boxing. 409 

Bicycling.411 

THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD . 415 

Miscellaneous Wonders.415-418 

Grandest Temple of Worship.418 

Costliest Private Mansion.418 

Highest Building in the World ... 419 
Largest Hotel in the United States . 419 
Greatest Land Proprietor ..420 


Largest Hanging Bell in the World . 420 
Largest Gun in the United States . . 420 
Longest Tunnels in the World . . . . 420 


Largest Steam Hammer.422 

Most Notable Bridges .4z2 

Greatest City in the World.423 

Largest Trees in the World.424 

Yellowstone National Park.425 

Washington Monument.425 

Height of Principal Monuments and 

Buildings. 425 

Largest Churches and Halls.426 

Highest Mountains.426 

Loftiest Volcanoes.126 

Greatest Depth of the Ocean .... 427 
Deepest Lake in the World.427 


Longest Rivers in the World.427 

Size of Lakes, Seas and Oceans .... 427 
Greatest Catastrophes of History . . 428 


Floods and Freshets.428 

Greatest Conflagrations.428 

Chicago’s Great Fires. 428 

Most Noted Facts in Turf History . . 429 
Dimensions of Bartholdi’s Statue of 

Liberty. 430 

Great Wall of China.430 

Coal Area of the World.430 

Railroad Facts.430 

Fastest Locomotive ever Built .... 432 

One Railroad in Palestine.432 

Seven Wonders of the World .... 432 
Wonders of the New World .432 


























































































CONTENTS. 


VII 


PAGE 

PATES OE FIRST OCCURRENCES .... 433 
THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD . . 439 

Historical and Statistical Informa¬ 


tion .439 

The United States.440 

Fac-similE of Original Copy of the 

Star Spangled Banner.450 

Fac-similE of Original Copy of Our 

National Hymn.451 

Autographs of the Presidents .... 452 

Coats-of-Arms of the States.453 

Dominion of Canada ... ..... 457 

Mexico.460 

England.461 

Scotland.464 

Ireland.465 

France.466 

Germ/ n Empire.468 

Austro-Hungarian Empire.471 

Russian Empire.472 

Norway and Sweden.475 

Denmark.476 

Holland—the Netherlands.477 

Belgium.479 

Switzerland.480 

Italy.481 

Spain.483 

Portugal.484 

Greece.485 

Turkey.486 

Egypt.488 

Palestine.. 489 

Arabia.490 

China.490 

Japan.491 

British India.492 

Afghanistan and Beloochistan .... 495 

Siam.496 

Persia.497 

Barbary States.498 

Abyssinia.499 

Republics in South Africa.500 

Cape Colony.501 

Madagascar.502 

Australia.502 

Oceanica ..503 


PAGE 

VENEZUELA. .504 

Brazil.505 

Peru.506 

Chili.507 

United States of Colombia.508 

Central America.508 

Cuba.509 

Hawaii.510 

ASTRONOMY.513 

How To Read the Sky.513 

. Universe of Wonders.514 

Vast Size of the Sun.514 

The Sun a Revolving Body.515 

Rapid Movement of Sun Spots.517 

Pictures Made by the Sun. 520 

Microscopic Photography.522 

Eclipse of the Sun.. 523 

Brilliant Corona. 524 

Wonderful Eruptions.525 

How the Sun is Colored.529 

Magnificent Halos.530 

Our Solar System.536 

Mercury.536 

Venus. 537 

Mars.539 

Jupiter. . 541 

Saturn. 542 

Uranus.543 

Neptune . ..544 

The Earth’s Satellite.546 

Craters on the Moon’s Surface . . . 547 

A Desert World.548 

Amazing Distances.555 

Infinite Clusters of Stars.558 

Magnificent Constellations.559 

Great Bear.559 

Cassiopeia.. . . 560 

The Twins.561 

Castor and Pollux.562 

Lion.562 

Copernicus. ... 562 

Orion.563 

Strange Wanderers in Space.564 

Velocity of Comets.565 

Meteorites.567 

Splendors of the Aurora.569 






















































































CONTENTS. 


vi 11 


ELECTRICITY. 

Latest Discoveries. 

The Phonograph.- • 

Why the Wheels Go Round . 

Great Motive Power. 

The Telephone. 

Electric Light. 

Edison’s Mimeograph. 

Edison’s Kinetoscope. 

Electric Rifles. 

Ocean Cables. 

WONDERFUL PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Light Piercing Opaque Substances . . 


PAGE 

573 

573 

574 

576 

577 

578 
580 

582 

583 

584 

585 

586 
586 


Foreign Bodies Seen Under the Human 


Skin.687 

Bullets Located.588 

PHENOMENA OF LIGHT.589 

Reflection ... 589 

Long Distance Signals.. 591 

Singular Shadow-Pictures.591 

FAMOUS GEMS.593 

Queen of Jewels.593 

Famous French Gems.594 

Diamond Cutting.595 

THE WEATHER AND WEATHER SIGNALS 596 

Storm and Wind Signals.597 

Weather Signs.598 

RAILROAD SIGNALLING.598 

American Railway Signals.599 

Construction of the Signal-Box . . . 600 

BUILDING SOCIETIES.601 

Constitution.601 

Earning Powers ..603 

INDOOR AMUSEMENTS.604 

Chess.604 

Names of Pieces and their Powers . . 604 

Laws of the Game.608 

Backgammon.610 

Laws of the Game.611 

COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY.612 

Phrenology.615 

CURIOUS FACTS.*.616 

Things not Generally Known .... 616 

The Alps.616 

Alcohol.616 

The Human Body.616 


PAGE 

Fictitious Names of Cities ...... 617 

Earth’s Centre .. 617 

El Dorado.6'8 

“ Flying Dutchman ”.618 

John Bull. 618 

Liberty Bell.618 

Boats Used in Duck Shooting.620 

Monroe Doctrine.620 

How Our Presidents Died.621 

The Silver Question.621 

Fictitious Names of States and Terri¬ 
tories .622 

Stock Brokers’ Technicalities . . • . 623 

Uncle Sam.623 

BUSINESS TERMS AND RULES.624 

BOOKKEEPING.630 

Method of Keeping Books.632 

Accounts.• 632 

Books of Account.• . . 632 

Bills and Books of Original Entry . . 633 

Day Book.633 

Cash Book.634 

Invoice Book . s .634 

Sales Book.634 

Day-Book Journal.637 

Rules for Debit and Credit.637 

Ledger.638 

Cash Account.639 

Merchandise Account.640 

Personal Accounts.641 

Bills Receivable Account.642 

Bills Payable Account.643 

Expense Account.644 

Capital Account.646 

Loss and Gain Account.648 

Trial Balances.651 

Closing the Ledger.653 

How to Do Business.655 

LEGAL FORMS.659 

Hand-Book of Law.659 

Business Agreements. ... 660 

General Form of Agreement.660 

Laws of Partnership.661 

Partnership Agreement.661 

Deeds.662 

Mortgages.663 







































































































I 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


PAGE 

Real Estate Mortgage. 663 

Landlords and Tenants. 664 

Form of Lease of a Farm and Buildings 664 

Last Wills and Testaments. 665 

General Form of Will. 665 

STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS.666 

LIGHTNING CALCULATOR.667 

Ready Reckoner.• • • . . 667 


ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INFORMATION . . 673 
Presidents of th£ United States . . . 673 
Education, Marriage, Children, etc., 


PAGE 


Smallest Republic in Europe.685 

What Royalty Costs England .... 685 
Carlisle Tables of Mortality .... 686 

How Human Life is Spent.686 

How to Tell the Age of Any Person . 686 

A Lady’s Chance of Marrying.687 

Mode of Execution in Every Country 687 

Antidotes for Poisons.687 

Powers of Locomotion of Animals . . 687 

The Pulse.688 

Periods of Digestion.688 


of the Presidents.674 

Vice-Presidents.675 

Votes for President.675 

Politics of the Presidents.676 

Popular Vote for President by States 676 
Salaries of United States Officers . 677 

President’s Salary.677 

Cabinet Facts ..677 

Religion of the Presidents.678 

The White House ..678 

Facts about Washington, D. C.678 

Originals of the New Testament . . . 679 
Bible Printed in 300 Tongues . . . . 679 

Curiosities of the Bible. 679 

Valuable Bibles.679 

Roman Catholic Bible.679 

Discoveries and Settling of Countries 679 
Size of the Different Nations .... 681 

Wealth of Principal Nations.681 

Money.682 

Weight of a Million Dollars.682 

Foundations of Fortunes.682 

A Business Lesson.682 

Avoid Debt.682 

Getting Rich by Small Inventions . . 683 

Results of Saving Money.683 

What a Dollar Earns Each Day . . . 683 

Value of Metals.683 

Average Rainfall.684 

Average Annual Temperature .... 684 
Derivations of Names of Months . . 684 
Names of the Days of the Week . . . 684 
Exports of Various Countries .... 684 


Salaries of Heads of Governments . 685 
Sovereigns of England. 685 


Nutrition in Articles of Food .... 688 
Percentage of Alcohol in Liquors . . 688 


Weight of Eggs.688 

Food in an Egg.689 

Management of Poultry. 689 

Box Measures.689 


How to Drive Flies from Stables . . 689 
Weight of Cattle by Measurement . 689 
POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 

IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY . 690 
THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF 


FLOWERS. 691 

Flower Language . 692 

LIQUID AIR.701 

Dewar Bulb. 702 

THE HORSELESS AGE.705 

Automobiles. 705 

Electric Mobile. 706 

Storage Batteries. 707 

Compressed Air . 709 

MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY.711 

Luxury and Ease of Traveling .... 712 
Siberian and Chinese Railways .... 713 

“ Cape to Cairo ” Railway. 716 

Cecil Rhodes. 717 

Ninety Miles an Hour. 717 

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.719 

Hertzian Waves. 719 

MODERN WONDERS OF THE ELECTRI¬ 
CAL WORLD. 724 


Rapid Telegraphing. 724 

Picture Telegraphy . 724 

Wireless Light . 725 

NEW STUDIES OF THE STORMY SKIES 726 
Size of The Whole Universe. 727 
































































X 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Whence Comes the Heat.727 

The Sun.728 

Largest Known Meteor.730 

Yerkes’ Great Telescope.730 

GREAT CANALS OF THE WORLD ... 733 

The Panama Route .733 

The Nicaragua Canal.733 

The Keil Ship Canal.734 

Chicago Drainage Canal.735 

STUPENDOUS POWER OF THE FALLS 

OF NIAGARA.736 

40,000 Horse Power.736 

Turbines.737 

CINEMATOGRAPH-MOVING PICTURES 738 

“Zeotrope”. .. 738 

The Kinetoscope.739 

WHITE MAN’S GREED FOR THE LAND 

OF THE BLACK.740 

SCIENTIFIC FARMING.741 

Reclaiming Bad Lands.741 

Spraying and Sprinkling Plants . . . 743 

DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEALING 744 

Cures by Liquid Air.744 

Finsen Light Cure.745 

Pasteur Serum.746 

Anti-Toxin.746 

The X-Ray.746 

Hydrophobia.748 

Appendicitis.749 

Skin and Bone Grafting.750 

VOYAGING AT BOTTOM OF THE SEA . 751 

The “Gymnote”.751 

The “ Argonoaut ”.752 

Diving Apparatus.755 

Universal Disarmament.756 

Court of Arbitration.756 

OUR NEW POSSESSIONS.757 

Ladrone Islands.759 

Samoan Islands.759 

Porto Rico.760 

THE MODERN NEWSPAPER.762 

Photo-Engraving.764 

Zinc Etching.764 

The Lineotype Machine.766 

Stereotyping.768 


PAGE 

Monster Presses.769 

DEATH-DEALING MACHINES OF WAR 772 

Dum Dum Bullet. # .774 

Torpedoes.775 

American Navy.776 

“SKYSCRAPERS” . . . ..778 

“ Chicago Construction ” .778 

The Tallest Building.778 

Fire-Proof Brick.780 

COMPRESSED AIR AND PNEUMATIC 

TUBES.781 

MODERN ILLUSTRATING.782 

The Colortype.783 

THE MEAT MARKET OF THE WORLD 784 

The Pens.785 

GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE EN¬ 
TIRE WORLD.789 

France.• . . 789 

Germany.792 

Great Britain ... 794 

Russia 796 

United States of America.798 

COLONIAL GOVERNMENT OF THE 

UNITED STATES.802 

Porto Rico.802 

Cuba.804 

The Philippines.806 

The Hawaiian Islands.806 

TRAVELING IN THE AIR.808 

STEEL ROLLING MILLS.812 

ACETYLENE GAS—THE NEW ILLUM- 

INANT.816 

PHOTOGRAPHY IN 1900 . 818 

Micro-Photography.821 

RECENT OCCURRENCES.822 

TRYING TO FIND THE POLES.823 

The Antarctic Ocean.824 

THE PARTITION OF CHINA.825 

AMERICAN EXPANSION.826 

Our War With Spain.827 

RICHES GREATER THAN KING SOLO¬ 
MON’S .828 

COMBINATIONS OF WEALTH.831 

SOUTH AFRICA AND THE BOERS ... 833 

Transvaal Government.834 

Discovery of Diamonds.834 














































































PAGE 

Correct Position of a Lady in Writing . . 23 


Specimen of Ornamental Pen Work ... 24 

Incorrect Mode of Holding the Pen ... 25 

Proper Mode of Holding the Pen .... 25 

Correct Position of the Hand . 25 

Specimen of Pen Flourishing. 26 

Ladies’ Handwriting. 28 

Specimen of Ornamental Pen Flourish . . 30 

Whole-arm Capitals. 32 

Signs Used by the Deaf and Dumb ... 34 

Ornamental Pen Flourish. 36 

Specimen of Ornamental Penmanship . . 38 

Specimens of Visiting Cards. 40 

The Graceful Speaker. 57 

The Awkward Speaker*. 57 

Presenting or Receiving. 63 

Announcing . 64 

Declaring . 64 

Wonderment. 65 

Gladness. 65 

Meditation .. 65 

Designating. 66 

Silence. 66 

Repulsion. 67 

Anguish. 67 

Remorse. 67 

Protecting—Soothing. 68 

Exaltation. 68 

Denying—Rejecting. 69 

Discerning. 69 

Awe—Appeal. 70 

Defiance. 70 

Dispersion. 71 

Indecision. 71 

The Lover’s Day Dreams.120 

Motive-vital Temperament.122 

Mental Temperament.123 

Vital Temperament.124 

Mental-vital Temperament .125 

Motive-mental Temperament.126 | 


f*AGE 

Gallantry of the Eighteenth Century . . 131 


Cross and Obstinate.133 

Jealousy.138 

A Rival Discovered.140 

The Proposal.141 

The Lovers’ Reconciliation.145 

The Wedding Ceremony.156 

Selfish Propensities Large.163 

A Family Jar.165 

The Ideal Wife.171 

The Economical Wife.175 

The Happy Mother.177 

Voice of the Flowers.183 

Fast Friends.208 

Fish Globe.210 

Aquarium .211 

Middle Cut of Salmon.212 

Joints of Beef.226 

Sirloin of Beef.227 

Joints of Veal.228 

Half of Calf’s Head.230 

Joints of Mutton.231 

Joints of Pork.234 

Haunch of Venison.237 

Roast Fowl.239 

Boiled Turkey.240 

Health and Beauty.263 

Ready for the Tennis Court.266 

A Model Home.270 

Nature’s Beverage.273 

Free Gymnastics, with Twenty-six Illustra¬ 
tions . 281-294 

Dumb-Bells, with Thirteen Illustrations 296-302 

Athletic Exercises for Training the Body . 304 

Sport in the Gymnasium.307 

Swing and Stirrups, with Twenty-seven Il¬ 
lustrations . 308-319 

A Rescue from Drowning.321 

Method of Grasping the Arm.323 

Pressing upon the Artery.324 


xi 














































































XU 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

In the Sick Chamber.325 

A Morning Call.339 

Etiquette of the Drawing Room .... 340 

Etiquette of the Table.348 

A Lawn Party.351 

Entertaining the Guests with a Song . . 352 

Travelling Costume.357 

Her Morning Ride.359 

Artistic Fireplace.363 

Rich Pieces of Furniture.364 

Selecting Paintings for Home Decoration . 365 

What Shall the Answer Be?.371 

A Letter of Sympathy.376 

A Letter of Recommendation.378 

Healthful Exercises.381 

Diagram of Lawn Tennis Ground .... 384 

Outdoor Sports.885 

The Social Part of the Game.386 

Backhand Stroke.387 

Diagram of Football Grounds.389 

Drop-kick.390 

Diagram of a Baseball Ground ... . . 391 

Cricket.392 

A Critical Moment.*. . . . 393 

The Wicket. 394 

Net Practice. 394 

Batter’s Position. 395 

Ready for Play. 395 

Hitting the Leg. 399 

Straight-arm Delivery. 399 

High-arm Delivery. 399 

Catching a Ftigh Hit.400 

Stopping a Ground Ball.401 

Stopping a Grounder with One Hand . . 401 

Golf Clubs.403 

The Finish of the Race.406 

A Boating Party. 493 

Position in Boxing . ,.410 

Leading Off with the Left.410 

Hitting with the Left at the Body .... 410 

Quadricycle, 1776. 412 

Celeripede, 1816.412 

Draisine, 1816.412 

Hobbyhorse, 1821. 412 

Lallement’s Velocipede.412 

A Dash Across the Country.41 3 


PAGE 

A Bicycle Railroad.413 

The Cycle in Use on the Water .... 414 

The Eiffel Tower.416 

View of the National Capitol.417 


St. Peter’s and the Vatican, Rome ... 418 
Largest Pillars in the World—Karnak . . 421 


Great Suspension Bridge between New 

York and Brooklyn.423 

One of the Big Trees of California . . . 424 
The Bartholdi Statue of Liberty .... 431 

The Pilgrims at Plymouth.443 

Facsimile of the Original Copy of the 

Star-Spangled Banner.450 

Facsimile of the Original Copy of Our 

National Hymn.451 

Autographs of the Presidents.452 

Coats-of-Arms of the United States, with 

Forty-six Illustrations. 453—456 

University of Toronto.458 

Parliament House, Ottawa.459 

French Entering the City of Mexico . . 460 
Battle of Hastings—Death of Harold . . 462 

Charlemagne and His Nobles.469 

Catharine the Great at the Head of Her Army 47 3 

View of Dort.478 

Naples, Showing Mt. Vesuvius.482 

Pagoda at Chillenbaum, India.493 


English Troops on the March in India . . 494 


The Grand Mauna Loa in Action .... 511 

The Sun and Its Remarkable Spots . . . 515 

A Typical Sun-Spot.516 

The Earth Floating in Space.519 

Wreaths Copied by the Sun.521 

The Sun Eclipsed.523 

Remarkable Corona.525 

Banyan Grove on the Sun.526 

Explosive Phenomona in the Sun .... 527 

Striking Appearances of Cloud-land . . . 528 

Halos and Parhelia. 531 

Parhelia Observed by Gassendi.532 

Parhelia Observed by Hevelius.532 

Parhelia Observed in Tennessee. 533 

Bright Halo in Norway. 534 

Intersection of Two Wave Systems . . . 535 

Celebrated Astromoners. 537 

Crescent and Spots of Venus. 530 





































































LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

The Sun, Planets and Comet.540 

Relative Sizes of the Sun and Planets . 542 

The Planet Saturn.543 

Volcanic Craters on the Moon’s Surface 547 

Telescopic View of the Moon.549 

Section of Moon’s Crescent.550 

The Earth as Seen from the Moon . . . 552 
Singular Aspect of the Moon’s Surface 553 

Cyclone of Spiral Nebula.558 

Ursa Major, or Great Bear.560 

Ursa Minor, or Eittle Bear.560 

Taurus or Bull.561 

Cassiopeia.561 

The Twins.561 

Leo or the Eion.562 

Orion. 563 

The Scorpion .-...* .563 

Various Forms of Comets ....... 665 

The Great Comet of 1843 . 566 

The Great Meteor Seen at Hurworth . . 567 


A Shower of Brilliant Meteors on the Ocean568 
Auroral Flames in the Northern Sky. . 570 
Brilliant Aurora in the Arctic Seas . . 571 
Edison Talking into the Phonograph . 574 
Listening to Sounds from the Phonograph 575 


Diagram of Trolley Car.577 

Communicating by Telephone.578 

The Bell Telephone . . ,.579 

The Microphone.580 

The Voltaic Arc.581 

Edison’s Marvelous Incandescent Lamp 582 

Electric Rifle. 584 

Giving a Shock to People.584 

An Electrical Fright.585 

Photograph by the X-Rays.587 

Photograph of Shot in a Rat’s Body . . 587 

How You See Yourself in a Mirror . . 589 

The Famous Pepper Ghost.590 

Hand-shadows of Animals.592 

Weather Signals.596 

Wayside Signal Box.599 

Interior of a Signal Box.600 

Chess Board.605 

Backgammon Board.610 

Ape—Apish.613 

A Striking Pair.• . 613 

“ Puss, You Remind Me of-” ... 613 


• • • 
Xlll 

PAGE 


Owl—Owlish.614 

Marked Resemblance.614 

Location of Organs by Phrenologists . 615 

The Old Liberty Bell.618 

Layman Boat Used in Duck-shooting . 619 
Passage of Hell-Gate in the Layman Boat 620 

Head for Books.632 

An Expert Accountant.633 

Head for Mechanics.634 

Alcohol Frozen in Liquid Air.702 

Liquid Air Boiling on Ice.703 

An Electric Automobile.706 

Automobiles Passing in Review .... 708 
Automobile of English Design .... 710 

Modern Dining Car.711 

Gentlemen’s Club on Wheels . . , . . 712 
Trans-Siberian and Chinese Railway . 713 
Convict Camp on the Trans-Siberian 

Railway.715 

Route of the “ Cape to Cairo” Railway 716 

Ninety Miles an Hour.- 718 

M. Guiglielmo Marconi ........ 720 

Wireless Telegraph Station.721 

Exterior View of a Wireless Telegraph 

Station.722 

Photograph of the Milky Way .... 727 

An Eclipse of the Sun.728 

Peary’s Great Meteor—Largest Ever 

Found. 729 

Yerkes’ Telescope—Largest in the World 730 
Outlet of a Modern Canal Lock .... 734 

California Jack-Rabbit Drive.742 

Electrical Machine for X-Ray Work . . 746 

So-called X-Ray Exhibition.747 

Making a Skiagraph Examination ... 749 


The ‘ ‘ Gymnote’ ’ Traveling at the Surface 752 
The ‘‘Argonaut ” Floating at the Surface 752 
Submarine Voyage of the “Argonaut” 754 

Gasoline Engines.755 

Linotype Machine and Operator . . . . 763 
Stereotyping Room of a Large Daily 

Newspaper.765 

Waiting for Papers at 4 o’clock A. M. . 767 

The Foundry.• . . . . 768 

Engraving Half-Tones.769 

Finishing Department of Electrotype 

Foundry.771 



























































XIV 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

English Dum-Dum Bullet.774 

Caring for the Wounded.776 

A Modern “ Sky-Scraper ”.779 

“ Knocking” Cattle.784 

Killing “Kosher” Cattle 785 

In the Hog “ Sticking-Pen ”.786 

Inspectors Marking Hogs to be Shipped 787 

Chicken Killing.788 

Gas-Kite Propelled Through Mid-Air . 809 
Danilewsky’s Dirigible Flying Machine 810 

Flying.811 

Blast Furnaces.812 


PAGE 

Unloading Iron Ore.813 

A Steel Rail Mill . . . . ,.814 

Fifteen Thousand Tons of Steel Rails . 815 

Magnetic Traveling Cranes.815 

Acetylene Gas Lamp.817 

View of a Cocoanut Tree.818 

Cocoanuts on the Tree.. . . 819 

Snap-Shot Camera.819 

Photograph of an Electrical Discharge 820 
Electric Spark on a Photographic Plate 821 
Almost at the North Pole ....... 824 

Hydraulic Mining in Alaska.829 





















UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP TEXAS 


UNITED STATES TORPEDO BOAT CUSHING 


































































































































- t 





























UNITED STATES MONITOR MIANTONOMOH 



UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP INDIANA 

































































































UNITED 8TATES BATTLESHIP IOWA 



UNITED STATES PROTECTED CRUISER COLUMBIA 
















































































UNITED STATES ARMORED CRUISER BROOKLYN 



UNITED STATES ARMORED CRUISER NEW YORK 














































































EDUCATION 



MONG the wist and 
pithy sayings cn one 
of our best known 
modern writers is 
this : If a man emp¬ 
ties his purse into 
his head, no man 
can take it away 
from him. An investment in 
knowledge always pays the 
best interest. 

It is by diligent attention 
to this rule that the highest 
success is gained. It is im¬ 
possible to have the noblest 
type of man, physically, intellectually or 
morally, without education. An uneducated 
ploughboy cannot reach the commanding 
heights of the widest influence; with educa¬ 
tion he may rise to the highest position his 
country can bestow. 

The biographies of the greatest statesmen, 
scholars, men of letters, philosophers and 
others who have gained distinction, invaribly 
represent them as possessed of an eager thirst 
for knowledge. Sir Isaac Newton was in the 
habit of spending whole nights in the study 
of astronomy and the laws that govern the 


heavenly bodies. Without such close appli¬ 
cation he could not have made those immortal 
discoveries which have been the wonder of 
all thoughtful minds from his time until the 
present. 

It is the observation of one of our modern 
writers that a human being is not, in any 
proper sense, a human being until he is edu¬ 
cated. Thus his slumbering faculties are 
aroused. The magnificent displays of knowl¬ 
edge dawn upon him as the morning light 
brings beauty and fruitfulness to the earth. 
The word education means to train, to in¬ 
struct, to awaken our faculties to action; or, 
taking the word in its primary sense, it means 
“ to draw out.” It aims at the growth and 
highest possible culture of the whole man, 
and the most valuable means for securing 
this grand result are found in books of use¬ 
ful knowledge and information. These are 
the tools with which the rough block is 
chiselled into symmetry and beauty. 

The fruits of the earth do not more 
obviously require labor and cultivation to 
prepare them for our use and subsistence, 
than our faculties demand instruction and 
regulation in order to qualify us to become 
upright and valuable members of society, 
useful to others, or happy in ourselves. We 
must be disciplined and trained. 

17 





I 
























18 


EDUCATION. 


Education is a friend which no misfortune 
can estrange; a companion that never be¬ 
comes wearisome ; a light that never grows 
dim; a solace that never fails. It is the 
helper of the poor and unfortunate, the hand¬ 
maid of genius, an introduction abroad, and 
an ornament in every walk of society. With¬ 
out it, what is man—what can be but an 
untutored savage ? 

What sculpture is to a block of marble, 
education is to the mind. The philosopher, 
the saint, the hero, the wise, the good, the 
great, often lie hidden and concealed in some 
unnoticed individual, which a proper education 
might have disinterred and brought to light. 

The True Motto. 

Education begins with life. Before we are 
aware the foundatioms of the future structure 
are laid. Busy pursuits, the struggle for 
daily bread, and the toil that cannot be 
escaped, crowd out the opportunity to engage 
in the pursuit of knowledge, but if we take 
the correct view of this most important mat¬ 
ter, we shall hold that education is never 
finished, that there is always something new 
to learn, that the highest summit has not 
been reached, and we shall still, in the spirit 
of Longfellow’s “ Excelsior,” press upward 
with a noble resolve, and a determination 
that is daunted by no difficulty or failure. 

Too apt are we to take a narrow, limited 
view of self-training. One boy is educated 
to be a bookkeeper; another, to be a draughts¬ 
man ; another, to be a stenographer; another, 
to be an electrician ; another, to be a lawyer ' 
or journalist. It is true that special training 
is needed for special pursuits, and no less true 
that the whole man needs to be educated, 
whatever may be the subsequent calling to 
be followed. All other training is like lop¬ 
ping off the branches on one side of the tree 
and causing them to grow only on the other 


side—very good branches, perhaps, but a 
very misshapen tree. 

Hear what Daniel Webster said : Knowl¬ 
edge does not comprise all which is contained 
in the large term of education. The feelings 
are to be disciplined; the passions are to be 
restrained ; true and worthy motives are to 
be inspired; a profound religious feeling is to 
be instilled, and pure morality inculcated 
under all circumstances. All this is com¬ 
prised in education. 

Said Washington—and our entire history 
since his day has proved the sagacity of his 
remark : Promote, as an object of primary 
importance, institutions for the general dif¬ 
fusion of knowledge. In proportion as the 
structure of a government gives force to 
public opinion, it is essential that public 
opinion should be enlightened. The Father 
of his Country was firm in the conviction 
that ignorance should have no place among 
a free people. 

An Old Legend. 

There is an old fable in classical My¬ 
thology which pictures Hydra as a serpent 
crawling in the slime of marshy Lerna—a 
monster with many heads, anyone of which, 
if cut off, was replaced by two others unless 
the wound was cauterized. The horrid crea¬ 
ture was slain by Hercules; this was one of 
the giant’s famous achievements. No less 
, true is it that ignorance is a hydra with a 
thousand heads, ugly, dangerous, demonish, 
and the Hercules that alone can slay it is 
chat knowledge which comes from enlight¬ 
ened education. 

One of our martyred Presidents said : 
Next in importance to freedom and justice is 
popular education, without which neither 
freedom nor justice can be maintained. This 
means that more than banks, railroads, fac¬ 
tories, commercial structures thirteen stories 





EDUCATION. 


19 


high—more than all the sails of commerce 
and all the ploughs that turn up golden har¬ 
vests from prairies, is that thorough training 
which fits the citizens of a free common¬ 
wealth for their duties and responsibilties. 

William Penn, writing to his wife concern¬ 
ing their children, said : For their learning 
be liberal. Spare no cost; for by such par¬ 
simony all is lost that is saved ; but let it be 


useiul knowledge, such as is consistent with 
truth and godliness, not cherishing a vain 
conversation or idle mind ; ingenuity, mixed 
with industry, is good for the body and the 
mind too. 

Thus have the fathers and founders of our 
nation urged, insisted upon, demanded, all 
the advantages of liberal education, and, 
fortunately, these have been provided for all. 



fife* 


O one will deny that a large and 
very important part of mental 
and physical training is fur¬ 
nished by parents and teachers, 
who are the proper guardians 
and instructors of the young. 
Their influence is vast and far- 
reaching. If it were not so, if the school¬ 
master and professor had no hand in form¬ 
ing mind and character, the doors of our 
schools and academies might as well be «hut 
and nailed up. 



As wrapt and hidden in the stone’s embrace 
The future statue lies yet undefined ; 

Till the nice chisel clears the form dt igned, 
The trunk, the moving limbs, the speak^ag face 
Develops : so instruction’s hand must trace 
The intellectual form, which lies enshrined 
’Mid nature’s rude materials ; and the mind 
* Invest with due proportion, strength and grace. 
God, to thy teaching, delegates the art 
To form the future man : the care be thine, 
No shape unworthy from the marble start, 
Reptile or monster ; but with j ust design 
Copy the heavenly model, and impart, 

As best thou canst, similitude divine. 


But what can others do for us compared 
with what we can do for ourselves ? Books 
are our teachers and the printer’s type rules 
the world. 

Very justly it has been said by a recent 
writer: We all have two educations, one 
from others, and another, and the most valu¬ 
able, which we give ourselves. It is this last 
which fixes our grade in society, and eventu¬ 
ally our actual condition in this life, and the 
color of our fate hereafter. All the pro¬ 
fessors and teachers in the world would not 
make you a wise or good man without your 
own co-operation; and if such you are 
determined to be, the want of them will not 
prevail. We are to make the most of our¬ 
selves. It should be the duty of education 
to make men first and discoveries afterward. 

The educated man is 'die one who wears 
the crown—the man who can learn from 
reading and observation and then apply 
what he knows. Every manufacturer, and 
every other employer knows the vast differ- 



















20 


EDUCATION. 


ence between an educated and uneducated 
workman. Two men come, soliciting work. 
One is boorish in appearance, ungrammatical 
in speech, dull in comprehension because his 
faculties have never been sharpened ; he 
seems to be little less than a machine and 
with scarcely more comprehension. The 
other is bright, quick, speaks correctly, gives 
evidence of self-training and capacity. By his 
side the other presents a pitiable spectacle, 
and in the competition is distanced, as a trained 
sprinter outstrips a man on wooden legs. This 
is something occurring around us every day 
and within the commonest observation. 

Great Value of Ready Information. 

In all education a knowledge of men and 
things is indispensable. For this reason the 
cultured classes of Europe, and to some 
extent of our own country, have considered 
it essential for the boy or girl who has 
passed through the schoolroom and mas¬ 
tered the course of study, to seek informa¬ 
tion from other sources ; to take a trip 
through the outside world and lay in a fund 
of such knowledge as can be obtained only 
by observing the daily doings of ordinary 
life and the people who are the actors in 
events of constant occurrence. The eye is 
the prime teacher. Open it and keep it 
open. Look, examine, ask questions, and 
do not be ashamed to ask. 

Knock on the lids of books, packed with 
useful information, and say, “ I am here to 
learn what you have to tell me. We are to 
become well acquainted ; I am going to keep 
company with you ; teach me, surprise me, 
store my mind with knowledge ; unfold your 
secrets ; let me into the sanctum ; I have 
come to stay, and mean to traverse your 
charming pages until they are worn to a 
beaten path.” 

Say this to your books of thought, of 


knowledge, of all practical information. We 
say practical, for there is much that you do 
not need to know, and would not make you 
wiser if you did know. Common sense is 
the most uncommon, but it is the best. 
What will be useful for everyday life, teach- 
ing you how to think, to feel, to act, to suc¬ 
ceed, to make the most of yourself, to step 
up higher and higher on the ladder of fame 
and fortune—this is what your book should 
teach. 

Gold Must be Refined. 

There is sure to come a time when those 
who have neglected self-culture in early life 
see the great mistake they have made ; they 
regret it when perhaps it is too late. Al¬ 
though they are conscious of their own 
defects, their ignorance and sad lack of 
education, they have not time and opportu¬ 
nity to apply the remedy. You should, 
therefore, make the most of your advantages 
while you have them. 

Very bright minds may remain in eclipse 
for want of cultivation. The diamond is not 
allowed to continue in its rough state ; it 
must be cut and polished. Gold must be 
separated from the rude ore ; it is of small 
account until this is done. Cicero says, 
cultivation to the mind is as necessary as 
food to the body. Soil uncultivated may 
produce the most luxuriant weeds, yet only 
weeds ; it must be plowed, hoed, harrowed 
before it will produce good fruit. 

Chesterfield said : I am very sure that any 
man of common understanding may, by 
culture, care, attention and labor, make him¬ 
self whatever he pleases, except a great 
poet. This is only a part of the testimony 
that is given by the great minds of all ages, 
affirming that close application and rigorous 
discipline are essential to the highest attain¬ 
ments and the most brilliant success. 





SPECIMEN OF BLACK-BOARD FLOURISHING. 





SPECIMEN OE BLACK-BOARD FLOURISHING 














The E nglish Language 


How to Write and Speak Correctly 








NY mode by which 
ideas are commu¬ 
nicated is a correct 
definition of lan¬ 
guage. In a nar¬ 
rower sense it 
embraces human 
speech, and con¬ 
sists of sounds expressive of 
thought, made by the organs of 
the mouth and throat. It also 
includes written characters. 
Writing is the art of expressing 
ideas by visible signs or char¬ 
acters inscribed on some material. 

It is either ideographic or phonetic. Ideo¬ 
graphic writing may be either pictorial, rep¬ 
resenting objects by imitating their forms, or 
symbolic, by indicating their nature or prop¬ 
erties. Phonetic writing may be syllabic or 
alphabetic; in the former, each character 
represents a syllable; in the latter, a single 
letter. The first mention of written letters 
is in the account given in the Book of Exodus 
of the Tables of the Law. 

We are told that the Ten Commandments 
were written by the finger of God on tables 
or tablets of stone. This statement has led 
some writers to believe that letters were 
divinely invented upon this occasion. 


There is no necessity, however, for taking 
this view of the case; for at the time of the 
“giving of the Law,” a written language 
belonged to each of the nations on the 
southern shore of the Mediterranean. The 
Phoenician alphabet, upon which that of the 
Hebrews was modelled had been in exist¬ 
ence for several centuries before this time, 
and as Phoenicia was then a dependency of 
Egypt, and engaged in active commerce with 
that country, Moses was doubtless acquainted 
with the Phoenician system. 

How We Get the Alphabet. 

The fact that the Hebrew alphabet was 
modelled upon the Phoenician seems almost 
a positive proof of this theory. The early 
history of the alphabet has to be recon¬ 
structed from inscriptions, as nothing in the 
shape of manuscripts is now in existence to 
tell us what were the forms of the letters. 
These are handed down in bronze and stone. 
The date of the invention of the Phoenician 
alphabet, which was the first purely phonetic 
system ever used, is now definitely settled. 

It was during the supremacy of the Shep¬ 
herd Kings over Egypt. These were princes 
of Canaanitish origin, who had conquered 
Lower Egypt, and were contemporary with 
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph. The 


21 


















































22 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


discoveries of science give us reason to 
believe that it was the Shepherd Kings of 
Avaris, who borrowed from the Egyptian 
hieratic writing a certain number of alpha¬ 
betical characters, employed them to re¬ 
present the sounds of their own language, 
and thus produced the Phoenician alphabet 
of twenty-two letters, the origin of most of 
the other alphabets of the world. The 
Phoenicians not only invented the alphabet; 
they taught the use of it to all nations with 
whom they had commercial transactions.. 

With the progress of the world, the art of 
writing and the characters employed were 
greatly simplified, until the system in use at 
present was adopted by the civilized nations 
of the world. 

Penmanship is the art of writing well. 
It is one of the most important accomplish¬ 
ments a person can possess. No matter what 
your position in life, the ability to write a 
good, clear, legible hand, is a priceless pos¬ 
session. To a young man starting out to 
make his way in life, it is so much genuine 
capital, which he can turn to advantage at 
almost every step. The great object should 
be to write a firm, clear hand, with uniformly 
made, well-shaped, and properly shaded 
letters. An abundance of flourishes or 
marks is a defect, except where ornamental 
writing or “flourishing” is intended. 

The present system of forming and com¬ 
bining letters seems to be perfect. It enables 
the writer to put, his thoughts on paper 
almost with the rapidity of speech, and it is 
not probable that it will ever be improved 
upon. 

In this country two styles of penmanship 
are in use. One is known as the round 
hand, the other as the angular. A new sys¬ 
tem, known as the semi-angular, has been 
introduced, mainly through the efforts of the 
Spencer^ and of Payson, Dunton and 


Scribner, and is winning its way to favor. 
The “copy books” prepared by these masters 
present the best and most progressive system 
of penmanship now accessible to the learner, 
and we cordially commend them to all. 

Practice Necessary. 

The only way in which a person can 
acquire the art of writing a good hand is by 
constant and conscientious practice. With 
some persons good penmanship is a gift, but 
all may acquire it by persistent practice. 
Select a good system of copies—the series 
referred to above cannot be improved upon 
—and try faithfully to form your hand upon 
the model selected. Do not be satisfied until 
you can do as well as the master you .are 
seeking to imitate. 

Writing- 3Iaterials. 

It is of the greatest importance that the 
writing materials used by you should be of 
the best quality. 

The pen should be of steel or of gold. 
Many persons prefer the gold pen, because it 
more nearly approaches the quill in flexi¬ 
bility. It is also the most durable pen. A 
good gold pen, properly used, should last for 
years. For general use, and especially for 
ornamental writing, a good steel pen is by 
far the best. It enables you to make a finer 
and sharper line than can possibly be made 
with the gold or quill pen. 

The paper should be of the best quality 
and texture, clearly ruled, and not toe 
rough in surface. It is most common now 
to use copy books, regularly prepared and 
ruled. It is a good plan, after you have 
completed a copy book, to go over the same 
set of copies again. This may be done by 
taking half a dozen sheets of foolscap and 
cutting them in half. Place the half sheets 
within each other, and stitch them together, 
protecting the whole with a cover of stiff 






ART OF WRITING WELL. 


2 3 


paper. Then use the copies of the book 
you have just finished, writing on the new 
!x>ok you have thus made. 

Blotters and Ink. 

A slip of blotting-paper should be pro¬ 
vided for every copy book. In writing 
rest the hand upon this, especially in warm 
weather. The perspiration thrown off by 
the hand is greasy in its nature, and soils the 
paper upon which the hand rests, and lenders 
it unfit to receive the ink. 

Never use poor ink. Black ink should 
always be used in learning to write, and in 
ordinary correspondence. Blue and red inks 
are designed for special purposes, and not for 
ordinary use. An ink that flows freely and 
is nearly black when first used is best. Do 
not use a shallow or light inkstand. The 
first will not allow you to fill your pen 
properly; the latter will be easily turned 
over. The inkstand should be heavy and 
flat, and of such a form that you can at once 
see the amount of ink in it, and thus know 
how deep to dip your pen. Dip your pen 
lightly into the ink, and see that it does not 
take up too much. The surplus ink should 
be thrown back into the inkstand, and not 
upon the floor. By stopping the mouth of 
the bottle when you have finished using it, 
you will prevent the ink from evaporating 
too fast, and also from becoming too thick. 

A pen wiper should always be provided. 
This should be of some substance that will 
not leave a fibre in the slit of the pen. A 
linen rag or a piece of chamois or buckskin 
will answer. 

Position of the Writer. 

After you have learned to write, it is well 
to provide your desk with a lead pencil, a 
piece of India rubber, a ruler, and a bottle of 
mucilage and a brush. 

In writing in a sitting position, a flat table 
is the best. 


The position of the writer is a matter of 
the greatest importance, as it decides his 
comfort at the time, and exercises a powerful 
influence upon his general health. 

The main object is to acquire an easy and 
graceful position, one in which the right 
arm has full play of the muscles used in 
writing. 

The table should be sufficiently high to 
compel you to sit upright. Avoid stooping, 
as destructive of a good hand and of good 
health. Your position should be such as will 
enable you to fill your lungs without much 



CORRECT POSITION OF A LADY IN WRITING. 


effort. Sit with your right side next to the 
desk or table, and in such a position that the 
light will fall over your right shoulder upon 
the paper. 

The right forearm must be placed on the 
desk so as to rest the muscle front of the 
elbow, and the hand placed on the book so 
as to rest the nails of the third and fourth 
fingers. 

The forearm must be at right angles with 
the copy, the book being steadied by the 
fingers of the left hand placed on the paper at 
the left of the pen-point. Hold the wrist 
naturally over the desk, and you will see that 
the inner side is raised a little higher than 





























































































24 


































ART OF WRITING WELL. 


25 


the outer. Keep the wrist free from the desk, 
and do not let it turn over to the right or the 
left, or bend down or up, or otherwise. 

How to Hold the Pen. 

Hold the pen lightly between the thumb 
and first two fingers, letting it cross the 
forefinger in front of the third joint. Rest 
the base of the holder at the nail of the 
middle finger. Place the forefinger over the 
holder. Bend the thumb and fingers out¬ 
ward, and the third and fourth fingers under 
to rest the hand on the nails. Let the nibs 
of the pen press the paper evenly. 

The movements in writing are produced 
by the extension and retraction of the pen- 
fingers and the thumb; by the action of the 
forearm on the arm-rest as a centre of motion; 
the whole arm movement, which is the 
action of the whole arm from the shoulder 
as the centre of motion; and the union of all 

these move¬ 
ments. In or¬ 
dinary writing, 
the first is suffi¬ 
cient. In orna¬ 
mental writing, 
flourishing, 
etc., all the 
various move¬ 
ments are em¬ 
ployed. 

The fingers 
should be kept 
flexible, and 
their move- 
mentsaswell as 
those of the 
hand and wrist, 
should be free 
and unrestrain¬ 
ed. Cramping or stiffening either the fingers or 
the wrist causes the handwriting to be 


cramped and awkward, and greatly fatigues 
the writer. The pen should be held as 
lightly as though the least pressure would 
crush it, and not grasped as though you 
thought it would fly away. 

The Standing- Position. 

I11 standing at a desk to write, stand up¬ 
right, and with the chest well thrown out. 
The desk should be high enough to compel 
you to do this. It should slightly incline 
from the outer edge upwards, and should 
project far enough to allow you to place 
your feet well under it. The principal 
weight of the body should rest upon the left 
foot, the right being thrown forward. Stand 
with your left side toward the desk, and rest 
your body on the left elbow, which should 
be laid upon the desk in such a manner as to 
enable-you to steady your paper or book 
with the left hand. This position will en¬ 
able you to write freely in the ordinary 
manner, or to use the whole forearm should 
you desire to do so. The pen-holder should 
point towards the right shoulder. 

A great saving of fatigue is made by 
assuming and keeping a correct position 
while writing either sitting or standing. By 
conscientiously attending to this matter, you 
will soon acquire the habit of maintaining 
a correct position, and will reap the benefit 
in the ease with which you perform your 
task, and in improved health. 

No one should be satisfied with a bad 
handwriting when it is in his power to im¬ 
prove it. Any one can procure a copy¬ 
book, and can spare an hour, or half an 
hour, a day for this effort at improvement. 
You should begin at the beginning, and 
practise faithfully until you have reached a 
satisfactory result. Remember that a good 
hand is not acquired in a week or a month; 
it takes long and diligent practice to produce 



PROPER MODE OF HOLDINU 
THE PEN. 



CORRECT POSITION OF THE HAND. 











■26 


SPECIMEN OF PEN FLOURISHING, 































ART OF WRITING WELL. 


this result. The end, however, is worth all 
the labor necessary to its accomplishment. 

Plain Writing* Always the Best. 

The great aim should be to make the 
handwriting legible. An ornamental hand 
is very attractive, but it may be this and ye" 
not easily read. This is to fail in the first 
requisite of good writing. 

The advantages of writing well are 
numerous, and will readily suggest them¬ 
selves. In the first place, it is alwavs a 
pleasure to prepare a plainly and neatly- 
written letter or paper. The writer is then 
never afraid or ashamed for his friends to see 
his writing, and is never disgraced by a 
wretched scrawl in addressing a letter to a 
stranger. 

A good hand is also an invaluable aid to a 
young man seeking employment. A mer¬ 
chant in employing clerks and salesmen w r ill 
always give the preference to the best pen¬ 
man. A young man applying by letter for 
a situation can scarcely offer a better refer¬ 
ence than the appearance of his letter. 
Should you wish to become a book-keeper or 
accountant, a good handwriting is a neces¬ 
sity. 

How to Spell Correctly. 

Whether a person is a good penman or 
not, it is necessary that he should know how 
to make use of his ability to write, or, in 
other words, how to transfer correctly his 
thoughts to paper. 

The first requisite is to know how to spell 
correctly. This is even more important 
than writing a good hand. A badly-spelled 
letter is much more of a disgrace to the 
writer than one badly w 7 ritten. The habit 
of spelling correctly may be easily acquired, 
and once mastered is rarely lost. Our 
language is so rich in w r ords that even the 
best of spellers may sometimes be unable to 
give the proper orthography of a word, but 


2 7 

the knowledge of the general principles 
which govern the formation of English 
words will enable him to meet all the ordi¬ 
nary demands likely to be made upon him, 
These may be found in almost any spelling- 
book, or work upon the principles of com¬ 
position. It is well, however, to give a few 
of the most important here. We may remark, 
in passing, that writing words out in full on 
paper, or on a slate, is an admirable means of 
impressing them upon the memory. 

All words of one syllable ending in /, with 
a single vowel before it, have double l at the 
close: as mill, sell. 

All words of one syllable ending in /, 
with a double vowel before it, have one l 
only at the close: as mail , sail. 

Words of more than one syllable ending 
in /, when compounded, retain but one / 
each: as, fulfil, skilful. 

Words of more than one syllable ending 
in /, have one l only at the close: as, delight¬ 
ful, faithful,' except befall, downfall, recall , 
unwell , etc. 

All derivations from words ending in l 
have one l only: as, equality , from equal; 
fulness, from full; except they end in er or 
ly: as, mill, miller; full, fully. 

All participles in ing from verbs ending in 
e lose the e final: as, have , having; amuse, 
amusing; unless they come from verbs end¬ 
ing in double e, and then they retain both: 
as, see, seeing; agree, agreeing. 

All adverbs in ly and nouns in merit retain 
the e final of the primitives: as, brave, 
bravely; refine, refinement; except acknowl¬ 
edgment and judgment. 

All derivations from words ending in er 
retain the e before the r : as, refer, reference ; 
except hindrance, from hinder; remembrance., 
from remember; disastrous, from disaster; 
monstrous, from monster; wondrous, from 
wonder; cy.m'rous, from cumber, etc. 







28 








































SPECIMEN OF BLACK-BOARD FLOURISHING- 



| 

m 


m 

mm 

jpl 

■I 




SPECIMEN OF BLACK-BOARD FLOURISHING. 


ART OF WRITING WELL. 


.2 9 


Compound words, if both end not in /, 
retain their primitive parts entire: as, mill¬ 
stone, changeable, raceless; except always , 
#/.$•<?, deplorable, although, almost, admirable , 

etc. 

All one-syllables ending in a consonant, 
with a single vowel before it, double that 
consonant in derivatives; as, .wac, sinner# 
ship, shipping ; big , bigger; glad , gladder, 
etc. 

One-syllables ending in a consonant, with 
a double vowel before it, do not double the 
consonant in derivatives: as, sleep, sleeper; 
troop, trooper. 

All words of more than one syllable end- 

J 

ing in a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, and accented on the last syllable, 
double that consonant in derivatives: as, 
commit, committee ; compel, compelled; appal, 
appalling ; distil, distiller. 

Nouns of one syllable ending in y, pre¬ 
ceded by a consonant, change y into ies in 
the plural; and verbs ending in y, preceded 
by a consonant, change y into ies in the 
third person singular of the present tense, 
and into ied in the past tense and past 
participle: as, fly, flies ; I apply, he applies ; 
we reply, we replied, or have replied. If the 
y be preceded by a vowel, this rule is not 
applicable : as, key, keys ; / play, he plays ; 
we have enjoyed ourselves. 

Compound words whose primitives end in 
y, change y into i: as, beauty, beautiful; 
lovely, loveliness. 

How to Use Capital Letters. 

It is an excellent plan to keep a small 
dictionary at hand, in order that you may 
refer at once to the word if you are in doubt 
as to its orthography. The standard recog¬ 
nized in the United States is either Worcester 
or Webster. Johnson’s is good, or Walker’s, 
and for students’ use, Stormonth’s is available 
and handy. 


There is no surer mark of an educated 
person than the proper use of capital letters. 
To omit them when they should be used is a 
serious blunder, and to make too profuse a 
display of them is to disfigure your writing, 
and proclaim yourself ignorant of one of the 
first principles of correct writing. 

The rules governing the use of these let¬ 
ters are few, simple, and easily remembered. 
They may be stated as follows: 

The first word of every book, chapter, 
letter, note, or any other piece of writing 
should begin with a capital letter. 

The names of the months and the days of 
the week should always begin with a capital 
letter. 

The first word after a period should begin 
with a capital letter. 

The first word after every interrogation, 
or exclamation, should begin with a capital 
letter; unless a number of interrogative or 
exclamatory sentences occur together, and 
are not totally independent. 

The various names or appellations of the 
Deity should begin with a capital letter: as, 
God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme 
Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, 
the Holy Spirit, etc. 

All proper names, such as the names of 
persons, places, streets, mountains, lakes, 
rivers, ships, etc., and adjectives derived 
from them, should begin with a capital letter. 

The first word of a quotation after a colon, 
or when it is in direct form, should begin 
with a capital letter. 

The first word of an example, every sub¬ 
stantive and principal word in the titles of 
books, and the first word of every line in 
poetry, should begin with a capital letter. 

The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are 
always wricten in capitals. 

Any words, when remarkably emphatic, 
or when they are the principal subject of the 







SPECIMEN OF ORNAMENTAL PEN FLOURISHING. 
















































ART OF WRITING WELL. 


composition, may begin with capitals. The 
observance of these rules is important. 

How to Punctuate Correctly. 

A knowledge of punctuation is very im¬ 
portant. A document not punctuated, or 
not punctuated properly, may present a neat 
appearance if written in a good hand and 
correctly spelled, but its value may often be 
entirely destroyed by incorrect punctuation. 
A notable instance of this occurred in Eng¬ 
land, and is thus noticed in the London 
Times : 

“The contract lately made for lighting 
the town of Liverpool, during the ensuing 
year, has been thrown void by the misplac¬ 
ing of a comma in the advertisement, which 
ran thus: 1 The lamps at present are about 
4050 in number, and have in general two 
spouts each, composed of not less than twenty 
threads of cotton.’ The contractor would have 
proceeded to furnish each lamp with the said 
twenty threads ; but, this being but half the 
usual quantity, the commissioner discovered 
that the difference arose from the comma 
following, instead of preceding the word 
each. The parties agreed to annul the con¬ 
tract, and a new one was ordered.” 

Punctuation Marks. 

A Mr. Sharpe once engraved a portrait of a 
certain Richard Brothers, and gave the fol¬ 
lowing certificate to that effect. The docu¬ 
ment was designed as a simple statement of 
fact. The misplacement of a comma, how¬ 
ever converted it into a piece of gross pro¬ 
fanity. It read as follows: “ Believing 

Richard Brothers to be a prophet sent, by 
God I have engraved his portrait.” Had the 
comma been placed after the name of the 
Deity, the effect would have been very dif¬ 
ferent. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written 
composition into sentences; and is princi¬ 


pally used to mark the grammatical divisions 
of a sentence. The marks employed in 
punctuation are sometimes used to note the 
different pauses and tones of voice, which 
the sense and accurate pronounciation re¬ 
quire. 

The characters or marks used in punctua¬ 
tion are as follows: 


The Comma, f 

The Semicolon, ; 

The Colon, : 

The Period, 

The Quotation Marks, “ ” 


The Diaeresis, 

The Crotchets, ( ) 

The Brackets, [ ] 

The Exclamation, ! 

The Interrogation, ? 

The Dash, - 


The Ellipsis, * * * * 
The Hyphen, 

The Breve, 

The Apostrophe # 

The Brace, 

The Acute Accent, / 

The Grave Accent, v 

The Circumflex Accent, a 
The Caret, /\ 

The Cedilla, c 


In addition to these the following marks 
of reference are used : 


The Asterisk, * The Section, § 

The Obelisk, f The Parallels, || 

The Index, The Paragraph, ^ 

The Double Obelisk, J 

Rules of Punctuation. 

When two or more words are connected 
witnout the connecting word being expressed, 
the comma supplies the place of that word; 
as “ Alfred was a brave, pious, patriotic 
prince.” 

Those parts of a sentence which contain the 
relative pronoun, the case absolute, the nom¬ 
inative case independent, any parenthetical 
clause, and simple members of sentences, 
connected by words expressing a comparison, 
must be separated by commas; as, “ The 
elephant, which you saw in the menagerie, 
took the child up with his trunk into his 
cage.” “ Shame being lost, all virtue is lost.” 
“ Peace, O Virtue, peace is all thine own.” 
“ Better is a dinner of herbs with love, thai 
a stalled ox and hatred therewith.” 

The following words and phrases, and 
others similar to them, are generally separated 







32 

































ART OF WRITING WELL. 


33 


by commas from the rest of the sentence; | 
namely, Nay, so, however, hence, besides, 
perhaps, finally, in short, at least, moreover, 
again, first, secondly, thirdly, lastly, once 
more, on the contrary, etc. 

The words of another writer, not formally 
introduced as a quotation, and words and 
clauses expressing contrast or opposition, 
though closely connected in construction, 
are separated by a comma; as, “I pity the 
man, who can travel from Dan to Beersheba 
and cry, ’Tis all barren.” 

“ Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull; 

Strong, without rage ; without o’erflowing, full.” 

When the absence of a word is indicated 
in reading or speaking by a pause, its place 
may be suppled by a comma; as, “ From law 
arises security ; from security, inquiry; from 
inquiry, knowledge.” 

Nouns in apposition, accompanied by ex¬ 
planatory words or phrases, are separated by 
commas; but if such nouns are single, cr 
only form a proper name, they are not 
divided; as, “Paul the Apostle cf the 
Gentiles was eminent for his zeal and knowl¬ 
edge.” 

Semicolons, Colons anil Periods. 

When a sentence consists of several mem¬ 
bers, each constituting a distinct proposition, 
and having a dependence upon each other, 
or upon some common clause, they are 
separated by semicolons; as, “Wisdom has 
builded her house; she hath hewn out her 
seven pillars; she hath killed her beasts; 
she hath mingled her wine; she hath also 
furnished her table.” 

The colon is used to divide a sentence into 
two or more parts, which, although the 
sense be complete in each, are not wholly 
independent; as, “ Nature felt her inability 
to extricate herself from the consequences of 
guilt: the Gospel reveals the plan of Divine 
3 


interposition and aid.” Here the clauses 
are complete in sense, yet form one sentence. 

The colon is used when an example, a 
quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, 
“ The Scriptures give us an amiable repre¬ 
sentation of the Deity in these words: God 
is love.” 

The period is used at the end of a complete 
and independent sentence. It is also placed 
after initial letters when used alone; and, 
likewise, after all abbreviations; as, “ One 
clear and direct path is pointed out to man.” 
“ Fear God.” “ Have charity towards all 
men.” “ G. W.,” for “George Washington.” 
“Geo.,” for “George.” “Benj.,” for “Ben* 
jamin.” “O. S.,” for “Old Style.” “ F. R. 
S.,” for “Fellow of the Royal Society.” 

In a general view, the period separates the 
paragraph into sentences; the semicolon 
divides a compound sentence into simple 
ones; and the comma collects into clauses 
the scattered circumstances of manner, time, 
place, relation, etc., belonging to every verb 
and to every noun. 

Interrogation anil Exclamation Marks. 

The note of interrogation, or the question, 
as it is sometimes called, is placed after every 
sentence which contains a question; as, 
“Who is this?” “What have you in your 
hand?” “The Cyprians said to me, Why 
do you weep ? ” 

The exclamation point is used to express 
any sudden or violent emotion; such as sur¬ 
prise, joy, grief, love, hatred, anger, pity, 
anxiety, ardent wish, etc. It is also used to 
mark an exalted idea of the Deity; and is 
generally placed after the nominative case in¬ 
dependent; and after the noun or pronoun 
which follows an interjection; as, “ How 
mischievous are the effects of w-ar!” * O 

blissful days ! Ah me ! how soon we pass !” 

The exclamation point is also used after 






ONE-HAND ALPHABET. 



SIGNS USED FOR LETTERS BY THE DEAF AND DUMB. 


34 




































ART OF WRITING WELL. 


35 


sentences containing a question when no ' 
answer is expected; as, “ What is more amia- 
able than virtue! ” 

Several exclamation points are sometimes 
used together, either in a parenthesis or by 
themselves, for the purpose of expressing 
iidicule or a great degree of surprise. 

The Parenthesis, Bracket, Hyphen, Etc. 

A parenthesis is a sentence, or a part of a 
sentence, inserted within another sentence, 
but which may be omitted without injuring 
the sense or construction, and is enclosed 
between two closed lines like these: ( ). 

The curved lines between which a paren¬ 
thesis is enclosed are called crotchets. 

Sometimes a sentence is enclosed between 
marks like these, [ ], which are called 
brackets. 

The following difference is to ?_>e noticed 
in the use of crotchets and brackets: Crotchets 
are used to enclose a sentence, or part of a 
sentence, which is inserted between the parts 
of another sentence: Brackets are generally 
used to separate two subjects or to enclose an 
explanatory note or observation standing by 
itself. When a parenthesis occurs within 
another parenthesis, brackets enclose the 
former, and crotchets the latter ; as in the 
following sentence from Stern : “I know the 
banker I deal with, or the physician I usually 
call in [there is no need, cried Dr. Slop (wak¬ 
ing), to call in any physician in this case], 
to be neither of them man of much 
religion.” 

It may be here remarked that a parenthe¬ 
sis is frequently placed between commas, in¬ 
stead of crotchets, etc.; but the best writers 
avoid the use of parenthesis as much as 
possible. 

The hyphen is a small mark placed between 
the parts of a compound word; as, sea-water, 
semi-circle. 


The hyphen is also used to denote the 
long sound of a vowel; as, Epicure-an, 
deco-rum. 

The hyphen must always be put at the end 
of the line when part of the word is in one 
line and part in another; but in this case, 
the letters of a syllable must never be sep¬ 
arated ; as, extraor¬ 

dinary, not ext¬ 
raordinary. 

The dash is a straight mark longer than a 
hyphen; thus, — 

The proper use of the dash is to express ar 
sudden stop or change of the subject; but 
by modern writers, it is employed as a sub¬ 
stitute for almost all of the other marks: 
being used sometimes for a comma, semi¬ 
colon, colon or period; sometimes for a 
question or an exclamation, and sometimes 
for crotchets and brackets to enclose a paren¬ 
thesis. 

An ellipsis or omission of words, syllables 
or letters, is indicated by various marks: 

sometimes by a dash ; as, the k-g, for tne 

king; sometimes by asterisks or stars, like 
these, * * * *; sometimes by hyphens, thus,. 
- - - -; sometimes by small dots or periods,, 
like these, .... 

The breve (thus ^ ) is placed over a vowel 
to indicate its short sound ; St. Helena. 

The apostrophe is the comma placed above 
the line. It is used as the sign of the pos¬ 
sessive case, and sometimes indicates the 
omission of a letter or several letters; as, 
“John’s;” “’tis” for “it is;” “ tho’” for 
‘ though;” “lov’d” for “loved;” “I’ll” tor 
“I will.” 

The quotation marks, or inverted commas^ 
as they are sometimes called, consist of four 
commas, two inverted, or upside down, at the 
beginning of a word, phrase or sentence 
which is auoted or transcribed from some 

JL 

author in his own words ; and two others, iv 






\ 



36 




















































ART OF WRITING WELL. 


37 


theii direct position, placed at the conclu¬ 
sion ; as, an excellent poet says: 

“The proper study of mankind is man.” 

Sometimes the quotation is marked by sin¬ 
gle instead of double commas. 

The diaeresis consists of two periods placed 
over the latter of two vowels to show that 
they are to be pronounced in separate sylla¬ 
bles ; as, Laocoon, Zoonomia, cooperate. 

The brace is employed to unite several 
lines of poetry, or to connect a number of 
•words with one common term ; and it is also 
used to prevent a repetition in writing or 
printing ; thus, 

“Waller was smooth; but Dryden taught him to join 'j 
The varying verse, the full-resounding line, 1 

The long majestic march and energy divine.” j 

C-e-o-u-s j 

C-i-o-u-s ^ 

o _ ; o I are pronounced like shus. 

"1 “O” IT”S | 

T-i-o-u-s J 

The cedilla, or cerilla, is a curve line 
placed under the letter c ) to show that it has 
the sound of It is used principally in 
words derived from the French language. 

Thus gargon, in which word the g is to be 
pronounced like j. 

The accents are marks used to signify the 
proper pronounciation of words. 

The accents are three in number : 

The grave accent, thus, v 
The acute accent, thus, ' 

The circumflex accent, thus, A 

The grave accent is represented by a mark 
placed over a letter, or syllable, to show that 
it must be pronounced with the falling in¬ 
flection of the voice ; as, Reuthamir. 

The acute accent is represented by a 
similar mark, pointing in the opposite 
direction, to show that the letter or syllable 
must be pronounced with the rising inflec¬ 
tion of the voice ; thus, Epicurean, European. 

The meaning of a sentence often depends 
on the kind of accent which is used; thus 


the following sentence, if the acute accent 
be used on the word alone , becomes a ques- 
tion: 

“ Pleased thou shalthear, and thou alone shalthear?” 

But if the grave accent be placed on the 
word alone , it becomes a simple declaration • 
as, 

‘ ‘ Pleased thou shalt hear, and thou alone shalt hear. ” 

The circumflex accent is the union of the 
grave and acute accents, and indicates that 
the syllable on which it is placed should 
have both the rising and falling inflection of 
the voice. 

The caret is a mark resembling an in¬ 
verted V , placed under the line. It is never 
used in printed books, but, in manuscripts, 
shows that something has been accidentally 
omitted; as, 

recited 

“ George has his lesson.” 

A 

When many notes occur on a page, and 
the reference marks given above are ex¬ 
hausted, it is customary to double them. 
Some writers prefer to use the numerals, i, 
2, 3, 4, etc., as simpler. This is a matter of 
taste with the writer. 

Sections and Paragraphs. 

The section § and the paragraph If are 
used to mark the parts of a composition that 
should be separated. Where you wish the 
compositor to separate a paragraph into two 
or more paragraphs, it is not necessary to 
rewrite the page. Place the 1 where you 
wish each new paragraph to begin, and the 
compositor will understand your wishes. 

A paragraph denotes the beginning of a 
new subject, or a sentence not connected 
with the foregoing. 

A section is used for subdividing a chapter 
into smaller parts. 

It is proper here to add, that every com¬ 
position should be divided into paragraphs, 






38 



























































ART OF WRITING WELL. 


39 


when the sense will allow the separation. 
Different subjects, unless they are very short, 
or very numerous in a small compass, should 
be separated into paragraphs. 

Underscoring. 

Many mistakes arise from improperly 
underscoring the words of a manuscript or 
letter. It is well to refrain from underscor¬ 
ing a word wherever you can do so with 
propriety, just as you would avoid unduly 
emphasizing your words in speaking. A 
single line drawn under a word indicates 
that it must be set by the compositor in 
italics; as, “ I dearly love her.” Two lines 

indicate small capitals; as, “I honor him.” 

Three lines indicate large capitals ; as, “ Help, 
help, I cry.” 

GENERAL PRIN CIPLES OF GRA MMAR. 

Although the details of Grammar and 
grammatical rule are not embraced in the 
plan of this work, we may with propriety 
present some observations with regard to 
those principles which are most frequently 
forgotten or disregarded by careless writers. 
These are here presented in the form of 
directions. 

Direction ist. In determining the 
number of a verb, regard must be had to 
the idea which is embraced in the subject 
or nominative. Whenever the idea of plu¬ 
rality is conveyed, whether it be expressed 
by one word or by one hundred, and how¬ 
ever connected, and in whatever number the 
subject may be, whether singular or plural, 
all verbs relating to it must be made to 
agree, not with the number of the word or 
words , but with the number of the idea con¬ 
veyed by the words. 

Direction 2d. In the use of pronoun, 
the same remark applies: namely, that the 
number of the pronoun must coincide with 


the idea contained in the word, or words, to 
which the pronoun relates. If it imply 
unity, the pronoun must be singular; if it 
convey plurality, the pronoun must be plural. 
These directions will be better understood by 
an example. 

Thus, in the sentence, “Each of them, in 
their turn, receive the benefits to which they 
are entitled,” the verbs and pronouns are in 
the wrong number. The word each, although 
it includes all , implies but one at a time . The 
idea , therefore, is the idea of unity , and the 
verb and pronoun should be singular; thus, 
“Each of them in his turn receives the 
benefit to which he is entitled.” 

The same remark may be made with re¬ 
gard to the following sentences: “Every per¬ 
son, whatever be their (his) station, is bound 
by the duties of morality.” “The wheel 
killed another man, who is the sixth that 
have (has) lost their (his) lives (life) by these 
means.” “I do not think that any one 
should incur censure for being tender of 
their (his) reputation.” 

Direction 3d. In the use of verbs and 
words which express time, care must be 
taken that the proper tense be employed to 
express the time that is intended. Perhaps 
there is no rule more frequently violated 
than this, even by good writers; but young 
writers are very prone to the error; thus the 
author of the Waverley Novels has the fol¬ 
lowing sentence: 

“ ‘ Description,’ he said, ‘ was (is) to the 
author of a romance exactly what drawing 
and tinting were (are) to a painter; v 7 ords 
were (are) his colors, and, if properly em¬ 
ployed, they coidd (can) not fail to place the 
scene which he wished (wishes) to conjure 
up as effectually before the mind’s eye as the 
tablet or canvas presents it to the bodily or¬ 
gan. The same rules,’ he continued, ‘ ap¬ 
plied (apply) to both, and an exuberance of 













40 


SPECIMENS OF VISITING CARDS. 

















ART OF WRITING WELL. 


dialogue in the former case was (is) a verbose , 
and laborious mode of composition, which 
went (goes) to confound the proper art of the 
drama, a widely different species of compo¬ 
sition, of which dialogue was (is) the very 
essence ; because all, excepting the language 
to be made use of, was (is) presented to the 
eye by the dresses, and persons, and actions 
of the performers upon the stage.’” 

The author was misled throughout in the 
tenses of the verbs in this extract by the 
tense of the verb said , with which he intro¬ 
duces it. 

Direction 4th. Whenever several verbs 
belonging to one common subject occur in a 
sentence, the subject or nominative must be 
repeated whenever there is a change in the 
mood, tense, or form of the verb. 

Direction 5th. In the use of the com¬ 
parative and superlative degrees of the adjec¬ 
tive it is to be remarked, that when two 
things or persons only are compared, the 
comparative degree, and not the superlative, 
should be used. Thus, in the sentence, 
“Catharine and Mary are both well attired ; 
but, in their appearance, Catharine is the 
neatest, Mary the most showy,” the superla¬ 
tive degree of the adjective is improperly ap¬ 
plied. As there are but two persons spoken 
of, the adjectives should be in the compara¬ 
tive degree : namely, neater and more showy. 

Direction 6th. Neuter and intransitive 
verbs should never be used in the passive 
form. Such expressions as was gone , is 
grown , is fallen , is come , may be relied on , 
etc., although used by some good writers, are 
objectionable. 

Direction 7th. In the use of irregular 
verbs, a proper distinction should be made in 
the use of the imperfect tense and the perfect 

r - 

participle. 

He done (did) it at my request; he run 
Iran) a great risk ; he has mistook (mistaken) 

7 T C 


4r 

his true interest ; the cloth w T as wave (woven) 
i of the finest wool; he writes as the best au¬ 
thors would have wrote (written) had they 
writ (written) upon the subject; the bell has 
been rang (rung); I have spoke (spoken) to 
him upon the subject These sentences are 
instances where the proper distinction be¬ 
tween the preterite and participle has not 
been preserved. 

Direction 8th. The negative adverb 
must be followed by the negative conjunc¬ 
tion ; as, “The work is not capable of pleas¬ 
ing the understanding, nor (not or) the imag¬ 
ination.” The sentence would be improved 
by using the conjunction in pairs, substitut¬ 
ing neither for not. 

In the following sentences, the conjunc¬ 
tion but is improperly used : “I cannot deny 
but that I was m fault.” “ It cannot be 
doubted but that this is a state of positive 
gratification.” 

Direction 9th. There must be no 
ellipsis of any word, when such ellipsis 
would occasion obscurity. Thus, when we 
speak of “ the laws of God and man,” it is 
uncertain whether one or tw T o codes of laws 
are meant; but, in the expression, “ the laws 
of God and the laws of man,” the obscurity 
vanishes. A nice distinction in sense is 
made by the use or omission of the articles. 
“A white and red house” means but one 
house; but “A white and a red house” 
means two houses. In the expression, “She 
has a little modesty,” the meaning is posi¬ 
tive; but by omitting the article, “She has 
little modesty,” the meaning becomes nega¬ 
tive. The position of the article, also, fre¬ 
quently makes a great difference in the 
sense, as will be seen in the following 
examples: “As delicate a little thing;” 
“ As a delicate little thing.” 

Direction 10th. The adverb should 
always be placed as near as possible to the 





42 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


word which it is designed to qualify. Its j 
proper position is generally before adjectives, 
after verbs and frequently between the 
auxiliary and the verb. The following 
sentence exhibits an instance of the im¬ 
proper location of the adverb: “It had 
almost been his daily custom, at a certain 
hour, to visit Admiral Priestman.” The 
adverb almost should have been placed before 
daily . 

Direction nth. In the use of passive 
and neuter verbs, care must be taken that 
the proper nominative is applied. That 
which is the object of the active verb must 
in all cases be the subject or nominative of 
the passive verb. Thus, we say, with the 
active verb, “They offered him mercy” 
(i. e ., to him): and, with the passive verb, 
“Mercy was offered to him;” not “He was 
offered mercy,” because “mercy,” not “he,” 
is the thing which was offered. It is better 
to alter the expression by substituting a 
synonym with a proper nominative or sub¬ 
ject, than to introduce such confusion of 
language, as must necessarily result from a 
change in the positive, fixed and true signifi¬ 
cations of words, or from a useless violation 
of grammatical propriety. 

In accordance with this direction (see, also, 
Direction 6th), 


Instead of 

He was prevailed on, 

He was spoken to, 

She was listened to, 

They were looked at, 

It is approved of, 

He was spoken of, 

It is contended for, 

It was thought cf, 

He was called on by his friend, 
These examples are commented 
upon with much humor, 
He was referred to as an oracle, 


It would be better to say , 
He was.persuaded. 

He was addressed. 

She was heard. 

They were seen, or viewed. 

It is liked, or commended. 

He was named, or mentioned. 

It is maintained, or contested. 

It was remembered ,or conceived. 
He was visited by his friend. 
These examples are ridiculed 
with much humor. 

He was consulted as an oracle. 


Direction 12th. All the parts of a sen¬ 
tence should be constructed in such a man¬ 
ner that there shall appear to be no want of 
agreement or connection among them. Thus, 


the following sentence, “ He was more be¬ 
loved, but not so much admired as Cynthio,” 
is inaccurate, because when it is analyzed, it 
will be, “ He was more beloved as Cynthio,” 
etc. The adverb more requires the conjunc¬ 
tion than after it; and the sentence should 
be, “ He was more beloved than Cynthio, but 
not so much admired.” 

Again, in the sentence, “ If a man have a 
hundred sheep, and one of them goes astray,” 
etc., the subjunctive word, have , is used after 
the conjunction if, in the first part of the 
sentence, and the indicative ^0^, in the sec¬ 
ond. Both of these verbs should be in the 
indicat* or both in the subiunctive mood. 

No definite rule can be given which will 
enable the learner to make the parts of a sen¬ 
tence agree in themselves, and with one an¬ 
other. They should be diligently compared, 
and a similarity of construction be carefully 
maintained ; while the learner will recollect 
that no sentence can be considered grammat¬ 
ically correct, wdiich cannot be analyzed or 
parsed by the authorized rules of Syntax. 

Construction of Sentences. 

In fue construction of sentences care 
should be taken ',0 choose the simplest 
words, and those which most directly and 
strikingly convey the meaning you w T ish to 
express. Three things are necessary in a 
correct sentence— purity , propriety and pre¬ 
cision. 

Purity consists in using such words and 
expressions as belong to the idiom of the 
English language, in place of words or 
phrases drawn from foreign or dead lang¬ 
uages, or that are either ungrammatical, ob¬ 
solete, newly coined or not sanctioned by 
usage. The use of words that are not Eng¬ 
lish is a violation of this rule, and is termed 
a barbarism. The rule is also violated by 
the use of words or phrases not constructed 






ART OF WRITING WELL. 43 

111 the English idiom This fauL is termed clearly and strikingly expressed, are the 
a solecism , By using words or phrases to best. 

convey a meaning different from that as- The Best Style., 

signed to them by custom, you also violate “ Style,” says Dr. Blair, “ is the peculiar 
the rule. This is termed an impropriety. manner in which a writer expresses his 
Propriety in writing consists in the use of thoughts bv words.” 


words sanctioned by tile usage of the best 
writers to convey your meaning, and in the 
avoidance of low-, vulgar or less elegant and 
significant words. In order to remain faith¬ 
ful to this principle, a waiter should bear in 
mind the following rules : 

Avoid low or slang expressions. 

Supply words that are wanting. 

Do not use the same word in different 
senses. Wherever it is possible, avoid the 
use of technical terms, by which is meant 
terms or expressions used in some art, occu¬ 
pation or profession. 

Do not use ambiguous or equivocal words. 

Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent 
words or phrases. 

When words or phrases are not adapted to 
the ideas you intend to communicate, avoid 
the use of them. 

Precision means to make your writing a clear 
mid concise statement of your thoughts, so 
clear that no one reading it can fail to com¬ 
prehend your exact meaning. You may use 
words that convey a meaning different from 
that you intend ; or they may not entirely 
convey your meaning ; or they may convey 
more than you intend. Precision is des¬ 
igned to express neither more nor less than 
your exact thought. 

Do not make your sentences very long ; 
neither make them very short. When a 
sentence is too long, the attention of the 
reader is draw-11 off from the first part while 
considering the last, and he finds it difficult 
to perceive the connection between them. 
Short sentences generally weaken the 
thought. Sentences of moderate length, 


Various terms are applied to style to ex¬ 
press its character, as a harsh style, a dry 
style, a tumid or bombastic style, a loose 
style, a terse style, a laconic or a verbose 
style, a flowing style, a lofty style, an ele¬ 
gant style, an epistolary style, a formal style, 
a familiar style, etc. 

The divisions of style, as given by Dr. 
Biair, are as follows : The diffuse and the 
concise, the nervous and the feeble, the dry, 
the plain, the neat, the elegant, the florid, 
the simple, the affected, and the vehement. 
These terms are altogether arbitrary, and 
are not uniformly adopted in every treatise 
on rhetoric. Some writers use the terms 
barren and luxuriant, forcible and vehe¬ 
ment. elevated and dignified, idiomatic, easy 
and animated, etc., in connection with the 
terms, or some of the terms employed by 
Dr. Blair. 

The character of the style, and the term 
by which it is designated, depends partly on 
the clearness, the fulness, and the force with 
which the idea is expressed; partly on the de¬ 
gree of ornament or of figurative language 
employed ; while the character of the 
thoughts or ideas themselves is expressed by 
the names of simple or natural, affected and 
vehement. 

A concise writer compresses his ideas in¬ 
to the fewest words, and these the most ex¬ 
pressive. 

A diffuse writer unfolds his idea fully, b> 
placing it in a variety of lights. 

A nervous writer gives us a strong idea oi 
his meaning—his words are always express¬ 
ive—every phrase and every figure renders 














44 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


thv picture which he would set before us 
more striding and complete. 

A feeble writer has an indistinct view of 
his subject ; unmeaning words and loose 
epithets escape him ; his expressions are 
vague and general, his arrangements indis¬ 
tinct, and our ''onception of his meaning 
wiL be faint and confused. 

A dry writer uses no ornament of any 
kind, and, content with being understood, 
aims not to please the fancy or the ear. 

A plain writer employs very little orna¬ 
ment ; he observes perspicuity, propriety, 
purity, and precision in his language, but 
attempts none of the graces of composition. 
A dry writer is incapabL of ornament—a 
plain writer goes not in oursuit of it 

A neat writer is careful in the choice of 
his words, and the graceful collocation of 
them. His sentences are free from the en¬ 
cumbrances of superfluous words, and his 
figures are short and accurate, rather than 
bold and glowing. 

An elegant writer possesses all the graces 
of ornament—polished periods, figurative 
language, harmonious expressions, and a 
great degree of purity in the choice of his 
words, all characterized by perspicuity and 
propriety. He is one, in short, who delights 
the fancy and the ear, while he informs the 
understanding. 

A florid or flowery writer is characterized 
by excess of ornament; and seems to be more 
intent on beauty of language than solidity 
of thought. 

A simple or natural writer is distinguished 
by simplicity of plan; he makes his thoughts 
appear to rise naturally from his subject; he 
has no marks of art in his expressions, and 
although he may be characterized by great 
richness both of language and imagination, 
he appears to write in that way not because 
he had studied it, but because it is the mode of 


expression most natural to him. The charm 
of such a style is evident to all readers. 

An affected writer is the very reverse of a 
simple one. He uses words in uncommon 
meanings—employs pompous expressions— 
and his whole manner is characterized by 
singularity rather than by beauty. 

A vehement writer uses strong expressions 
—is characterized by considerable warmth of 
manner—and presents his ideas clearly and 
fully before us. 

The following directions are given by Dr. 
Blair for attaining a good style: 

The first direction is, study clear ideas of 
the subject on which you are to write or 
speak. What we conceive clearly and feel 
strongly, we naturally express with clearness 
and strength. 

Secondly, to the acquisition of a good 
style, frequency of composing is indispens¬ 
ably necessary. But it is not every kind of 
composition that will improve style. By a 
careless and hasty habit of writing, a bad 
style will be acquired. In the beginning, 
therefore, we ought to write slowly and with 
much care. Facility and speed are the fruit 
of experience. 

Thirdly, acquaintance with the style of the 
best authors is peculiarly requisite. Hence 
a just taste will be formed, and a copious fund 
of words supplied on every subject. No ex¬ 
ercise, perhaps, will be found more useful for 
acquiring a proper style than translating some 
passage from an eminent author in our own 
words, and then comparing what we have 
written with the style of the author. Such 
an exercise will show us our defects, will 
teach us to correct them, and, from the 
variety of expression which it will exhibit, 
will conduct us to that which is most beau¬ 
tiful. 

Fourthly, caution must be used against 
servile imitation of any author whatever* 









ART OF WRITING WELL. 


45 


Desire of imitation hampers genius, and 
generally produces stiffness of expression. 
They who copy an author closely, commonly 
copy his faults as well as his beauties. It is 
much better to have something of our own, 
though of moderate beauty, than to shine in 
borrowed ornaments, which will at last betray 
the poverty of our genius. 

Fifthly, always adapt your style to the 
subject, and likewise to the capacity of your 
hearers or readers. When we are to write 
or speak, we should previously fix in our 
minds a clear idea of the end aimed at; keep 
this steadily in view, and adapt our style to it 

Lastly, let no attention to style engross us 
so much as to prevent a higher degree of 
attention to the thoughts. He is a contemp¬ 
tible writer who looks not beyond the dress 
of language; who lays not the chief stress 
upon his matter, and employs not such 
ornaments of style as are manly, not foppish. 

“It is a useful admonition to young 
writers,” says Archbishop Whately, “that 
they should always attempt to recast a sen¬ 
tence that does not please; altering the 
arrangement and entire structure of it, instead 
of merely seeking to change one word for 
another. This will give a great advantage in 
point of copiosness also ; for there may be, 
suppose a substantive (or noun) which, either 
because it does not fully express our mean¬ 
ing, or for some other reason, we wish to 
remove, but can find no other to supply its 
place. But the object may be easily accom¬ 
plished by means of a verb, adverb, or other 
part of speech, the substitution of which 
implies an alteration in the construction. It 
is an exercise, accordingly, which may be 
commended as highly conductive to improve¬ 
ment of style to practice casting a sentence 
into a variety of different forms.” 

The foregoing practical rules shonld be 
casefully noted and followed. 


THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The English language consists of about 
thirty-eight thousand words. This includes, 
of course, not only radical woids, but all 
derivatives; except the preterits and partici¬ 
ples of verbs ; to which must be added some 
few terms, which, though set down in the 
dictionaries, are either obsolete or have never 
ceased to be considered foreign. 

Of these, about twenty-three thousand, or 
nearly five-eighths, are of Anglo-Saxon 
origin. The majority of the rest, in what 
proportion we cannot say, are Latin and 
Greek; Latin, however, has the larger share. 
The names of the greater part of the objects 
of sense—in other words, the terms which 
occur most frequently in discourse, or which 
recall the most vivid conceptions—are Anglo- 
Saxon. Thus, for example, the names of 
the most striking objects in visible nature, 
of the chief agencies at work there, and of 
the changes which pass over it, are Anglo- 
Saxon. This language has given names to 
the heavenly bodies, the sun, the moon, and 
stars ; to three of the four elements, earth, 
fire, and water; three out of the four seasons, 
spring, summer and winter; and, indeed, to 
all the natural divisions of time, except one ; 
as, day, night, morning, evening, twilight, 
noon, midday, midnight, sunrise, sunset; 
some of which are amongst the most poetical 
terms we have. 

To the same language we are indebted foi 
the names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, 
snow, hail, sleet, thunder, lightning, as well 
as almost all of those subjects which form the 
component parts of the beautiful in external 
scenery, as sea and land, hill and dale, wood 
and stream, etc. 

It is from this language we derive the 
words which are expressive of the earliest 
and dearest connections, and the strongest 
and most powerful feelings of nature ; and 






46 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


which are, consequently, invested with our 
oldest and most complicated associations. It 
is this language which has given us names 
for father, mother, husband, wife, brother, 
sister, son, daughter, home, kindred, friends. 

It is this which has furnished us with the 
greater part of those metonymies, and other 
figurative expressions, by which we represent 
to the imagination, and that in a single w r ord, 
the reciprocal duties and enjoyments of hos¬ 
pitality, friendship, or love. Such are hearth, 
roof, fireside. The chief emotions, too, of 
which we are susceptible, are expressed in 
the same language, as love, hope, fear, 
sorrow, shame; and what is of more conse¬ 
quence to the orator or poet, as well as in 
common life, the outward signs by which 
emotion is indicated are almost all Anglo- 
Saxon ; such are tear, smile, blush, to laugh, 
to weep, to sigh, to groan. 

Most of those objects, about which the 
practical reason of man is employed in com¬ 
mon life, receive their names from the Anglo- 
Saxon. It is the language for the most part 
of business; of the counting-house, the shop, 
the market, the street, the farm ; and, how¬ 
ever miserable the man who is fond of phil¬ 
osophy or abstract science might be, if he had 
no other vocabulary but this, we must recol¬ 
lect that language was made not for the few, 
but the many, and that portion of it which 
enables the bulk of a nation to express their 
wants and transact their affairs, must be 
considered of at least as much importance to 
general happiness, as that which serves the 
purpose of philosophical science. 

Nearly all our national proverbs, in which, 
it is truly said, so much of the practical wis¬ 
dom of a nation resides, and which constitute 
the manual and vade mecum of “ hobnailed ” 
philosophy, are almost wholly Anglo-Saxon. 
A very large proportion (and that always the 
strongest) of the language of invective, 


humor, satire, colloquial pleasantry, is Anglo- 
Saxon. Almost all the terms and phrases by 
which we most energetically express anger, 
contempt, and indignation, are of Anglo- 
Saxon origin. The Latin contributes most 
largely to the language of polite life, as well 
as to that of polite literature. 

Again, it is often necessary to convey ide $ r 
which, though not truly and properly offen¬ 
sive in themselves, would, if clothed in the 
rough Saxon, appear so to the sensitive 
modesty of a highly refined state of society \ 
dressed in Latin, these very same ideas w T ill 
seem decent enough. There is a large num¬ 
ber of words, which, from the frequency 
with which they are used, and from their 
being so constantly in the mouths of the 
vulgar, would not be endured in polished 
society, though more privileged synonyms 
of Latin origin, cr some classical circum¬ 
locution, expressing exactly the same thing, 
pass unquestioned. 

There may be nothing dishonest, nothing 
really vulgar about the old Saxon word, yet 
it would be thought as uncouth in a drawinr- 

O o 

room, as the ploughman to wdiose rude use it 
is abandoned. Thus, the word “stench y> 
is lavendered over into unpleasant effluvia , or 
or an ill odor • “sweat,” diluted into four 
times the number of syllables, becomes a 
very inoffensive thing in the shape of “per¬ 
spiration.” To “squint” is softened into 
obliquity of vision ; to be “drunk ” is vulgar;, 
but, if a man be simply intoxicated or in¬ 
ebriated, it is comparatively venial. Indeed, 
we may say of the classical names of vices, 
what Burke more questionably said of vices 
themselves, “that they lose half their de¬ 
formity by losing all their grossness.” 

In the same manner, we all know that It 
is very possible for a medical man to put to 
us questions under the seemly disguise of 
scientific phraseology and polite circumlocu- 






ART OF WRITING WELL. 


tion, which, if expressed in the bare and rude 
vernacular, would almost be as nauseous as 
his draughts and pills. Lastly, there are 
many thoughts which gain immensely by 
mere novelty and variety of expression. 
’This the judicious poet, who knows that the 
connection between thoughts and words is as 
intimate as that between body and spirit, well 
understands. There are thoughts in them¬ 
selves trite and common-place, when ex¬ 
pressed in the hackneyed terms of common 
life, which, if adorned by some graceful or 
felicitous novelty of expression, assume an 
unwonted air of dignity and elegance. What 
was trivial, becomes striking ; and what was 
plebeian, noble. 

COMMON ERRORS TN WRITING AND 

SPEAKING. 

There are many popular errors in writing 
Rnd speaking our language. It may be well 
to notice some of them here. 

We often hear the phrase, from educated 
lips at that, “ Between you and I.” It should 
be, “ Between you and me.” 

Many persons say, “ What beautiful bread!” 
It should be, “What nice breaa!” 

Instead of, “A new pair of shoes,” say, “A 
pair of new shoes." 

Do not say, “ Restore it back to me,” but 
“ Restore it to me.” 

Instead of, “I seldom or ever meet her,” 
say, “ I seldom meet her.” 

Instead of, “ If I am not mistaken,” say, 
“ If I mistake not.” 

Do not say, “Not no such thing,” but 
“Not any such thing.” 

Instead of, “I had rather walk,” say, “ I 
would rather walk.” 

Instead of, “Let you and I,” say, “Let 
you and me.” 

Instead of, “Rather warmish,” say, 
“Rather warm.” 


47 

Instead of, “ What a nice view,” say, 
“ What a beautiful view.” 

Do not say, “Bred and born.” It should 
be, “ Born and bred.” 

Instead of, “ If I was him,” say, “If I 
were he.” 

Do not say, “ I have less friends than you. 5 
It should be, “ I have fewer friends than 
you.” 

In reply to the question, “Who is there?” 
or, “Who is it?” say, “I,” or, “It is I;” and 
not, “ Me,” or, “ It is me.” 

“Whether I be present or no,” is wrong. 
It should be, “Whether I be present or not.” 

Instead of, “I had better go,” say, “It 
were better that I should go.” 

“A quantity of people,” is wrongs It 
should be, “A number of people.” 

“ Six weeks back,” is a barbarism. It 
should be, “Six weeks ago.” 

“A new pair of gloves.” It should be, 
“A pair of new gloves.” 

Instead of saying, “He was in emkie nt 
danger,” say, “ He was in imminent dam 
ger.” 

“ Thinks I to myself,” “ Thinks I,” “ S; ys 
I,” ‘ Says he,” are vulgarisms and shoulf be 
avoided. 

Instead of, “I only want ten cents,” s'ly 
“ I want only ten cents.” 

1 ‘ Because why ? ” is a barbarism. It should 
be simply, “Why?” 

“ The best of the two,” is wrong. Say, 
“ The better of the two.” 

“ There’s fifty,” is incorrect. It should be, 
“There are fifty.” 

“ He need not do it,” is wrong. Say, “ He 
needs not do it.” 

Instead of, “ It was spoke in my presence,’ 
say, “It was spoken in my presence^ 

“She said, said she,” is vulgar, as well as 
incorrect. It should be, “She said.” 

Instead of saying, “My clothes have grown 




48 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


too small for me,” say, “ I have grown too 
etout for my clothes.” The change is in you, 
not in your clothes. 

Do not say, “ On either side of the street.” 
It should be, “ On each side of the street.” 

“ I took you for another person,” is in¬ 
correct. It should be, u I mistook you for 
another person.” 

Instead of, “ His health has been shook,” 
say, “His health has been shaken.” 

Instead of, “ That there man,” say, “That 
man.” 

Instead of, “ Somehow or another,” say, 
“ Somehow or other.” 

Instead of, “Will I do this for you?” 
-say, “ Shall I do this for you ? ” 

Instead of, “What will I do?” say, 
What shall I do ? ” 

Instead of, “Following up a principle,” 
Say, “ Guided by a principle.” 

Instead of saying, “ I belong to the Ma¬ 
sonic order,” say, “ I am a member of the 
Masonic order.” 

Instead of, “ I enjoy bad health,” say, 
“ My health is not good.” 

“ Better nor that, ” is vulgar and wrong. 
It should be, “ Better than that.” 

Instead of saying, “She was remarkable 
pretty,” say, “ She was remarkably pretty.” 

Instead of, “ We think on you,” say, 
“We think of you.” 

Instead of, “ By this means,” say, “ By 
these means.” 

Instead of, “ All that was wanting,” say, 
“ All that was wanted.” 

Instead of, “ He is a bad statesman,” say, 
“ He is not a statesman.” 

Instead of saying, “ I am going over the 
bridge,” say, “ I am going across the 
bridge.” 

Instead of saying, “ I left you behind at 
Omaha,” say, “ I left you behind me at 
Omaha.” 


Instead of saying, “ He ascended up the 
mountain,” say, “ He ascended the moun¬ 
tain.” 

Instead of, “ Mine is so good as yours,” 
say, “ Mine is as good as yours.” 

Instead of, “Adequate for,” say, “Ade¬ 
quate to.” 

The phrase, “ Pure and unadulterated,” 
is a repetition of terms. If a thing is pure, 
it is necessarily unadulterated. 

Instead of saying, “They are not what 
nature designed them,” say, “ They are not 
what nature designed them to be.” 

Instead of, “ How do you do ? ” say, 
“ How are you ? ” 

Instead of, “ To be given away gratis,” 
say, “ To be given away.” 

Instead of, “ I acquit you from,” say, “ I 
acquit you of.” 

Instead of, “I live opposite the park,” say, 
“I live opposite to the park.” 

Instead of, “The want of wisdom, truth 
and honor are more visible,” say, “The want 
of wisdom, truth and honor is more visible.” 

Instead of, “ A surplus over and above,” 
say, “ A surplus.” 

Instead of, “A winter's morning,” say, 
“A winter, or wintry, morning.” 

Instead of, “I will send it conformable to 
your orders,” say, “ I will send it conformably 
to your orders.” 

Instead of, “This ten days or more,” say, 
“ These ten days or more.” 

Instead of, “I confide on you,” say, “I 
confide in you.” 

Instead of, “As soon as ever,” say, “As 
soon as.” 

Instead of, “I differ with you,” say, “ I 
differ from you.” 

Instead of, “I am averse from that,” say, 
“I am averse to that.” 

Instead of, “ The very best,” or. “The very 
worst,” say, “The best,” or, “The worst” 





ART OF WRITING WELL. 


Instead of, '‘No one has’nt called,” say, 
“No one has called.” 

Two negatives make an affirmative. Thus, 
to say, “ Don’t give that child no more 
sugar,” is equivalent to saying, “ Give that 
child some more sugar.” 

Instead of saying, “I won’t never do it 
again,” say, “I will never do it again.” 

Instead of, “I am conversant about it,” 
say, “I am conversant with it.” 

Instead of, “He died by consumption,” 
say, “He died of consumption.” 

Instead of, “The effort I am making for 
arranging this matter,” say, “The effort I am 
iiaking to arrange this matter.” 

Instead of saying, “Your obedient humble 
servant,” say, “Your obedient servant.” 

Instead of, “You are taller than me,” say, 
“You are taller than I.” 

Instead of, “You are mistaken,” say, “You 
mistake.” 

Instead of, “I suspect the veracity of his 
-story,” say, “I doubt the truth of his story.” 

Instead of, “ He was too young to have 
suffered much,” say, “He was too young to 
suffer much.” 

Instead of, “I hope you’ll think nothing 
on it,” say, “I hope you’ll think nothing of 

it” 

Instead of, “ His opinions are approved of 
by all,” say, “ His opinions are approved by 

all.” 

Instead of, “ Handsome is as handsome 
does,” say, “Handsome is who handsome 
does.” 

Instead of, “In case I succeed,” say, “If I 
succeed.” 

Instead of, “They loved one another,” say, 
“They' loved each other.” 

Instead of, “The cake is all eat up,” say, 
<c The cake is eaten.” 

Instead of, “The river is all froze up,” say, 
“The river is frozen.” 

4 


49 

Instead of, “A large enough house,” say, 
“A house large enough.” 

Instead of, “We are travelling slow,” say, 
“We are travelling slowly,” 

Instead of, “ It is raining hard,” say, “ It 
is raining fast.” 

Instead of saying, “The box Tell on the 
floor,” say, “The box fell to the floor.” 

Instead of saying, “ He is noways to 
blame,” say, “He is nowise to blame.” 

Instead of saying, “ He is tall in compari¬ 
son to her,” say, “He is tall in comparison 
with her.” 

Instead of, “I went for to see him,” say* 
“1 went to see him.” 

Instead of, “ He jumped off the platform,” 
say, “He jumped from the platform.” 

Instead of, “A man ot eighty years of 
age,” say, “A man eighty years old.” 

Instead of, “No, thank’ee,” say, “No, I 
thank you.” 

Instead of, “I cannot continue without 
farther means,” say, “I cannot continue 
without further means.” 

Instead of, “I thought I should have won 
this game,” say, “I thought I should win 
this game.” 

Instead of, “He has got money,” say, “He 
has money.” 

Instead of, “I have got to be there,” say, 
“I must be there.” 

Instead of “Have you saw?” say, “Have 
you seen?” 

Instead of, “ I seen him do it,” say, “I saw 
him do it.” 

Instead of, “No other but,” say, “No 
other than.” 

Instead of, “He rose up from his chair,” 
say, “He rose from his chair.” 

Instead of, “I knew it previous to his tell¬ 
ing me,” say, “I knew it previously to bis 
telling me.” 





50 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


Instead of, “It is equally of the same 
value,” say, “It is of the same value.” 

Instead of, “I could scarcely believe but 
what,” say, “I could scarcely believe but 
that.” 

Instead of, “You was out when he was 
here,” say, “You were out when he was 
here.” 

Instead of, “She was a woman notorious 
for her beauty,” say, “She was a woman 
noted for her beauty.” 

Instead of, “I do so every now and then,” 
say, “I do so occasionally.” 

Instead of, “Nobody else but me,” say, 
“Nobody but me.” 

Instead of, “He fell down from the roof,” 
say, “He fell from the roof.” 

Instead of, “Except I am detained,” say, 
“Unless I am detained.” 

Instead of, “What may, or what might 
your name be?” say, “What is your name? ” 

Instead of, “She was a woman celebrated 
for her wickedness,” say, “ She was a woman 
notorious for her wickedness.” 

Instead of, “I find him in clothes,” say, 
“I provide him with clothes.” 

Instead of, “He stands six foot high,” say, 
“He is six feet high.” 

Instead of, “The two first, the three first, 
etc.,” say, “The first two, the first three, etc.” 

Instead of, “ The first of all,” “ The last 
of all,” say, “The first,” “The last.” 

Instead of, “Shay,” say “Chaise.” 

Instead of, “ The then Government,” say, 

“ The Government of that time, period, etc.” 

Instead of, “For ought I know,” say, 
“For aught I know.” 

Instead of, “ Before I do that I must first 
ask leave,” say, “ Before I do that I must ask 
leave.” 

Instead of, “I never dance whenever I can 
help it,” say, “ I never dance when I can 
help it.” 


Instead of, “ The observation of the 
say, “ The observance of the rule.” 

Instead of, “To get over this trouble,” say, 
“ To overcome this trouble.” 

Instead of, “He is a very rising person,” 
say, “ He is rising rapidly.” 

Instead of, “I expected to have found 
you, say, “ I expected to find you.” 

Instead of, “I said so over again,” say, “I 
repeated it.” 

Instead of, “Will you enter in?” say, 
“Will you enter? ” 

Instead of, “ Undeniable references,” say, 
“ Unexceptionable references.” 

Instead of, “ Undisputable proofs,” say, 
“ Indisputable proofs.” 

Instead of, “ Whatsomever,” say, “ What¬ 
soever.” 

Instead of, “ When he was come back,” 
say, “ He had come back.” 

Instead of, “ Two spoonsful of sugar, n 
say, “ Two spoonfuls of sugar.” 

Instead of, “Was you talking just now ? ” 
say, “ Were you talking just now ? ” 

Instead of, “ Him and me went together,” 
say, “ He and I went together.” 

Instead of, “ He has went home,” say, 

“ He has gone home.” 

Instead of, “I intend to summons him,” 
say, “ I intend to summon him.” 

Instead of, “ She is now forsook by her 
friends,” say, “ She is now forsaken by her 
friends.” 

Instead of, “ Who done it? ” say, “ Who 
did it ? ” 

Instead of, “ Who’s got my book ? ” say, 

“ Who has my book ? ” 

Instead of, “I have rode ten miles to¬ 
day,” say, “I have ridden ten miles to-day.” 

Instead of, “ Set down,” say, “ Sit down.” 

Instead of, “ Have you lit the fire? ” say, 

“ Have you lighted the fire ? ” 

Instead of, “I have always gave him 








ART OF WRITING WELL. 


good advice,” say, u I have always given 
him good advice.” 

Instead of, “Have you seen the Miss 
Browns yet ? ” say, “ Have you seen the 
Misses Brown yet ? ” 

Instead of, “ French is spoke in polite so¬ 
ciety,” say, “ French is spoken in polite 
society.” 

Instead of, “He is now very decrepid.” 
say, “ He is now very decrepit.” 

Instead of, “You have drank too much,” 
say, “You have drunk too much.” 

Instead of, “ He has broke a window,” 
say, “ He has broken a window.” 

Instead of, “Who do you mean?” say, 
“Whom do you mean ? ” 

Instead of, “ It was them who did it,” 
say, “It was they who did it.” 

Instead of, “ It is me who am in fault,” 
say, “It is I who am in fault.” 

Instead of, “ If I was rich, I would do 
this,” say, “ If I were rich, I would do 
this.” 

Instead of, “ It is surprising the fatigue 
he undergoes,” say, “ The fatigue he under¬ 
goes is surprising.” 

Instead of, “ He knows little or nothing 
of the matter,” say, “ He knows little, if 
anything, of the matter.” 

Instead of, “ He is condemned to be 
hung,” say, “ He is condemned to be 
hanged.” 

Instead of, “We conversed together on 
the subject,” say, “We conversed on the 
subject.” 

Instead of, “He had sank before we could 
reach him,” say, “He had sunk before we 
could reach him.” 

Instead of, “His loss shall be long re¬ 
gretted,” say, “His loss will be long re¬ 
gretted.” 

Instead of, “He speaks distinct,” say, “He 
speaks distinctly.” 


5 1 

Instead of, “We laid down to sleep,” say, 
“We lay down to sleep.” 

Instead of, “Let it be never so good,” say, 
“ Let it be ever so good.” 

Instead of, “ He is known through the land,” 
say, “He is known throughout the land.” 

Instead of, “I lost near ten dollars,” say, 
“I lost nearly ten dollars.” 

Instead of, “ I am stopping with a friend,” 
say, “I am staying with a friend.” 

Instead of, “He was now retired from 
public life,” say, “He had now retired from 
public life.” 

Instead of, “Who did you inquire for?” 
say, “For whom did you inquire?” 

Instead of, “Such another mis\ake,” say, 
“Another such mistake.” 

Instead of, “ He combined together these 
facts,” say, “He combined these facts.” 

Instead of, “ He covered it over with earth,” 
say, “He covered it with earth.” 

Instead of, “I acquiesce with you,” say, “I 
acquiesce in your proposal, or in your 
opinion.” 

Instead of, “He is a distinguished anti¬ 
quarian,” say, “He is a distinguished anti¬ 
quary.” 

Instead of, “ He did it unbeknown to us,” 
say, “ He did it unknown to us.” 

Instead of, “I fear I shall discommode 
you,” say, “I fear I will incommode you.” 

Instead of, “I could not forbear from doing 
it,” say, “I could not forbear doing it.” 

Instead of, “He is a man on whom you 
can confide,” say, “He is a man in whom 
you can confide.” 

Instead of, “I can do it equally as well as 
he,” say, “I can do it as well as he.” 

Instead of, “I am thinking he will soon 
arrive,” say, “I think he will soon arrive.” 

Instead of, “ He was obliged to fly the 
country,” say, “ He was obliged to flee the 
country.” 







52 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


Instead of, “A house to let,” say, “A house 
to be let.” 

Instead of, “ Before I do that I must first 
be paid,” say, “ Before I do that I must be 
paid.” 

Instead of, “A couple of dollars,” say, 
“Two dollars.” The word couple implies a 
union of two objects. 

Instead of, “ You are like to be,” say, “You 
are likely to be.” 

Instead of, “All over the land,” say, “ Over 
all the land.” 

Instead of, “I shall fall down,” say, “ I 
shall fall.” 

Instead of, “Either of the three,” say, “Any 
of the three.” 

Instead of, “They both met,” say, “They 
met.” 

Instead of, “From hence,” say, “Hence.” 

Instead of, “From thence,” say, “Thence.” 

Instead of, “ From here to there,” say, 
44 From this place to that.” 


Instead of, “Either of them are,” say, 
“Each of them is.” 

Instead of, “A most perfect work,” say, 
“A perfect work.” 

Instead of, “ The other one,” or, “Another 
one,” say, “The other,” or, “Another.” 

Instead of, “ My every hope,” say, “All 
my hopes.” 

Instead of, “For good and all,”say, “For 
ever.” 

Instead of, “ He lives at Troy,” say, “ He 
lives in Troy.” 

Instead of, “I am coming to your house,” 
say, “I am going to your house.” 

Instead of, “I suspicioned him,” say, 44 I 

« 

suspected him.” 

Instead of, “They mutually loved each 
other,” say, “They loved each other.” 

Instead of, “Of two evils choose the least,” 
say, “Of two evils choose the less.” 

Instead of, “ If I were her, I would do it,” 
say, “If I were she, I would do it” 

























VOCAL CULTURE 


AND 


ELOCUTION 




MHMK 




O much depends on the 
voice in effective read¬ 
ing and singing that 
its thorough cultiva¬ 
tion is indispensable 
to all who would ex¬ 
cel in these noble arts. 
A sedentary moae of life, 
the want of invigorating 
exercise, close and long- 
continued application of 
mind, and, perhaps, an 
impaired state of health, 
or o. feeble constitution, prevent, 
in many instances, the free and 
forcible use of those muscles on 
which voice is dependent. Hence arises, to 
students of elocution, the necessity of prac¬ 
ticing physical exercises, adapted to promote 
general muscular vigor, as a means of attain¬ 
ing energy in vocal functions, the powei of 
any class of muscles being dependent on the ■ 


tone of the whole system. 

The art of cultivating the voice, however, 
has, in addition to the various forms of bodily 
exercise practiced for the general purpose of 
promoting health, its own specific presetip- 
tions for securing the vigor of the vocal 
organs, and modes of exercise adapted to the 
training of each class of organs separately. 


The results of such practice are of indefinite: 
extent; they are limited only by the energy 
and perseverance of the student, excepting, 
perhaps, in some instances of imperfect or¬ 
ganization. A few weeks of diligent cultiva¬ 
tion are usually sufficient to produce such an 
effect on the vocal organs, that persons who 
commence practice with a feeble and inef¬ 
fective utterance attain, in that short period, 
the full command of clear, forcible, and varied 
tone. 


Expanding the Chest. 

Gymnastic and calisthenic exercises are in¬ 
valuable aids to the culture and development 
of the voice, and should be sedulously prac¬ 
ticed when opportunity renders them acces¬ 
sible. But even a slight degree of physical 
exercise, in any form adapted to the expan¬ 
sion of the chest, and to the freedom and 
force of the circulation, will serve to impart 
energy and glow to the muscular apparatus 
of voice, and clearness to its sound. 

There is, therefore, a great advantage in 
always practicing some preliminary muscidar 
actions as an immediate preparation for vocal 
exercise. These actions may be selected 
from the system of preparatory movements 
taught at gymnastic establishments, or they 
may be made to consist in regulated walking, 
with a view to the acquisition of a firm, easy 

53 




























54 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


and graceful carriage of the body, with appro¬ 
priate motion of the arms and limbs—in the 
systematic practice of gesture in its various 
forms, for the purpose of obtaining a free, 
forcible and effective use of the arm as a 
natural accompaniment to speech—or in the 
practice of attitude and action combined, in 
the most vivid style of lyric and dramatic 
recitation, so as to attain a perfect control 
over the whole corporeal frame, for the pur¬ 
poses of visible expression. 

EXERCISES IN BREATHING. 

Some preliminary exercises, such as the 
preceding, having been performed, and a suf¬ 
ficient period of rest and tranquil breathing 
having elapsed, the next stage of preparatory 
action may be as in the following directions: 

i. Attitude of the Body. 

Place yourself in a perfectly erect but 
•easy posture, the weight of the body resting 
on one foot, the feet at a moderate distance, 
the one in advance of the other, the arms 
akimbo, the fingers pressing on the abdomi¬ 
nal muscles in front, and the thumbs on the 
dorsal muscles on each side of the spine, the 
chest freely expanded and fully projected, 
the shoulders held backward and downward, 
the head perfectly vertical. 

The object in view, in this apparently 
minute direction, is to secure perfect free¬ 
dom and repose of body. A constrained or 
a lounging posture is utterly at variance with 
a free, unembarrassed use of the voice or the 
oroduction of a clear and full sound. 

2. Exercises in Deep Breathing. 

Having thus complied with the preliminary 
conditions of a free and unembarrassed action 
of the organs, draw in and give out the 
breath very fully and very slowly, about a 
dozen times in succession. Let the breath¬ 


ing be deep and tranquil, but such as to 
cause the chest to rise fully and fall freely at 
every effort. 

3. Effusive, or Tranquil Breathing. 

Draw in a very full breath, and send it 
forth in a prolonged sound of the letter h. 
In the act of inspiration, take in as much 
breath as you can contain. In that of ex¬ 
piration, retain all you can and give out as 
little as possible—merely sufficient to keep 
the sound of h audible. But keep it going 
on, as long as you can sustain it. In this 
style of respiration the breath merely effuses 
itself into the surrounding air. 

4. Expulsive, or Forcible Breathing. 

Draw in a very full breath, as before, and 
emit it with a lively expulsive force in the 
sound of h , but little prolonged—in the style 
of a moderate whispered cough. The breath, 
in this style of expiration, is projected into the 
air. Repeat this exercise, as directed, in the 
statement preceding. 

5. Explosive, or Abrupt Breathing. 

Draw in the breath, as already directed, 
and emit it with a sudden and violent explo¬ 
sion in a very brief sound of the-letter h — 
in the style of an abrupt and forcible but 
whispered cough. The breath is, in this 
mode of expiration, thrown out with abrupt 
violence. Repeat this exercise as before 
directed. 

The habit of keeping the chest open and 
erect, is indispensable to the production of a 
full, round tone of voice. But it is of still 
higher value, as one of the main sources of 
health, animation and activity. 

The effect, on the student, of the preced¬ 
ing exercises in breathing, is usually soon 
perceptible in an obvious enlargement of 
the chest, an habitually erect attitude, an 



VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


55 


enlivened style of movement, a great acces¬ 
sion of general bodily vigor, an exhilarated 
state of feeling, and an augmented activity 
of mind. To persons whose habits are 
studious and sedentary, and especially to 
females, the vigorous exercise of the organs 
of respiration and of voice, is, in every point 
of view, an invaluable discipline. 

ELEMENTARY EXERCISES. 

The following exercises are intended to 
prevent, or to correct, the prevalent errors 
of colloquial usage; they embrace all the 
elementary sounds of the English language, 
with the most important among those that 
occur in combinations which are liable to 
mispronunciation. A correct and careful 
articulation of them, if practiced with due 
frequency and continued for a length of 
time sufficient to re?ider acairacy habitual, will 
secure a distinct and appropriate enunciation, 
in all exercises of reading and speaking. 
To attain this result, the following points 
require particular attention. 

First.— That the exercises be always per¬ 
formed with great force and clearness of 
articulation, so as to become a useful form 
of discipline to the organs. The aim should 
be, in every case, to give the utmost articulate 
force of which the voice is capable. 

Second. —The sound of each element 
should be perfectly at command, before 
proceeding to the enunciation of the words 
in which they are exemplified. 

Third. —Great care must be taken to avoid 
a formal and fastidious prominence of sound, 
on unaccented syllables : every word, though 
uttered with the utmost energy, must retain 
the proportio 7 is of accented and unaccented 
syllables in their natural and appropriate 
pronunciation. It is grotesque to hear a 
speaker laying great stress on some unim¬ 
portant syllable. 


Table of Elementary Sounds of the 
English Language. 

The elements contained in this table should 
be practiced, with and without the words in 
which they are exemplified, with great aU 
tention to accuracy, and repeated as a daily 
preliminary exercise. 

Vowel Sounds. 

A, as in the word Fate; A/, as in Ail ; 
AY, as in Lay; A, as in Far; AU, as in 
Launch; A, as in Fall; AW, as in Awe; 
AU, as in Laud; A, as in Fat; A, as in 

Wash ; A, as in Rare; AJ ’ as in Air; 

A Y, as in Prayer; E, as in Me ; EE, as in 
Eel; EA, as in Eat; IE, as in Field ; E, as 
in Met; EA, as in Head ; E, as in Err; 
EA, as in Heard; I, as in Firm ; /, as in 
Pine ; Y f as in Rhyme ; I, as in Pin ; Y, as 

in Hymn ; 0 , as in No ; OA, as in Oak ; 

OU, as in Course; OW, as in Own; 0 , as 
in Move ; 00 , as in Mood ; U, as in True. 
0 , as in Nor; 0 , as in Not; 0 , as in Done; 
U ’ as in Tub; U, as in Tube ; U, as in Pull; 
0 , as in Wolf. 

Diphthongs. 

01 , as in Oil; OY, as in Boy; OU, as in 
Pound; OW, as in Down. 

Consonants. 

Labial Sounds .— B, as in Bulb ; P, as in 
Pulp; M, as in Mime; W, as in Wan ; 
V t as in Vane; F, as in Fife; PH, as in 
Phial; GH, as in Laugh. 

Dental Sounds. — D, as in Dead ; T, as in 
Tent; TH, as in Thin ; TH, as in Thine ; 
f as in Joy ; G, as in Giant; CH\ as in 
Church; SH, as in Shape; 77 , as in 
Nation; Cl, as in Gracious; CE, as in 
Ocean; S, as in Hiss; C, as in Cipher ; 
S, as in Trees ; Z, as in Haze ; S, as in 
Measure. 






56 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


Palatic Sounds. — K, as in Key; C, as in 
Cake ; CH } as in Chorus ; Q , as in Queen ; 
G, as in Gag; Y> as in Ye. 

Aspirate. — H , as in Hail. 

Nasal Sounds. — N, as in No ; NG, as in 
Sing; N y as in Finger, Sink. 

Lingual Sounds. — L, as in Lull; R, as in 
Rude ; R , as in War. 

Palatic and Dental Sounds combined. — X, as 
in Ox ; X y as in Example. 

These sounds constitute all the elements 
of articulation in the English language. The 
exercises which follow are merely various 
examples of these rudiments as they occur 
in different combinations. The exercises are 
also designed for lessons in pronunciation, as 
this branch, not less than that of articulation, 
is much neglected in early instruction, and 
the practice of the one conveniently com¬ 
prises that of the other. 

The main purpose of reading and speaking 
is to communicate thought. The most im¬ 
portant point in elocution, therefore, is a dis¬ 
tinct and correct enunciation, without which 
it is impossible to be rightly and clearly 
understood. The chief design, accordingly, 
of this department of education is, by appro¬ 
priate exercise, to cultivate the organs of 
speech, to strengthen and discipline the 
voice, and, at the same time, to eradicate 
incorrect habits of utterance which may 
have been contracted through early neglect. 

Errors in Articulatior 

The common hindrances to distinct enun¬ 
ciation may, as far as articulation is concerned, 
be classed as follows : 

First. — Feebleness, arising from a want of 
full and forcible emission of voice, and of 
due energy in the action of the organs, par¬ 
ticularly the tongue, the teeth and the lips. 

Second. — Omission , a fault occasioned by 
undue rapidity or hurry, and sometimes by 


an inadvertent compliance with incorrect 
custom. 

Third.— Obscurity , caused by the want of 
precision and accuracy in the functions of 
the organs, and a consequent want of defi¬ 
niteness or correctness in the sounds of 
letters and syllables. 

The rule of practice, therefore, in regard 
to the exercises of reading and speaking, 
should be : Always to articulate with such 
energy , deliberateness , and accuracy , that every 
sound of the voice may be fully and exactly 
formed , distinctly heard , and perfectly under¬ 
stood. A drawling slowness, however, and 
a pedantic or irregular prominence of unac¬ 
cented syllables, should be carefully avoided. 
Faults arising from slovenliness, and those 
which seem to spring from misdirected study, 
are equally objectionable. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

This department of elocution is sometimes 
termed orthoepy (correct speech). Speech 
being merely a collection of arbitrary sounds, 
used as signs of thought or feeling, it is indis¬ 
pensable to intelligible communication that 
there be a general agreement about the sig¬ 
nification assigned to given sounds, as other¬ 
wise there could be no common language. 
It is equally important that there be a com¬ 
mon consent and established custom to regu 
late and fix the sounds used in speech, tha. 
these may have a definite character and sig¬ 
nification, and become the current expression 
of thought. 

Hence the necessity that individuals con¬ 
form in their habits of speech to the rules 
prescribed by general usage—or, more prop¬ 
erly speaking, to the custom of the educated 
and intellectual classes of society, which is, 
by courtesy, generally acknowledged as the 
law of pronunciation. Individual opinion, 
when it is at variance with this important and 





VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


57 


useful principle of accommodation, gives rise 
to eccentricities, which neither the authority 
of profound learning, nor that of strict accu¬ 
racy and system, can redeem from the charge 
of pedantry. 

It is a matter of great importance to recog¬ 
nize the rule of authorized custom, and 
neither yield to the influence of those errors 
which, through inadvertency, will creep into 
occasional or local use, nor, on the other 
hand, be induced to follow innovations or 
changes adopted without sufficient sanction. 



A cultivated taste is always perceptible in 
pronunciation, as in every other expression 
of mind, and errors in pronouncing are un¬ 
avoidably associated with a deficiency in the 

% 

rudiments of good education. 

An occasional appeal to the dictionary 
must, therefore, be useful to the majority of 
persons. Persons who are desirous of per¬ 
fecting their pronunciation would do well to 
read aloud, daily, a few columns, and mark 
with a pencil those words which they find 
they have been accustomed to mispronounce 


themselves or to hear mispronounced by 
others. 

FORCE. 

A primary characteristic of utterance, as 
expressive of emotion, is the degree of its 
energy or force. The effect of any feeling 
on sympathy is naturally inferred from the 
degree of force with which the sound of voice, 
in the utterance of that feeling, falls upon the 
ear of the hearer. The cause of this impres¬ 
sion upon the mind is, obviously, the law of 
organic sympathy, by which one part of the 



THE AWKWARD SPEAKER. 

human frame naturally responds to another. 
A powerful emotion not only affects the heart 
and the lungs, and the other involuntary 
agents of life and of expression, but starts the 
expulsory muscles into voluntary action and 
produces voice, the natural indication and 
language of feeling. 

The degree of force, therefore, in a vocal 
sound is intuitively taken as the measure of 
the emotion which causes it. Except, only, 
those cases in which the force of feeling 
paralyzes, as it were, the organs of the voice 























58 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


and suggests the opposite measure of infer¬ 
ence, by which a choked and struggling 
utterance, a suppressed or inarticulate voice, 
or even absolute silence, becomes the index 
.to the heart. 

The command of all degrees of force of 
voice must evidently be essential to true and 
^natural expression, whether in reading or 
speaking. Appropriate utterance ranges 
through all stages of vocal sound, from the 
whisper of fear and the murmur of repose to 
the boldest swell of vehement declamation 
and the shout of triumphant courage. But to 
give forth anyone of these or the intermediate 
tones, with just and impressive effect, the 
organs must be disciplined by appropriate 
exercise and frequent practice, for every day’s 
•observation proves to us that mere natural 
instinct and animal health, with all the aids 
of informing intellect, and inspiring emotion, 
and exciting circumstances, are not sufficient 
to produce the effects of eloquence, or even 
•of adequate utterance. 

The want of due training for the exercise 
•of public reading or speaking is evinced in 
the habitual undue loudness of some speakers 
and the inadequate force of others, the for¬ 
mer subjecting their hearers to unnecessary 
pain, and the latter to disappointment and 
uneasiness. 

STRESS. 

The term “ stress” is applied to the mode 
in which force is rendered perceptible or 
impressive in single sounds. The classifica¬ 
tion of the forms of stress is as follows : 

First .—Radical stress , or that in which the 
force of utterance, is usually more or less 
“explosive,” and falls on the “radical” 
(initial, or first) part of a sound. 

Second .—Median stress , that in which the 
force is “expulsive” or “effusive,” and 
swells out, whether slowly or rapidly, at 
the middle of a sound. 


• Third. — Vanishing stress , or that which 
withholds the “ expulsive ” or “ explosive ” 
force till the “vanish,” or last moment of 
the sound. 

Fourth .—Compound stress , or that in which 
the voice, with more or less of “explosive” 
force, touches forcefully and distinctly on 
both the initial and the final points of a 
sound, but passes slightly and almost im¬ 
perceptibly over the middle part. 

Fifth .—Thorough stress, in which the initial, 
middle and final portions of a sound are all 
distinctively and impressively marked by 
special “expulsive force” of voice. 

Sixth.— Tremor, tremulous, or intermittent 
“ stress.” 

MELODY. 

The word “melody” may be applied to 
speech in the same general sense as in the 
technical language of music, to designate 
the effect produced on the ear, by the suc¬ 
cessive notes of the voice, in a passage of 
music or of discourse. 

The use of this term presupposes, both in 
music and in speech, a certain “pitch,” or 
initial note, whether predominating in a 
passage, or merely commencing it, and to 
which the subsequent sounds stand in the 
relation of higher or lower or identical. 

The term “melody,” used as above, does 
not necessarily imply a melodious or pleasing 
succession of sounds, or the reverse. It has 
regard merely to the fact just mentioned, 
that the successive sounds to which this term 
is applied, are comparatively higher or lower 
on the musical scale, or in strict unison with 
the first sound of a series. In this technical 
sense, the word “ melody” applies to speech 
as well as to music. 

PITCH. 

The word “melody,” used in its technical 
sense, occupies, then, the same ground in 






VOCAL CULTURE 

elocution a~ m music, and refers us, in the 
first instance, to an initial or commencins' 

o 

sound to which others in a series may be 
compared as high or low or neither. To this 
sound the term “pitch ” is applied, as desig¬ 
nating the particular point of the scale, as 
high or low, on which the voice is thrown 
out. Thus, we speak of the deep tones or 
low notes of an organ, as contrasted with the 
shrill sound of a fife, of the grave tone of the 
voice of a man, or of the comparatively high 
pitch of that of a woman ; or of the low voice 
of devotion, as contrasted with the high, 
shrill scream of excessive fear, or the piercing 
.shriek of terror. 

The correct practice of elocution, as in 
appropriate speaking, recitation, or reading, 
implies the power of easily and instantly 
shifting the “pitch’’ of the voice, according 
to the natural note of emotion required for 
every shade of expression depicted in the 
composition which is spoken, recited, or read. 

Middle Pitch. 

The “ middle ” pitch of the voice is that of 
•our habitual utterance, on all occasions of 
•ordinary communication in conversation or 
address. It implies a medium or average 
state of feeling, or a condition of mind free 
from every strong or marked emotion. It 
is the natural note of unimpassioned utter¬ 
ance, seeking to find its way to the under¬ 
standing rather than to the heart, and hence 
avoiding high or low pitch, as belonging to 
the language of feeling or of fancy. 

Common conversation, a literary or a 
scientific essay, a doctrinal sermon, or a 
plain practical discourse on any subject 
limited to purposes of mere utility, and de¬ 
manding the action of judgment and reason, 
principally, may be mentioned as examples 
of “middle” pitch, which is natural in or¬ 
dinary speech. 


AND ELOCUTION. 59 

Low Pitch. 

This designation applies to the utterance 
of those feelings which we are accustomed 
to speak of as “ deeper” than ordinary. Low 
notes seem the only natural language of grave 
emotions, such as accompany deeply serious 
and impressive thoughts , grave authority , or 
austere manner. 

The transition in the voice from “middle” 
to “low” pitch would be exemplified in 
passing from the utterance of a thought 
which is merely serious —and so termed in 
contradistinction father to one of an animated 
and sprightly character—to that of one still 
deeper in its shade of feeling, and which 
would be appropriately termed grave. At 
the stage of voice expressive of the latter, we 
should perceive an obvious though not very 
strikingly marked deepening of tone, or 
descent on the scale. 

Very Low Pitch. 

This designation applies to the notes of 
those emotions which are of the deepest 
character, and which are accordingly asso¬ 
ciated with the deepest utterance. These 
are, chiefly, the following : deep solemnity , 
awe, amazement , horror , despair , melancholy 
and deep grief. 

This lowest form of pitch is one of the 
most impressive means of powerful natural 
effect in the utterance of all deep and im¬ 
pressive emotions. The pervading and 
absorbing effect of awe , amazement , horror , 
or any similar feeling, can never be produced 
without low pitch and deep successive notes ; 
and the depth and reality of such emotions 
are always in proportion to the depth of voice 
with which they are uttered. The grand¬ 
est descriptions in the Paradise Lost, and 
the profoundest meditations in the Night 
Thoughts, become trivial in their effect on 
the ear, when read with the ineffectual 





60 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


expression inseparable from the pitch of 
ordinary conversation or discourse. 

High Pitch. 

The higher portion of the musical scale is 
associated with the notes of brisk , gay and 
joyous emotions, with the exception of the 
extremes of pain, grief and fear, which, from 
their preternaturally exciting power, com¬ 
press and render rigid the organic parts that 
produce vocal sound, and cause the pecu¬ 
liarly shrill, convulsive cries and shrieks 
which express those passions. 

A “pitch” too low for the natural effect 
of gay and exhilarated feeling deadens the 
effect of wit and vivacity, and renders, per¬ 
haps, a most expressive strain of composi¬ 
tion tame and dull, when it should abound 
in the tones of life and brilliancy. 

Very High Pitch. 

The extreme of the upper part of the 
musical scale, as far as it is practicable to 
individuals in the management of the voice, 
is the natural range of pitch for the utter¬ 
ance of ecstatic and rapturous or uncontrollable 
emotion. It belongs, accordingly, to high- 
wrought lyric and dramatic passages, in strains 
of joy, grief \ astonishment , delight , tenderness , 
and the hysterical extremes of passionate 
emotion generally. 

INFLECTION. 

Reading without inflections becomes life¬ 
less, as nny be observed in what is usually 
called a “ schoolboy tone.” This fault not 
only divests language of its meaning, but 
substitutes a ludicrous monotony for the 
natural, animated and varied expression of 
the voice in actual communication. The 
hearer unavoidably loses all interest in what 
is monotonously read, for it makes no appeal 
either to his feelings or to his understanding. 


There are two inflections—the rising and 
the falling. The falling appropriately termi¬ 
nates a sentence ; the rising may be seen in 
any ordinary interrogation. The variations 
of voice between these two inflections pre¬ 
vent monotony. 

The two simple inflections, the rising and 
the falling, are superseded, in the tones of 
keen and ironical emotion or peculiar signifi¬ 
cance in expression, by a double turn, or slide 
of voice, which unites both in one continuous 
sound, called the circumflex , or wave. 

When no inflection is used, a monotone, or 
perfect level of voice, is produced. This 
tone belongs to emotions arising from sub¬ 
limity and grandeur. It characterizes, also, 
the extremes of amazement and horror. 

TIME. 

The study of time, as a measure of speech, 
will lead to the primary classification of single 
vowel sounds as long or short in duration, 
according to their character and expression, 
as elements of language. The contrast in 
the duration of the “tonic element,” or vowel 
sound, a, in the words male and female, will 
furnish examples, the a in the former being 
much longer, or, in other words, occupying a 
much larger space of time in utterance, than 
the a in the latter. The technical designa¬ 
tion of this property of vocal sounds is 
“quantity”—implying quantity of time, or 
duration. The a of male is, accordingly, 
termed a “long," the a in female a “short 
quantity." 

PAUSES. 

Time, when applied as a measure of speech, 
prescribes not only the length, or “quan¬ 
tity,” of sounds, but also that of the pauses, or 
cessations of voice, which intervene between 
sentences and between their parts, as the 
intermissions of the voice are, virtually, con¬ 
stituents of “expression,” whether we regard 





VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


61 


thought or feeling. Without distinct and 
appropriate pauses we cannot understand 
oral communication, and without occasional 
impressive cessations of voice there can be 
no true sympathy between speaker and 
hearer. 

Pauses, as classified in elocution, are of 
two kinds : I st, those which express emotion ; 
2 d, those which modify sense , or meaning. 
Pausing, like utterance, is regulated by the 
•character of the emotion or the thought 
which is the subject of expression. The 
pauses used in the “expression” of all 
grave, deep and solemn emotions, which in¬ 
cline to prolonged “ quantities,” are com¬ 
paratively long , and thus correspond in 
■character to the vocal sounds between 
which they occur, and which they aid by 
their harmonious effect. Brisk, gay and 
lively feelings are distinguished by brief 
“quantities” and corresponding short 
pauses. 

The pauses of sense or meaning are of 
various lengths, according to the portions 
•of speech which they are employed to sepa¬ 
rate ; thus, we observe the long pauses be¬ 
tween the principal parts of a discourse, the 
.somewhat shorter pauses at its subdivisions, 
the shorter still at paragraphs, and the 
.shorter than even these at periods. 

MOVEMENT. 

The term “movement,” for which the 
word “ rate ” is sometimes substituted refers 
to the slowness or to the rapidity of utter¬ 
ance required by the sentiment. 

The “slowest,” or “very slow move¬ 
ment,” is exemplified in the expression of 
the deepest emotions of the soul; as horror, 
■awe, profound reverence and solemnity , and 
adoration . 

The “ slow movement ” characterizes the 
utterance of gloom , melancholy, grief \ pathos, 


sublimity , solemnity and reverence , in their 
usual form, profound repose, grandeur, majesty, 
vast ness, power and splendor. 

“Moderate movement” is the usual rate 
of utterance in unimpassioned language. It; 
belongs to common narration and description, 
and to didactic thought. The rhetorical 
modes of style to which it is applicable, are 
those which are denominated the “ dry,” 
the “plain,” and the “neat.” 

“Lively movement” implies emotion in 
that gentle form which does not exceed 
liveliness or animation. The lower degrees of 
all vivid feeling, are expressed by this style 
of “ movement.” A slight degree of joy is 
usually the under current of its effect. 

Gay and Mirthful. 

“Quick” or “brisk movement,” is char¬ 
acteristic of gay, exhilarated and glad emo¬ 
tion : the full feeling of joy is implied in its 
“expression.” It gives utterance to all 
play fid, humorous and mirthful moods. It 
sometimes, on the other hand, gives its 
characteristic effect to fear. 

The “ movement ” designated as “ quick¬ 
est,” “very quick,” or “rapid,” is that of 
haste, hurry, alarm, confusion and fear, when 
rising to terror. 

It is evident from the very nature of 
“ movement,” that it must be an element of 
immense power, in expression. The funeral 
march suggests to the ear its effect, in music, 
as associated with awe, gloom and grief; and 
the music of the dance reminds us of its 
power over the feelings of gladness and 
exhilaration. The grave psalm, and the 
song of serious sentiment, express, in their 
measured regularity, the adaptation of gentle 
and “ moderate movement ” to tranqidl and 
sedate feeling. 

The power of “ movement,” in the elocu¬ 
tion of a skilful reader or speaker, is indefi- 



62 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


nite ; as we may observe in the difference 
between a schoolboy gabbling through his 
task, in haste to get rid of it, and a great 
tragedian, whose whole soul is rapt in the 
part of Cato uttering the soliloquy on im¬ 
mortality, or Hamlet musing on the great 
themes of duty, life and death. 

A command over the “lively” and “brisk 
movements” of the voice, is not less im¬ 
portant than the power of slow and solemn 
utterance. The style of reading which is 
most frequently introduced to enliven the 
evening circle at home, requires of the 
reader the power to “trip it as he goes,” in 
the mood of gay description , light satire , vivid 
dialogue and droll humor. 

The three principal faults of “movement,” 
which are exemplified in the common prac¬ 
tice of reading, are uniform slowness , or, per¬ 
haps, a drawling style ; habitual rapidity , 
which prevents all deep and impressive effect, 
and, perhaps, causes indistinctness of enuncia¬ 
tion ; a uniform “moderate ” “movement,” 
which never yields to any natural influence 
of emotion—so as to become appropriately 
expressive, and pass from grave to gay , or 
the reverse, by a change in the gait of the 
voice—but utters, automaton-like, all feelings 
in the same unmeaning and mechanical style ; 
the voice marching on, with one uniform 
measured step, over all varieties of surface, 
as regards the tenor of language and the 
subject. 

EMPHASIS. 

Every sentence contains one or more 
words which are prominent, and peculiarly 
important in the expression of meaning. 
Special force on such words is what is called 
emphasis. Its use is to impress more strik¬ 
ingly on the mind of the hearer the thought, 
or portion of thought, embodied in the par¬ 
ticular word or phrase on which it is laid. 


It gives additional energy to important pomes, 
in expression, by causing sounds which are 
peculiarly significant, to strike the ear with 
an appropriate and distinguishing force. It 
possesses, in regard to the sense of hearing, 
a similar advantage to that of “relief,” or 
prominence to the eye, in a well executed 
picture ; in which the figures seem to stand 
out from the canvass. 

Emphasis, then, being the manner of pro¬ 
nouncing the most significant words, its 
office is of the utmost importance to an 
intelligible and impressive utterance. It is 
the manner of uttering emphatic words which 
decides the meaning of every sentence that 
is read or spoken. A true emphasis conveys 
a sentiment clearly and forcibly to the mind, 
and keeps the attention of an audience in 
active sympathy with the thoughts of the 
speaker; it gives full value and effect to all 
that he utters, and secures a lasting im¬ 
pression on the memory. 

Errors of Emphasis. 

The prevailing fault, as regards emphasis,, 
is the omission or slighting of it. 

Hence arises a feebleness of expression, or 
a general monotony, in consequence of 
which the voice fails in giving those dis¬ 
tinctions, or conveying that force of feeling,, 
which are inseparable from a distinct and 
animated manner. 

An omission of emphasis leaves the sense 
of whole passages obscure; and an error in 
the application of it, may cause an entire 
subversion of the meaning intended to be 
expressed. A sentence read without just 
emphasis, is an inert mass of sound, like a 
body destitute of life; the same sentence 
read with the discrimination and significance 
of true emphasis, becomes, as it were, a 
living and active being, exerting its appro¬ 
priate energies. 





VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


6$ 


The opposite fault is that of excessive 
anxiety about emphasis , and an unnecessary 
and formal marking of it by studied force of 
expression. 

This obtrusive tone is carefully to be 
avoided, as savoring of fastidiousness and 


pedantry, and indicating the presumption 
that the audience are so dull in intellect as 
not to appreciate the force of the speaker’s 
language, unless he remind them of it by 
peculiar and pointed distinctions of voice, a 
thing which he does not need to do. 



DDRESS, as a combination of 
speech and action, directs itself 
to the mind through the ear 
and the eye. Regarded as an 
art, it consists, accordingly, of 
two parts—elocution, or the regu¬ 
lated functions of the voice, and gesture, or 
the proper management of the body. 

Gesture derives its existence from the 
necessary sympathy of mind and body. It ( 
is by no means a mere product of art. A 1 
sympathetic action of the outward frame, in 
correspondence with the activity of the mind, 
is necessarily exerted in the communication 
of thought and feeling, and results from a 
law of man’s constitution. The repression 
of such action may, it is true, become a 
habitual trait in the character of individuals 
and of nations ; so may the opposite charac¬ 
teristic of redundancy in gesture. Examples 
of these extremes are furnished in the rigid 
stillness of body which is customary in the 
elocution of Scotland or of New England, 
and in the ceaseless movement and gesture 
of the French. 

Education, too, has a powerful influence 
on delivery. The exclusive application of 
the understanding, a too passive continuance 
of attention, or a native sluggishness of habit, 
indulged, has a tendency to quell or prevent 


emotion, and to keep back its bodily indica¬ 
tions ; while the habitual and unrestrained 
play of imagination, or of feeling, impels ta 
vivid expression in tone, and to the visible- 
manifestations of attitude and action. Hence 
the contrasts of manner exhibited in the 



PRESENTING OR RECEIVING. 


delivery of the studious and sedentary, or 
the phlegmatic, and that of the active, the 
gay, or the imaginative—both of which usu¬ 
ally run to excess, producing the morbid 
style of lifelessness and inaction, or the 
puerile manner of mere animal vivacity. 






















64 VOCAL CULTURE 

The genuine style of eloquence is that, 
surely, which gives the strongest, freest and 
truest expression to the natural blending of 
thought and emotion within the human 
breast—breaking through all arbitrary re¬ 



straint, and submitting only to the guidance 
of reason, or, rather, listening intuitively to 
its suggestions. 

The common errors of judgment and taste 
on this subject seem to lie in the supposition 
that thought and feeling may be separated 
in their expression. Every day furnishes 
examples of speakers, who, from the cold¬ 
ness of their manner, seem-to think that they 
can succeed in imparting sentiment without 
•emotion, and of those whose rhetorical and 
mechanical warmth appears to aim at elo¬ 
quence by emotion not founded on thought. 

The tendency of deep interest, and of 
earnest, cordial emphasis, is always to impart 
impulse to the arm, as well as to the voice. 
The instruction, therefore, or the example, 
which inculcates the suppression of gesture, 
is defective and injurious, as it checks the 
free action both of body and mind. The 


AND ELOCUTION. 

unlimited indulgence in fancy, or the ungov¬ 
erned expression of feeling, on the other 
hand, leads either to a puerile or merely 
passionate manner, and loses the influence of 
intellect in a false excitement of emotion. 

A good address is that which, in the firs' 
place, may be briefly characterized by the 
epithet manly. It possesses force —conse¬ 
quently exemption from all forms of weak¬ 
ness ; freedoin (a natural consequence of 
force), implying exemption from constraint 
and embarrassment. These are the first and 
indispensable rudiments of action. 

Next in importance is an appropriate or 
discriminating style—the result of genius, or 
of successful discipline—which adapts itself 
to different occasions, subjects and sentiments ; 
varying as circumstances require, and avoid¬ 
ing every impropriety of manner, whether 



DECLARING. 

arising from personal habit or temporary 
inadvertency and error. 

Last in order, and as a negative quality; 
chiefly, may be mentioned grace, or those 
modes of action which obey nature’s laws of 
symmetry and motion, from the intuitive 







































VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


*5 


perception of beauty, and the disciplined or 
natural subjection of the muscular system to 
the ascendancy of mind and taste. 

These elementary principles are all that 
have been deemed important in the instruc¬ 
tion attempted in the following pages. All 
else, it is thought, may best be left to the 
mind and manner of the individual—which, 
if not perverted or neglected, would, perhaps, 
render direct instruction, in any case, com¬ 
paratively unimportant. 

ATTITUDE. 

Oratory consists of two parts—one ad¬ 
dressing the ear through the voice, and the 
other, the eye by action or gesture. The 
latter implies a certain attitude of body as 
essential to it, and hence the necessity of 
attending, in the first instance, to the attitude 



WONDERMENT. 


or position in which the speaker presents 
himself to the eye. The characteristics of 
good attitude are firmness , freedom , appro¬ 
priateness and grace. 

It becomes necessary here to advert to the 
manner in which young speakers introduce 


themselves to their audience, the introduc¬ 
tory bow being seldom what it should be—a 
salutation of respect, actually addressed to 
the assembly, but commonly a very awk¬ 
ward attempt at a bow, and one so performed 
as to cast down the eyes towards the floor 




of the room or the feet of the speaker, and 
to show, not his countenance, but the crown 
of his head. A bow, or any other mark of 
respect (except prostration), has no meaning 
in it, unless the eye of the individual who 
performs it is directed to the eyes of those 
to whom it is addressed. 

POSITION OF THE FEET. 

It is of the utmost consequence to observe 
a correct position of the feet, not merely 
because an incorrect position is ungraceful, 
but because the easy and natural movement 
of every part of the body, depends on the 
feet being properly placed. Awkward and 
1 constrained movements of the feet, and rigid, 
unseemly action, are inseparable from a bad 
attitude. An easy and graceful position, on 
the contrary, favors appropriate and becom- 


6 





























66 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


ing movement, and tends to render it 
habitual. 

In the various positions of the feet, care is 
to be taken that the grace which is aimed at 
be attended with simplicity. The position 
of the orator is equally removed from the 
awkwardness of the rustic, with toes turned 
in and knees bent, and from the affectation 
of the dancing-master, whose position runs 
to the opposite extreme. The orator is to 
adopt such positions only as consist with 
manly and simple grace. 



The toes are to be moderately turned out¬ 
ward, but not to be constrained ; the limbs 
are to be disposed so as to support the body 
with ease, and to admit of flowing and grace¬ 
ful movement. The sustaining foot is to be 
planted firmly ; the leg braced, but not con¬ 
tracted ; the other foot and limb must press 
lightly, and be held relaxed, so as to be 
ready for immediate change and action. 

In changing the positions of the feet, the 
motions are to be made with the utmost 
simplicity, and free from the parade and 
sweep of dancing. The speaker must ad¬ 


vance, retire or change almost imperceptibly; 
and it is to be particularly observed that 
changes should not be too frequent. Fre¬ 
quent change gives the idea of anxiety or 
instability, both of which are unfavorable. 

Errors. 

The common faults in the position of the 
feet, are : 

First .—That of resting on both feet equally , 
which gives the whole frame a set and rigid 
attitude. 



Second.— Pointing the toes straightforward. 
which, when combined with the preceding 
fault, forms the climax of awkwardness and 
squareness of attitude, and, even when unac¬ 
companied by any other error, has the bad 
effect of exposing the speaker’s side, instead 
of his full front, and consequently assimi¬ 
lating all his movements and gestures to 
those of attack in fencing. 

Third .—Placing the feet too close to one 
another, which gives the whole body a feeble 
and constrained appearance, and destroys the 
possibility of energy in gesture. 

































VOCAL CULTURE 

Fourth .—The placing of the feet too widely 
distant , and parallel to each other, which 
gives the speaker’s attitude a careless and 
slovenly air. 

Fifth .—The placing of the feet at too wide 
] a distance from each other , but with the one in 
advance of the other. This is the attitude of 
assumption, or of a boasting and overbearing 
manner. 

The observance of the different positions 
will produce a firm, easy and graceful atti¬ 
tude, appropriate to earnest and natural de¬ 
livery. In complying with rules , however , 
there should be no anxiety about measured 
exactness , and no appearance of studied pre¬ 
cision. Force and freedom, and general 
propriety of manner, are the main points to 
be aimed at, and strict accuracy is apt to 
become but a mechanical excellence. 



MOVEMENT OF THE FEET. 

An occasional change of the position of 
the feet is a natural and necessary relief to 
the speaker in the delivery of a speech or 
piece of considerable length ; it associates, 
also, in an appropriate and agreeable man¬ 


AND ELOCUTION. 67 

ner, with the introduction of a new train of 
thought or a new topic of discourse, and it is 
the instinctive expression of energy, warmth 
and liveliness of manner. Without move¬ 
ment, the speaker’s body becomes, as it 
were, a mass of inanimate matter. Motion, 


ANGUISH. REMORSE. 

when carried to excess, however, becomes 
childish in its effect, as it substitutes rest¬ 
lessness for animation. 

The motion of the feet should be carefully 
timed, so as to occur at the commencement 
of the parts or divisions of a speech or dis¬ 
course, at the introduction of new and dis¬ 
tinct thoughts, or in the expression of for¬ 
cible or lively emotion. The true time of 
movement is in exact coincidence with 
emphasis, and falls appropriately on the 
accented syllable of the emphatic word. 
The voice and the bodily frame are thus 
kept in simultaneous action with the mind. 

Movement, so performed, never obtrudes 
itself on the attention, but becomes a natural 
part of the whole delivery. The changes of 
position should always be made (except only 
the retiring movement, at the close of a 

































68 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


paragraph or of a division of the subject) 
during the act of speaking , and not at the 
pauses; and even the change of posture 
which necessarily follows the bow, and opens 
the delivery of the piece, should not be made 
before beginning to speak, but along with the 
utterance of the commencing clause. 



PROTECTING-SOOTHING. 


All changes made before speaking, or in 
the intervals of speech, become apparent 
and formal, and particularly all preparatory 
motions that seem to adjust or fix the atti¬ 
tude of the speaker and produce the effect 
of suspending the attention of the audience. 
The frequency of movement depends on the 
spirit of the composition An animated ad¬ 
dress or a declamatory harangue requires 
frequent movement. In a grave discourse, 
on the contrary, the movements are made 
more seldom. Poetry requires, from its 
vividness of emotion, many changes of posi¬ 
tion ; prose, from its more equable character, 
comparatively few. 

Your movements should always be easy 
and natural, never forced and constrained, 
never apparently studied beforehand. 


MOVEMENT OF THE LIMBS. 

The general air and expression of the 
whole body depend much on the position of 
the legs ; as we may observe by adverting to 
the feeble limbs of infancy and of old age, 
the rigid and square attitude of men who 
follow laborious occupations, or the artificial 
display of limb sometimes acquired at the 
dancing-school, or exemplified on the stage. 

A firm, free and graceful position of the 
limbs is natural to most human beings, till 
the influence of awkward custom, or of im¬ 
perfect health, has destroyed or impaired it. 
Correct and appropriate posture, therefore, 
becomes an important point in preparatory 



practice and training, intended to aid the 
formation of habits of rhetorical delivery. 

Incorrect Attitudes. 

Errors in the position of the legs occur in 
the following forms : 

First — A rigid and inflexible posture , 
entirely at variance with freedom and grace ; 
causing the limbs to resemble supporting 
posts, rather than parts of the human frame; 














VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


69 


and interfering with the force, ease and 
gracefulness of gesture. 

Second .—A feeble, though perhaps slight 
bending of the knees, which gives the general 
attitude an appearance of timid inefficiency; 
and which, when accompanied, as it often is, 
by a sinking and rising motion, seeming to 
keep time to the beat of the arm in gesture, 
produces a childishness of mien which 
throws over the speaker’s whole manner an 
air of silliness. 

Third. —A fault very prevalent in public 



declamation arises from overlooking the fact 
that a free and natural attitude reqidres the 
knee of the leg which is not supporting the 
weight of the body, to fall into the natural bend 
of freedom and rest. The neglect of this 
point—a neglect which very naturally arises 
from general embarrassment or constraint— 
has a very unfavorable effect on the whole 
attitude. 

The influence of this attitude is quite at 
variance with the speaker’s aim in delivery, 
which is to convince or persuade; the effect 
of which, on his attitude, would be to incline 


it somewhat forward, as in the natural man-, 
ner of earnest address. No error, apparently 
so slight, is attended with so many bad con¬ 
sequences as this ; nothing tends so much to 
give the speaker the air of speaking at his 
audience, rather than to them; yet no fault 
is more common in the declamation of school 
and college exhibitions. All that is objec¬ 
tionable in this attitude, however, would be 
done away by the speaker merely allowing 
the knee of the leg which does not support 
the body to drop into its natural bend. 



MOVEMENT OF THE TRUNK. 

The actions of a human being differ from 
the motions of a machine, chiefly in that 
sympathy of the entire frame which makes 
action appear to proceed from the whole 
surface and terminate in the arm, the hand, 
or the foot. 

No gesture, therefore, seems to have life or 
energy unless the whole body partake in it, 
by a moderate yet perceptible swaying or 
yielding to accommodate it, and a general im¬ 
pulse of the muscles to enforce it, or impart 
to it additional and sympathetic energy. 
































70 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


Gesture, destitute of such aid, becomes nar¬ 
row, angular and mechanical. It is of the 
utmost consequence, then, that the position 
and general bearing of the body should be 
free and unconstrained. 

The gesture of the arms and hands must 
receive a slight accompanying movement of 



the trunk, and not proceed from it as from a 
rigid log. Whilst care is taken to avoid 
affected and ridiculous contortions, there 
must be a manly and free exertion of the 
muscles of the whole body, the general con¬ 
sent of which is indispensable to graceful 
action. 

MOVEMENT OF THE HEAD AND 
THE COUNTENANCE. 

The bearing of the head decides the 
general mien of the body, as haughty and 
condescending, as spiritless, dejected, em¬ 
barrassed, or as free from the influence of 
such feelings, and wearing an easy, self- 
possessed and unassuming expression, arising 
from tranquility and serenity of mind. The 
first-mentioned of these states of feeling 

o 


inclines the head upward; the second causes 
it to droop or keeps it fixed by constraint; 
the last preserves it from these extremes, and 
allows it an .easy and natural motion. 

The recitation of poetry may, in particular 
instances, authorize or require a very erect, 
or a drooping posture of the head; but 
declamation, or public speaking, implies a 
state of self-command, a rational consider¬ 
ation of effect, and an avoiding of the appear¬ 
ance's of extreme emotion. In the latter 
exercise, therefore, the general air of the 
head bespeaks respect for the audience, 
mingling with a just self-respect, and avoids 
alike a lofty or a submissive carriage. The 
eyes and the other features correspond to 
this manner. 

The head should neither be hung bash¬ 



fully down nor carried haughtily erect ; it 
should turn easily, but not rapidly, from side 
to side ; the eyes being directed generally to 
those of the persons who are addressed, but 
not fastening particularly on individuals. 

The abstraction of the mind, implied in 
the appropriate recitation of some pieces of 








































VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


71 


poetry, may, however, render it inconsistent 1 
to give to delivery the air of address; as, for 
example, in the reciting of any passage in 
which a distant or imaginary scene is called 
up vividly to the thoughts. The eyes should, 
in such cases, be directed away from those 
of the audience and be fixed on vacancy. 
All inappropriate and ungraceful play or 
working of the features, should be carefully 
avoided. 

POSITION AND MOVEMENT OF THE 

HAND. 

The hand is, in most forms of action, the 
great organ of the mind. Its power of ex¬ 
pression in communication, when used alone, 
or accompanied by speech, is peculiar and 



extensive. The position or action of the 
hand invites, repels, refuses, rejects, implores 
or threatens more forcibly than even the 
voice or the countenance. The language and 
meaning of gesture lie in the hand ; and these 
cannot be expressed without an appropriate 
use of this organ. The arm is, in gesture, 
but the inferior agent to move and exert the 


l hand, the great instrument of all expression 
addressed to the eye. 

The tones of the voice and the action of 
the features are, no doubt, the chief vehicles 
of meaning. But next to these comes the 
hand as an important agent in delivery; and 
in some kinds of emotion it even takes the 
precedence of the voice ; in all those passions, 



for instance, which by their excess tend to 
render the tongue mute. In unimpassioned 
speaking, the gesture of the hand is not so 
prominent; but it still serves a useful purpose 
in accompanying, aiding and enforcing the 
impressions produced by the voice. It helps 
to concentrate the action of the senses 
toward the objects which are presented to 
the mind, and, though a subordinate, is yet 
an indispensable instrument of appropriate 
and impressive delivery. 

The hand should be used naturally. Point 
with the finger; open the palm; close the 
hand and form a rigid fist; let the hand 
droop in a languid attitude; in short, speak 
with it, according to the thought or emotion 
you wish to express. 






















72 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


MOVEMENT OF THE ARM. 

The freedom and force of gesture depend 
entirely on the appropriate action of the arm. 
The free play of the arm gives scope to ges¬ 
ture, which would otherwise be narrow, con¬ 
fined and inexpressive. The elevated thoughts 
and grand images abounding in poetry re¬ 
quire a free, lofty and energetic sweep of the 
arm in gesture; but speaking which has 
'persuasion for its object, is naturally charac¬ 
terized by a less commanding and less imag¬ 
inative style of action. 

Reasoning, arguing or inculcating, in the 
usual manner of speech, requires chiefly 
enforcing or emphatic gesture. Poetry 
abounds so in variety of emotion, that the 
action which accompanies the recitation of it 
is frequent and forcible, and marked by vivid 
transitions, with a predominance of grace¬ 
fulness in the whole manner. The style of 
speaking adapted to prose is more calm and 
moderate, and more plain in its character, 
coinciding thus with the tenor of thought 
and language which usually pervades prose 
composition. 

Action is the first, the simplest and the 
most striking expression of feeling. It can¬ 
not, therefore, be dispensed with, but at the 
risk of losing the natural animation of man¬ 
ner. Under the regulation of taste, it 
becomes a harmonious and powerful accom¬ 
paniment to speech, imparting additional 
force to language in all its forms, and aiding 
a full and clear conception of what is 
expressed. 

Gesture is not a mere matter of ornament, 
as is sometimes supposed. Its main object 
is force of impression ; the beauty or grace 
which it imparts to delivery is but an inferior 
consideration. To the young learner, how¬ 
ever, whose habits are yet forming, the 
cultivation of correct and refined taste in 


regard to gesture, is a matter of great 
importance. 

The following are the principal gestures 
appropriate in address: 

The descending , used with great energy in 
strong assertion and vehement argumenta¬ 
tion, in emphatic declaration and forcible 
appeal. 

The horizontal (the hand rising to a hori¬ 
zontal level with the shoulder), appropriate 
in elevated and general thought or descrip¬ 
tion and in geographical and historical 
allusions. 

The ascending (the hand rising to a level, 
nearly, with the head), expressive of sub¬ 
limity of thought or feeling. 

RULES FOR GESTURE. 

The movement or sweep of the arm, in 
preparing for gesture, should always be free 
and graceful, but avoiding too much extent of 
space , and performed in strict time with the 
movement of the voice in utterance. The line 
of motion in gesture describes a curve , and 
avoids in all action but that of the humorous 
style a confined or angular movement. 

The frequency of gesture must be pre¬ 
scribed by the character of sentiment in the 
piece which is spoken, and by the style of 
language, as moderate and plain, or impas¬ 
sioned and figurative ; the former requiring 
little use of gesture, and the latter much. 

All action must arise directly from the 
sense of what is spoken , and never from arbi¬ 
trary notions of variety or grace . True variety 
is the result of a due observance of the 
preparatory and terminating lines of gesture; 
and grace consists merely in preserving these 
from awkward deviations. 

The use of the left hand, whether singly 
or in conjunction with the right, depends not 
on arbitrary opinions of propriety or grace, 
but usually on necessity felt by the speaker, 




VOCAL CULTURE 

either as regards himself or his audience. 
This form of gesture, as far as it is a matter 
of choice, should be sparingly adopted. 

Gesture should be fluent and connected , 
not abrupt and desultory, or appearing and 
disappearing in a capricious manner. 

The placing of the hand on the heart had 
better be omitted, if any risk must be in¬ 


AND ELOCUTION. 73 

curred of an incorrect or objectionable action 
by performing it. 

Gesture appropriate to the prevailing style 
of prose unites force and grace with sim¬ 
plicity, and has generally an outward and 
downward tendency combined; avoiding 
action which runs across the body of the 
speaker or sweeps inwardly. 



EXAMPLES WHICH ILLUSTRATE 
PRINCIPLES OF ELOCUTION. 



Declamatory Force. 


F OR, as the ages, come and go, 
The leaders of the van 
Are proof that this is ever so— 
The hour begets the man ! 

He’s Nature's heir, and he alone 
Has right and title to her throne. 


Not wealth, nor yet a long descent 
Through many a famous line, 

Can give this power to mankind lent 
From Nature’s hand divine, 

For with the call there comes the might 
Of those who teach, or preach, or fight. 


* 

Moderate Force. 

CHEERFULNESS. 

& this a time to be gloomy and sad, 

When our mother Nature laughs around ; 

When even the deep blue heavens look glad, 

And gladness breathes from the blossoming ground ? 


The clouds are at play, in the azure space, 

And their shadows at play on the bright green 
vale, 

And here they stretch to the frolic chase, 

And there they roll on the easy gale. 


And look at the broad-faced sun how he smiles 
On the dewy earth that smiles on his ray, 

On the leaping waters and gay young isles, - 
Ay, look, and he’ll smile thy gloom away. 



PATHOS. 

aLM on its leaf-strewn bier, 

Unlike a gift of Nature to decay,— 

Too rose-like still, too beautiful, too dear,— 
The child at rest before its mother lay ;— 
Even so to pass away, 

With its bright -mile !—Elysium, what were thou 
To her that wept o’er that young slumberer’sbrow- 

SOLEMNITY. 

''HOU unrelenting Fast! 

Strong are the barriers round thy dark domain; 
And fetters, sure and fast, 

Hold all that enter thy unbreathing reign. 

Far in thy realm withdrawn 
Old empires sit in sullenness and gloom ; 

And glorious ages gone 
Lie deep within the shadow of thy womb. 

Childhood, with all its mirth, 

Youth, Manhood, Age, that draws us to the ground, 
And last, Man’s Life on earth, 

Glide to thy dim dominions, and are bound. 

"RANQUILITY. 

T T(J\HY weep ye, then, for him, who, having w r on 
\J\J The bound of man’s appointed years,—at last> 
Life’s blessings all enjoyed, life’s labors done, 
Serenely to his final rest has passed ; 

While the soft memory of his virtues yet, 

Lingers like twilight hues, when the bright sun is 
set! 
























74 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


His youth was innocent ; liis riper age, 

Marked with some act of goodness, every day ; 
And, watched by eyes that loved him, calm and sage 
Faded his late declining years away. 

Cheerful he gave his being up, and went 
To share the holy rest that waits a life well spent. 

SPRIGHTLY HUMOR. 

AYS Patrick to Biddy, “Good mornin’, me dear, 
It’s a bit av a sacret I’ve got for yer ear; 

It’s yersel’ that is lukin’ so charmin’ the day, 
That the heart in me breast is fast slippin’ away.” 

“ ’Tis you that kin flatther,” Miss Biddy replies, 
And throws him a glance from her merry blue eyes. 

Impassioned Force. 

FEAR. 

HILE throng the citizens with terror dumb, 

Or whispering with white lips, “ The foe !— 
they come, they come ! ” 

ANGER AND SCORN. 

HOU slave, thou wretch, thou coward, 

Thou little valiant, great in villany ! 

Thou ever strong upon the stronger side, 

Thou fortune’s champion, that dost never fight 
But when her humorous ladyship is by 
To teach thee safety. 

HORROR. 

GOD ! that horrid, horrid dream 
Besets me now awake ; 

Again, again, with dizzy brain, 

The human life I take ; 

And my red right hand grows raging hot 
Like Cranmer’s at the stake. 

REPROACH. 

OD is my judge ! May I never see such a look 
of despairing, desolate anguish, as that which 
the woman cast on her master, griping her 
breast with her little hand, as if he had stabbed her. 

ANGUISH. 

WOMAN ? Yes, only a woman ’ 

No ! surely it wasn’t his wife ? 

She seemed dead ! and he wrestled for freedom, 
As a doomed man will struggle for life. 

“ It is she ! gracious God ! Is she dying ? 

Or dead, sirs ?—say, tell if you can ? 

Unhand me ! who murdered my poor wife? ” 

And a voice answered—“ Thou art the man /** 


MILITARY COMMAND. 

Explosive Whispering. 

ARK ! I hear the bugles of the enemy ! They 
are on their march along the bank of the river. 
We must retreat instantly, or be cut off from 
our boats. I see the head of their column already 
rising over the height. Our only safety is in the 
screen of this hedge. Keep close to it ; be silent; 
and stoop as you run. For the boats ! Forward ! 

REPULSION. 

EPART ! depart, O child 

Of Israel, from the temple of thy God; 

For He has smote thee with His chasten 
ing rod, 

And to the desert wild 

From all thou lov’st, away thy feet must flee, 

That from thy plague His people may be free. 

INVOCATION. 

T(TAIRGINIUS tottered nigh 
\/ And stood before the judgment seat, and held 
the knife on high ; 

“ O dwellers in the nether gloom, avengers of the 
slain, 

By this dear blood I cry to you, do right between us 
twain ; 

And e’en as Appius Claudius hath dealt by me and 
mine, 

Deal you by Appius Claudius and all the Claudian 
line.” 

Vanishing Stress. 

EARNEST PURPOSE. 

» 

E’VE sworn, by our country’s assualters, 

By the virgins they’ve dragged from our 
altars, 

By our massacred patriots, our children in chains, 

By our heroes of old, and their blood in our veins, 
That living, we will be victorious, 

Or that dying, our deaths shall be glorious. 

STERN REBUKE. 

HAT shall I say to thee, Lord Scroop, thou 
cruel, 

Ungrateful savage, and inhuman creature! 
Thou didst bear the keys of all my counsels, 

That knew’st the very bottom of my soul, 

That almost might have coined me into gold, 

Wouldst thou have practised on me for thy use?’* 

GRIEF. 

Y captain does not answer, his lips are pale 
and still. 

My father does not feel my arm, he has no 
pulse nor will. 

















VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


75 


The ship is anchored safe and sound, its voyage 
closed and done, 

From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with 
object won ; 

Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells! 

But I, with mournful tread, 

Walk the deck, my captain lies 
Fallen cold and dead. 

Exercises on Pitch. 

LOW NOTES. 

OT a drum was heard, nor a funeral note, 

As his corse to the rampart we hurried ; 

Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O’er the grave where our hero we buried. 

We buried him darkly, at dead of night, 

The sod with our bayonets turning, 

By the struggling moonbeam’s misty light, 

And the lantern dimly burning. 

MIDDLE NOTES. 

Y thoughts, I must confess, are turned on 
peace ; 

Already have our quarrels filled the world 
With widows and with orphans : Scythia mourns 
Our guilty wars; and earth’s remotest regions 
Lie half unpeopled by the feuds of Rome. 

’Tis time to sheath the sword and spare mankind. 

We took up arms, not to revenge ourselves, 

But free the Commonwealth. When this end fails 
Arms have no further use. Our country’s cause, 
That drew our swords, now wrests them from our 
hands, 

A.nd bids us not delight in Roman blood 
TJnprofitably shed. What men could do, 

Is done already. Heaven and earth will witness, 

If Rome must fall, that we are innocent. 

HIGH NOTES. 

UT thou, O Hope ! with eyes so fair,— 

What was thy delighted measure ? 

Still it whispered promised pleasure, 

And bade the lovely scenes at distance hail! 

Still would her touch the strain prolong ; 

And from the rocks, the woods, the vale, 

She called on Echo still through all her song : 

And where her sweetest theme she chose, 

A soft responsive voice was heard at every close ; 
And Hope enchanted smiled, and waved her golden 
hair. 

Exercises on Time. 

SLOWEST RATE. 

IGHT, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, 

In rayless majesty now stretches forth 
Her leaden sceptre o’er a slumbering world, 
Silence, how dead ! and darkness how profound ! 


Nor eye nor listening ear an object finds : 
Creation sleeps. ’Tis as the general pulse 
Of life stood still, and Nature made a pause— 

An awful pause—prophetic of her end. 

SLOW. 

ENEATH those rugged elms, that yew tree’s 
shade, 

Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering 
heap, 

Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, 
Or busy housewife ply her evening care ; 

No children run to lisp their sire’s return, 

Or climb his knees, the envied kiss to share. 

MODERATE. 

F the relation of sleep to night, and, in some 
instances, its converse be real, we cannot reflect 
without amazement, upon the extent to which 
it carries us. Day and night are things close to us : 
the change applies immediately to our sensations; 
of all the phenomena of nature, it is the most ob¬ 
vious, and the most familiar to our experience : but, 
in its cause, it belongs to the great motions which 
a*u passing in the heavens. Whilst the earth glides 
aronnd her axle, she ministers to the alternate 
necessities of the animals dwelling upon her surface, 
at the same time that she obeys the influence of those 
attractions which regulate the order of many thous¬ 
and worlds. 

The relation, therefore, of sleep to night, is the 
relation of the inhabitants of the earth to the rotation 
of their globe : probably it is more ; it is a relation 
to the system of which that globe is a part; and still 
farther, to the congregation of systems of which 
theirs is only one. If this account be true, it con¬ 
nects the meanest individual with the universe itself; 
a chicken roosting upon its perch, with the spheres 
revolving in the firmament. 

LIVELY. 

N thy right hand lead with thee 
The mountain nymph, sweet Liberty ; 

And, if I give thee honor due, 

Mirth, admit me of thy crew, 

To live with her, and live with thee, 

In unreproved pleasures free : 

To hear the lark begin his flight, 

And, singing, startle the dull night 
From his watch-tower in the skies, 

Till the dappled dawn doth rise ; 

Then to come, in spite of sorrow, 

And at my window bid good morrow, 

Through the sweet briar or the vine, 

Or the twisted eglantine. 












76 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


QUICK. 

OW the storm begins to lower ; 

(Haste, the loom of hell prepare ;) 

Iron sleet of arrowy shower 
Hurtles in the darkened air. 

Ere the ruddy sun be set, 

Pikes must shiver, javelins sing, 

Blade with clattering buckler meet, 
Hauberk crash, and helmet ring. 

Sisters, hence with spurs of speed ! 

Each her thundering falchion wield ; 

Each bestride her sable steed : 

Hurry, hurry, to the field ! 

Exercises on Inflection. 

FALLING. 

HEN night 

Closes round the ghastly fight, 

If the vanquished warrior bow, 

Spare him ;—by our holy vow, 

By our prayers and many tears, 

By the mercy that endears, 

Spare him !—he our love hath shared 
Spare him, as thou wouldst be spared ! 

RISING. 

UT while they sit contriving, shall the rest, 
Millions that stand in arms, and longing wait 
The signal to ascend, sit lingering here, 
Heaven’s fugitives ; and for their dwelling-place 
Accept this dark opprobious den of shame, 

The prison of his tyranny who reigns 
By our delay ! 

Exercises in Movement. 

SLOWEST. 

HAD a dream which was not all a dream. 

The bright sun was extinguished ; and the stars 
Did wander darkling in the eternal space, 

Rayless and pathless ; and the icy earth 

Swung blind and blackening in the moonless air ; 

Morn came, and went—and came, and brought no day. 

The world was void ; 

The populous and the powerful was a lump,— 
Seasonless, herbless, treeless, manless, lifeless,— 

A lump of death—a chaos of hard clay. 

The rivers, lakes, and ocean, all stood still ; 

And nothing stirred within their silent depths. 

Ships, sailorless, lay rotting on the sea ; 

And their masts fell down piecemeal: as they dropped 
They slept on the abyss without a surge ;— 

The waves were dead ; the tides were in their grave ; 
The moon, their mistress, had expired before ; 

The winds were withered in the stagnant air ; 

And the clouds perished : Darkness had no need 
Of aid from them—She was the universe. 


SLOW. 

NON out of the earth a fabric huge 

Rose like an exhalation, with the sound 
Of dulcet symphonies, and voices sweet, 

Built like a temple, where pilasters round 
Were set, and Doric pillars, overlaid 
With golden architrave ; nor did there want 
Cornice, or frieze, with bossy sculptures graven ; 

The roof was fretted gold. Not Babylon, 

Nor great Alcairo, such magnificence 

Equalled in all their glories, to enshrine 

Belus, or Serapis, their gods ; or seat 

Their kings, when Egypt with Assyria strove 

In wealth and luxury. The ascending pile 

Stood fixed her stately height; and straight the doors 

Opening their brazen folds, discover wide 

Within, her ample spaces, o’er the smooth 

And level pavement : from the arched roof, 

Pendent by subtle magic, many a row 
Of starry lamps, and blazing cressets, fed 
With naphtha and asphaltus, yielded light. 

MODERATE. 

HE city and republic of Carthage were destroyed 
by the termination of the third Punic war, 
about one hundred and fifty years before 
Christ. The city was in flames during seventeen 
days; and the news of its destruction caused the 
greatest joy at Rome. The Roman senate imme¬ 
diately appointed commissioners, not only to raze 
the walls of Carthage, but even to demolish and burn 
the very materials of which they were made ; and, in 
a few days, that city, which had once been the seat 
of commerce, the model of magnificence, the com¬ 
mon storehouse of the w r ealth of nations, and one of 
the most powerful states in the world, left behind no 
trace of its splendor, of its power, or even of its 
existence. 

The history of Carthage is one of the many proofs 
that we have of the transient nature of worldly 
glory : for. of all her grandeur, not a wreck remains. 
Her own w T alls, like the calm ocean, that conceals 
forever the riches hid in its unsearchable abyss, now 
obscure all her magnificence. 

ANIMATED, OR LIVELY. 

HAVE lived to see generals who once had crowds 
hallooing after them wherever they went, who 
were bepraised by newspapers and magazines,— 
those echoes of the voice of the vulgar ; and yet they 
have long sunk into merited obscurity, with scarce 
even an epitaph left to flatter. A few years ago, the 
herring fishery employed all Grub street: it was the 
topic in every coffee-house, and the burden of ewery 
ballad. 

We were to drag up oceans of gold from the bottom 











VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


77 


of the sea : we were to supply all Europe with her¬ 
rings, upon our terms. At present, we hear no more 
of all this. We have fished up very little gold that 
I can learn ; nor do we furnish the world with her¬ 
rings, a9 was expected. Let us wait but a few years 
longer, and we shall find all our expectations a 
herring-fishery. 

GAY, OR QUICK. 

/^NND gaiety on restless tiptoe hovers, 

IjL Giggling with all the gallants who beset her ; 
J And there are songs and quavers, roaring, 
humming, 

Guitars, and every other sort of strumming. 

And there are dresses, splendid, but fantastical, 
Masks of all times and nations, Turks and Jews, 
And harlequins and clowns, with feats gymnastical, 
Greeks, Romans, Yankee-doodles, and Hindoos. 

RAPID, OR QUICKEST. 

/ ~\WAY !—away !—and on we dash !— 

% Torrents less rapid and less rash. 

Away, away, my steed and I, 

Upon the pinions of the wind, 

All human dwellings left behind : 

We sped like meteors through the sky, 

When with its crackling sound the night 
Is chequered with the northern light 
From out the forest prance 
A trampling troop—I see them come ! 

A thousand horse—and none to ride !— 

With flowing tail, and flying mane, 

Wide nostrils, never stretched by pain, 

Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein, 

And feet that iron never shod, 

And flanks unscarred by spur or rod— 

A thousand horse,—the wild, the free— 

Like waves that follow o’er the sea, 

Came thickly thundering on :— 

They stop,—they start—they snuff the air, 

Gallop a moment here and there, 

Approach, retire, wheel round and round, 

Then plunging back with sudden bound— 

They snort—they foam— neigh—swerve aside, 

And backward to the forest fly, 

By instinct, from a human eye. 

Exercises in Pauses. 

[In the following examples the upright parallels show the 
length of the pauses and where they should be made.] 

ALARM AND FEAR. 

all went merry as a marriage bell : 

But hush ! |! || hark ! || || a deep sound || strikes 
like a rising knell ! 




y? 


AWE AND TERROR. 

I ANY ports will exult at the gleam of her mast: 
Hush! || hush ! [| thou vain dreamer! || this 
hour || || is her last. || || 

Her keel hath struck on a hidden rock ; | 

And her planks are torn asunder : | 

And down come her masts with a reeling shock. | 
And a hideous crashl| like thunder ! 

HORROR. 

LOWLY knee to earth he bent,—his father’s 
hand he took— || || 

What was there in its touch, that all his fiery 
spirit shook? || || 

That hand was cold ! || || a frozen thing:— |[ || it 
dropped from his like lead ! || || 

He looked up to the face above—1| the face was of 
the dead : || || 

A plume waved o’er the noble brow— l| that brow 
was fixed and white : | 

He met, at last, his father’s eyes— || l| but in them 
was no sight ! || || 

Up from the ground he sprang, and gazed— || || but 
who could paint that gaze ? || 

They hushed their very hearts, || that saw its horror 
and amaze. 

STILLNESS, AND AWE. 

/'■^V REATION sleeps : || || ’t is as the general pulse 
of life | stood still || 

And nature made a pause, )| an awful pause, || 
Prophetic of her end ! 

SOLEMNITY, AND TRIUMPH. 

HE stars | shall fade away, J| the sun himself | 
Grow dim with age, || and Nature | sink in 
years ; 

But thou | shalt flourish in immortal youth, || 

Unhurt | amidst the war of elements, || 

The wreck of matter, )| and the crush of worlds. 

GRIEF. 

FAIREST of creation ! || last | and best | 

Of all God’s works, || creature in whom ex¬ 
celled 

Whatever can to sight or thought be formed, 

Holy, | divine, | good, | amiable, | or sweet! || 

How art thou lost, || || how on a sudden lost, || 
Defaced, || deflowered, || and how to death | devote I 

HORROR. 

O completely did these masters in their art, 
Hyder Ali, and his more ferocious son, absolve 
themselves of their impious vow, that when 
the British armies traversed, as they did, the Car¬ 
natic, for hundred of miles, in all directions,— 





78 


VOCAL CULTURE AND ELOCUTION. 


through the whole line of their march, | they did 
not see one man, | not one woman || not one child, || || 
not one four-footed beast || of any description what¬ 
ever. One | dead I uniform | silence || reigned | over 
the whole region. 

ORATORICAL INTERROGATION. 

HO’S here so base that would be a bonds¬ 
man ? — || If any, speak ; for him have I 
offended. || || Who’s here so rude, that 
would not be a Roman? — || If any, speak ; || for 
him have I offended. || || Who’s here so vile, that 
will not love his country ? —1| If any, sueak ; || for 
him have I offended.— || || I pause for a ±ply. 

Exercises in Emphasis. 

FIERCE ANGER AND DEFIANCE. 

ALL, me their traitor !—Thou injurious tri¬ 
bune ! 

Within thine eyes sat twenty thousand deaths , 

In thine hands clutched as many millions, in 
Thy longing tongue BOTH numbers, I would say, 
Thou LIEST, unto thee, with a voice as .ree 
As I do pray the gods. 

ANGER AND THREATENING. 

OU souls of geese, 

That bear the shapes of men, how have you 
run 

From slaves that apes would beat!—P luto and 
HELL ! 

All hurt behind; backs red , and faces pale 
With flight and agued fear ! —Mend, and charge 
home, 

Or by the fires of heaven, I’ll leave the foe, 

And make my wars on YOU : look tod : Come on ! 


DEFIANCE. 

HAT in the world he is, 

That names me traitor, villian-like he LIES : 
Call by thy trumpet: he that dares approach, 
On him, on you, —WHO NOT ?—I will maintain 
My truth and honor firmly. 

EMPHATIC PHRASES. 

PON the whole, I will beg leave to tell the 
House in a few words what is really my opin¬ 
ion. It is, that the Stamp Act ought to be 
repealed — absolutely — totally — and immedi¬ 
ately. 

2 . And were I an American, as I am an English¬ 
man, while a single foreign troop remained in my 
country, I would never lay down my arms—NEVER— 
NEVER—NEVER. 

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. 

N Homer, we discern all the Greek vivacity ; in 
Virgil , all the Roman stateliness . Homer's 
imagination is by much the more rich and copi¬ 
ous ; Virgil's the more chaste and correct. The 
strength of the former lies, in his power of warm¬ 
ing the fancy; that of the latter, in his power of 
touching the heart. Homer's style is more simple 
and animated; Virgil's more elegant and uniform. 
The first has, on many occasions, a sublimity to 
which the latter never attains ; but the latter, in 
return, never sinks below a certain degree of epic 
dignity , which cannot so clearly be pronounced of 
the former. 

STRONG ANTITHESIS. 

FT any man resolve to do right now, leaving 
then to do as it can : and if he were to live to 
the age of Methuselah, he would never do 
wrong.—But the common error is to resolve to act 
right after breakfast, or after dinner, or to-morrow 
morning, or next time . But now , just now, this 
once, we must go on the same as ever. 














The Delsarte System 


PHYSICAL CULTURE and EXPRESSION 



OF' 


c-%V 







AAA A A 



ASE and naturalness 
are among the chief 
requisites for effec¬ 
tive reading and re¬ 
citing on all occa¬ 
sions. There is a 
natural way of ex- 
pressing every 
thought and emotion. Mind 
and body should work to¬ 
gether in perfect harmony. 
Delsarte aims to show how 
this can be done. 

To the uninformed, his 
name stands hazily for some 
kind of mysticism. The sim¬ 
ple fact is, that there is no more mysticism 
connected with his teachings and philosophy 
than there is about any philosophy which 
has to do with mind rather than with matter. 

It would be impracticable here to give an 
exhaustive account of Delsarte’s life and 
philosophy, even were that possible. The 
object will be simply to state such facts as 
will enable the young student of the art of 
expression to understand why “ Delsarteism,” 
popularly so-called, exercises tb^ authority 
it does. 

In this particular field Delsarte was the 
greatest teacher of modern times, and the 


only one who can be said to have attained 
to a philosophy of expression. He did not 
leave, nor did he even formulate, a peda¬ 
gogical method, but he did formulate and 
leave rules and principles that are funda¬ 
mental. 

Birth and Early History. 

Francois Delsarte was born November 11, 
1811, at Solesmes, France. Early orphaned 
and impoverished, he drifted like many 
another waif to Paris, where, in the bitter 
) winter of 1821, he lived in a loft with his 
younger brother. As morning dawned after 
one awful night, he woke to find he clasped 
a lifeless body in his arms. Hunger and 
exposure had proved fatal to the younger 
child. As FranQois lay weeping on the 
grave of the brother just buried in the pot¬ 
ter’s field, a ragpicker, pursuing his calling, 
was attracted by what appeared to be a bun¬ 
dle of rags. He found the object to be a 
half-starved child. Moved with compassion, 
he took the lad to his own miserable abode, 
and from this squalor the future teacher and 
philosopher began his career as a ragpicker. 

For two years he followed his wretched 
avocation, but within his soul burned the 
passion for music, and in his daily wander¬ 
ings he gratified his passion as best he could^ 

79 






















































80 


THE DELSARTE SYSTEM. 


drinking in the ditties of itinerant vocalists, 
the playing of military bands, snatches of 
songs, or instrumental performances that 
floated truant to his hungry ear. 

At twelve, attracted by music in the gar¬ 
den of the Tuileries, he was observed tracing 
some curious marks in the sand by one of 
the musical masters of the time—Bambini. 
At the request of the professor, the boy 
translated his hieroglyphics into song. To 
the question as to where he learned them, 
he replied, “ Nobody taught me sir, I found 
it out myself.” Bambini recognized genius. 
He took the lad to his home and began his 
education in music. During two years, such 
was the progress of the boy, that “ Bambini 
became the pupil, Delsarte the teacher.” 

Poor and Friendless. 

Just then came a great misfortune—the 
death of his kind protector. Fortunately 
Bambini had secured Delsarte’s admission to 
the Conservatory. Again, poor and friend¬ 
less, he had to face the world. He was not 
a favorite at the Conservatory, because he 
dared to question the methods of the pro¬ 
fessors, reputed as they were. In after life he 
proved their methods incorrect and injurious. 

In consequence of what they termed his 
audacity, he was given little opportunity for 
public singing, and when occasion was 
afforded, his style and manner were so 
essentially unlike the methods of the Con¬ 
servatory, that the public were not prepared 
for approval. We are told that only two 
persons of the vast audience comprehended 
and appreciated, but the opinion of those two 
overbalanced all the rest—Marie Malebran, 
the “ queen of song,” and Adolphe Nourrit, 
“ the king of tenors.” 

In due time he left the Conservatory. 
Failing to obtain a position, he was forced 
to subject himself to the humiliation of ask¬ 


ing the directors for a diploma that he might 
secure a position in a lyric theatre. He was 
scornfully refused and told that “ such genius 
should have gravitated to its proper sphere 
without difficulty or without assistance.” 

Then he sought opportunity to sing at 
the Opera House, begging the manager for 
just one chance. When the latter eyed 
him contemptuously, Delsarte, sensitive and 
keenly observant, said, “ Monsieur, though 
my clothes are poor my art is genuine.” 

A Brilliant Triumph. 

The manager, tired of his persistence and 
anxious to be rid of him, ushered him upon 
the stage between the acts of an opera and 
roughly addressed him: “Sing, Delsarte! 
In five minutes the curtain will rise. Show 
the stuff you are made of, or if you ever 
appear here again I will have you arrested 
as a vagrant.” 

And we are told that the “ beggar with 
the manners of a prince ” walked to the 
piano amid the jeers of the audience, and 
with tears in his eyes and his heart on his 
lips, sang. But what singing ! “ The long 

pent-up fires of his genius burst forth. The 
people were electrified ; the house rang with 
bravos. Again and again he was recalled, 
and every heartstring was made to vibrate 
in unison with his soulful utterances. He 
left the threatre the first singer of Paris.” 

Soon after this, neatly attired and bearing 
his appointment at the Opera Comique, he 
made a brief call at the Conservatory to 
confirm the directors in their judgment that 
“true genius should find its proper sphere.” 
He gave tangible proof of it in his commis¬ 
sion, and smiling, pointedly observed, “Gen¬ 
tlemen, you would not give me a recom¬ 
mendation as a chorister, but the public 
have awarded me this.” This occurred in 
1830. 




PHYSICAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 


81 


He soon won a European reputation. But 
his voice, injured by incorrect methods of 
training and the physical strain of years of 
hardship, lost its power, and he left the lyric 
stage at the age of twenty-three. In spite 
of this, every inducement was given him to 
appear in tragedy with Rachel at the 
Theatre Franqais, the belief prevailing that 
his vocal, difficulties were but temporary. 

He believed them incurable, and turned 
his attention to acting, because deeply inter¬ 
ested in expression as an art. He deter¬ 
mined to search the laws of an art hitherto 
left to the “ caprice of mediocrity or the 
inspiration of genius.” He found little to 
aid him in the accepted teachings of the 
time and was left to pursue his investigations 
according to his own independent methods. 

The World His Schoolroom. 

The true genius of the man led him to 
the right fountain—nature, the only funda¬ 
mental source. He studied life and its 
natural expression in all its manifestations, 
in all conditions, and such a course of study 
took him everywhere—through hospitals, 
morgues, asylums, prisons, patiently unearth¬ 
ing the sentiments of past genius. 

He studied children at their play, weigh¬ 
ing humanity everywhere and in every way. 
He studied years in medical colleges to 
understand the construction of the human 
body. He studied a lifetime to formu¬ 
late its expression, to convey through the 
body, beautifully and rythmically, the senti¬ 
ments of the soul. He was a keen observer 
and a careful thinker and reasoner. After 
years of observation of the manifestations of 
the mind through the body, he sought for 
the underlying philosophy of these mani¬ 
festations. 

All this time he was teaching, and among 
his pupils were Rachel, Carvalto, Macready, 

6 


Pasca, Sontag and Barbot. Jenny Lind con¬ 
sulted him. Pere Hyacinth and Pere La- 
cordaire, of pulpit fame, were also among 
his pupils. 

He became so great a teacher that he won 
a recognition that would have brought him 
wealth and a fame more widely understood 
and recognized, had not death cut short his 
career. He was offered an annual salary of 
$20,000 to found a conservatory in the 
United States. The King of Hanover, re¬ 
cognizing him as an artist, sent him the 
Guelph Cross. A street in his native town, 
Solesmes, was named in his honor. 

His Own Words. 

His last public appearance was in 1865, 
at the Sorbonne, where the lectures of the 
Philotechnique Society were given. 

It is recorded that during the evening he 
remarked: “ Many persons feel confident 
they are to hear me recite or sing. Nothing 
of the sort, gentlemen; I shall not recite 
and I shall not sing, because I desire less to 
show you what I can do than to tell you 
what I know. I count on the novelty—the 
absolute novelty—of the things I shall teach 
you. Art is the subject of this conversa¬ 
tion. Art is divine in its principle, divine in 
its essence, divine in its action, divine in its 
aim. Ah! gentlemen, there are no pleasures 
more lasting, more noble, and more sacred 
than those of art. 

“ Let us glance around us. There is not 
a pleasure which is not followed by disap¬ 
pointment or satiety ; not a joy which does 
not entail some trouble ; not an affection 
which does not conceal some bitterness, 
some grief, and often some remorse. Every¬ 
thing is disappointing to man. Everything 1 
about him changes and passes away. 
Everything betrays him. Even his senses, 
so closely allied to his being and to which 






82 


THE DELSARTK SYSTEM. 


he sacrifices everything, like faithless ser¬ 
vants betray him in their turn.” 

Delsarte married, in 1833, Rosina Adrien, 
the daughter of the director of the Grand 
Opera House—a beautiful young girl of only 
fifteen years, whose talent as a pianist had 
already won her a first prize at the Conser¬ 
vatory. Seven children were born to them. 
His son Gustave died prematurely. It is 
said of him that, although not approaching 
his father as a dramatist, he had a most mar¬ 
vellous quality of voice, and when you had 
once heard that voice, which was developed 
by his father’s grand method, you never 
forgot its sincerity and melancholy. It 
haunted you and left you longing to hear it 
again. 

Delsarte left Paris with his family in 1870, 
taking refuge until the close of the war in 
his native town of Solesmes. Already ill, 
he was disheartened and crushed by the 
misfortunes of his country. He worked 


steadily on, however, his intellect having lost 
none of its vigor, though his nature had 
become more or less shadowed. After his 
voluntary exile he returned to Paris in 
March, 1871. 

“After Delsarte had gathered so abundant 
a harvest of laurels, fate decreed he had 
lived long enough. When he reached his 
sixtieth year he was attacked by hypertrophy 
of the heart, which left his rich organization 
in ruins. He was no longer the artist of 
graceful, supple expression and harmonious 
movements, no longer the thinker with pro¬ 
found and luminous ideas; but in the midst 
of this physical and intellectual ruin, the 
Christian’s sentiment retained its strong, 
sweet energy. 

“After lingering for months in a state that 
was neither life nor death, surrounded by his 
pious wife and weeping, praying children, he 
surrendered his soul to God on the 20th of 
July, 1871.” 



ELSARTE was a man of re¬ 
ligious feeling, and knew 
religious books better than 
other books. He was ac¬ 
quainted with the lore of 
the priests, to which he was 
indebted for his philosophy. 
Tradition affirms that he was much inter¬ 
ested in, and studied Swedenborg. This 
theory is confirmed by the fact that cer¬ 
tain fundamental ideas in his philosophy and 
the expression of them are intrinsically 
Swedenborgian. 

One of the fundamental principles of 
Delsarte’s philosophy is the law of corres¬ 
pondence, which was discovered by Sweden¬ 
borg, who held that the material world 


corresponds to the spiritual world and is the 
manifestation of man’s mental being. In 
other words, that the spiritual world is 
symbolized in the physical world. Applied 
to expression, the interpretation of this law 
is : “ Every expression of the face, every 

posture of the body, corresponds to, or is 
but an outward expression of, an inner emo¬ 
tion or condition of the mind.” 

Goldsmith has pithily said that “ language 
was invented to conceal our thoughts,” and 
the truth of this every one knows by per¬ 
sonal experience; but there is a revealer 
that the will is not always strong or alert 
enough to control. The involuntary gesture 
reveals the inmost heart of man 1- "vond a]/ 
concealment or denial. 






PHYSICAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 


83 


In the correspondence of the different 
parts of the body, Delsarte’s idea was not 
that mental and moral atrributes dwell in 
these parts, but that certain parts best repre¬ 
sent, best express, certain attributes. For 
example, the head in its poise, etc., repre¬ 
sents intellect better than any other part of 
the body ; the trunk, affection ; the limbs, 
power. Each part can represent a certain 
attribute better than it can represent other 
attributes. 

We See It Illustrated. 

For proof of the fundamental truth of this 
principle we need appeal only to our intui¬ 
tion, the highest of all the powers of judg¬ 
ment, exercising it upon the familiar illustra¬ 
tion of everyday life and expression. The 
mother presses her child to her breast in 
token of affection, not to her head or to her 
arms. The head is bent in thought. We 
encircle a friend with the forearm in friendly 
demonstration, not with the upper arm; with 
that we push aside. In this short discussion 
only the merest index to lines of thought 
can be suggested to the student. 

Delsarte held that in gesture or movement 
of the body, the parts should move in oppo¬ 
sition. In proof of the correctness of his 
theory he appealed, as before, to the intui¬ 
tion, judging by common observation. When 
walking normally, the right arm goes for¬ 
ward with the left foot. Parallelism offends 
our idea of fitness and grace. Opposition 
of movement marks not only beauty but 
sincerity, according to his ideas, and these 
things prove themselves by their appeal to 
our observation. 

The workings of this law can be demon¬ 
strated and proven through all parts of the 
body—there is opposition everywhere. It 
has been claimed by some that Delsarte did 
not announce this as a law, but close 


students of his philosophy, for whom there 
was access to his notes, find sufficient evi¬ 
dence that he so regarded it. Delsarte was 
too close an observer and too long a student 
of the manifestations of the human body not 
to perceive this very evident principle of 
action. 

Fundamentally, underlying the law of 
opposition, is the law of equilibrium. To 
maintain equilibrium of parts there must be 
opposition. Again, another great teacher 
in support of this law has called our atten¬ 
tion to a fact of common observation : “In 
true acting you will see opposition of 
movement ; in a farce, parallelisms. In the 
highest Greek art, the law of opposition is 
fully illustrated and strictly followed; one 
of the features which distinguishes ideal 
Greek art from the lower forms is the obedi¬ 
ence to this law. In the old Egyptian 
statues, the arms and legs are always par¬ 
allel. In the Phidian, the highest period of 
Greek art, not one instance of disobedience 
to the law of opposition can be found.” 

Another law of movement which claims 
the student’s attention is that of 

Succession. 

“If two parts are used at the same time , 
they move in opposition ; but, if moved 
successively, as to time, they move in the 
same direction—parallel directions.” For 
example, if a cultivated person hears some¬ 
thing when listening, the eye is turned away 
from the ear; when he turns toward the 
direction of the sound to examine, the eye 
is turned first, then the head, then the body. 

The uncultivated person turns all at 
once—has no parts. The uncultivated body 
moves in the mass, is lumbering, stiff, in one 
word, awkward. The cultivated body is 
supple and responsive to mental impulses; 
in one word, graceful. Thus ease and nat- 



84 


THE DELSARTE SYSTEM. 


uralness always exhibit themselves in per¬ 
sons who have all their powers under con¬ 
trol, and have reached the highest point of 
mental and physical training. 

Another law relating to movement in¬ 
volves this idea : “ Every gesture takes its 

value from the point of departure—it is 
mental, moral, or vital, according to its point 
of departure.” 

A gesture of mentality takes its point of 
departure from the head. A gesture takes 
its moral value from the chest as a point of 
departure. The gesture of vitality is from 
the vital part of the body. If the emotion 
be anger, and intellectual anger, because of 
opposition to truth, the finger will come up 
to the head—“ I declare this to be so and 
so.” If the anger involve the sense of right, 
the point of departure will be the region of 
the heart. If the offense be physical, the 
gesture will be low, in the region of the hips. 
Then there is the law of 

Unity of Movement. 

No part acts alone. The parts assist one 
another, and thus in the matter of gesture 
confirm one another ; otherwise, there would 
be discord and lack of symmetry. 

In this line Delsarte did a great deal of 
pioneer work, and those who have followed 
his methods have had much work to do 
properly and thoroughly to insist upon this 
law of action, obvious as it is. 

Should any agent of the body make a 
gesture which the other parts of the body 
seem to deny, there is evident mental dis¬ 
agreement and physical awkwardness. The 
gesture will seem not suitable to the thought, 
although upon close discrimination the lead- 
ing agent will be found to be responding 
correctly. 

Many an actor and public reader has been 
termed untrue and justly termed awkward 


because of a lack of unity in all the parts 
taken together. 

This is the fundamental law of all grace 
and beauty in nature. “No part of the 
body is used without a definite purpose in 
view, and no part is used more than is abso¬ 
lutely necessary to the end sought.” 

Awkward People. 

This law, as do all these fundamental laws 
of nature, appeals to our intuition for proof. 
The awkward, clumsy person moves parts 
not necessary to the action, indulges in 
superfluous movements and finds himself in 
his own way. 

Following close in logical sequence and 
inseparable in action, is the law of centers, 
radically involving the preceding law. “ The 
center seems to impel all the other parts. 
That which impels the whole body is the 
center of the chest.” Note that the upright, 
easy, graceful walker seems impelled by the 
chest. Should the head lead, we have a 
mincing, weak walk. If the hips lead, there 
is an appearance of vulgarity. Obedience to 
this law secures grace. 

These laws, as has been indicated, prove 
themselves, and their collaboration and appli¬ 
cation in the art of expression show the care¬ 
ful and extensive observation and philoso¬ 
phical generalization of Delsarte’s thought 
and work. These are the laws underlying 
his philosophy. 

As has been said, Delsarte was a great 
pioneer in his espescial field of work—the 
art of expression. He made valuable dis¬ 
coveries and continued making them so long 
as he lived. He was profound and pro¬ 
gressive in his art. Without Delsarte the 
evolution of expression would not be where 
it is to-day. 

There are, however, certain limitations 
which stand in the way of his philosophy as 



PHYSICAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 


85 


a working force, and they have been a fruit¬ 
ful source of criticism, both just and unjust, 
intelligent and ignorant. The endeavor 
will be briefly to point out these limitations. 
Once understood, the remedies suggest 
themselves and the thoughtful student sees 
all the more clearly how grand and philoso¬ 
phical a foundation this master laid for his 
art, which needed only time and its concomi¬ 
tant work and progress to develop. 

You Must Exercise Your Will. 

As a first limitation, Delsarte made no 
provision in his psychology for the human 
will. It is needless to state to the intelli¬ 
gent student or teacher that any system of 
education in any art or science whatsoever 
that does not provide a method which shall 
exercise and develop all the mental attributes 
in their natural order and action, has a most 
vital and fatal error in it, which will be shown 
irrevocably in the results produced. 

The will is the ‘‘chief corner-stone in 
every sound form of psychology,” and to 
disregard it as a mental force is to ignore 
that which makes man what he is. 

Delsarte rested his psychology upon a 
trinity. Psychology in its most modern and 
progressive stages recognizes a fraternity: 
consciousness or life, affection, will, intellect. 
Omit one of these and the result cannot but 
be wrong. 

Again, Delsarte made no provision for the 
relations and responsive action of groups of 
muscles. By the very law of opposition in 
the human body, certain groups of muscles 
act in response to other groups of muscles. 
The parts of the body are not isolated and 
independent. There is absolute unity in this 
most perfect of all architectures. 

Because of this non-provision, a system of 
physical culture based rigidly and absolutely 
on his principles, could not be a satisfactory 


system. It would fail to provide for and 
cultivate one of the most vital necessities of 
the human body—the interaction of all the 
muscles. There would be obvious lack of 
unity and hence lack of grace in a body so 
cultivated. 

And this involves a further omission—he 
made no provision for reflex action in the 
human body, which is the secret spring of all 
natural gesture. It seems incomprehensible 
that so keen and thoughtful a student as 
Delsarte should fail to take cognizance of 
the fact that the muscles react from muscular 
sense. However, in his time this sixth sense 
was not recognized and understood as it is 
to-day. 

Spontaneous Action. 

Not to understand this, paved the way to 
slip into another error all the more easily. 
Delsarte leaves out spontaneity . It can be 
seen, of course, that it is implied in his phil¬ 
osophy, but it is not definitely recognized 
and provided for. Right here is the vital 
flaw which justly calls forth the criticism that 
Delsarte’s method implicitly followed dis¬ 
appoints in developing the orator and the 
actor, in that it makes them mechanical. 

His ideas are absolutely correct, proven 
by common observation, but some of his 
methods of producing results to conform to 
them are not only insufficient but erroneous, 
because of the non-recognition of all the 
mental and physical forces and their funda¬ 
mental principles of action. 

“ Art rests right upon that law of spon¬ 
taneity.” Nature is spontaneous in action, 
by means of that secret spring of reflex 
action. 

One of the truest of his followers, com¬ 
menting upon this very point, has put and 
answered these most pertinent questions : 
“ How did Delsarte learn his various prin- 






8 G 


THE DELSARTE SYSTEM. 


ciples were true ? How did he learn what 
gestures mean ? By watching what people 
did when excited by their emotions. What 
did these spring from ? From the sponta¬ 
neity of the mind.” Thus all expression 
should come from an inward impulse, and 
where mind and body are in perfect harmony 
the expression will be exactly suited to the 
thought and emotion—nothing forced about 
it, nothing mechanical, but rather the free 
act of a living being in distinction from a 
mere machine. 

Special Training. 

It goes without saying, that both the 
voice and the ability to express thought and 
feeling must be developed and cultivated. 
But it is not so quickly and generally recog¬ 
nized that physical culture is a necessary con¬ 
comitant of education in expression. Be the 
mind never so well trained, profound and 
agile in thought, if the body, its medium of 
manifestation, be uncultivated, muscles stiff 
or inert, and unable to respond quickly and 
intelligently to the mental impulses, the 
result must be awkwardness, weakness, and 
inaccuracy of gesture. 

Cultivate the muscles, rendering the whole 
physique in every part pliable and quick to 
respond to the emotions, and there will be 
naturally the conformity to the laws which 
Delsarte primarily deduced from nature. 
That a student may effectively render a selec¬ 
tion, it is not necessary that he should care¬ 
fully and mechanically formulate what emo- 
« 

tions are appropriate to the thoughts 
expressed in it, and then select and learn 
the gestures appropriate to' such states of 
mind. 

Let him work upon the selection, calling 
upon the imagination until he can live those 
scenes and have those states of mind de¬ 
scribed, and the body will respond. The 


all-wise Creator took care that the body 
should not wander through the world with¬ 
out a motive power and controller. Nature 
takes care of these things if mind and body 
are normal and free to respond. 

The formula is simple: “ Objects appeal 
to the mind, the mind acts, the body ex¬ 
presses.” 

Does this need proof? “Give a dog 
something he wants ; some secret spring will 
move his eyes and wriggle his tail just right.” 
It will not be necessary to look up the proper 
rules first and then instruct him to place and 
move his parts to correspond. Children act 
naturally, and their actions are spontaneous. 
They have no rules for expression, yet in the 
main no expression is more effective. They 
are natural in all things. 

Talking with the Body. 

Gesture is the delineation in the air, by 
the physical agents of the body, of mental 
conceptions. “The basis of oratory is to 
get the body to respond to the thought.” 
In every act of the human being we have to 
recognize the close and subtle relation oi 
body and soul. The mind is the divine in 
man, the only source of instruction to the 
body. 

“ Gesture is in the soul.” “ Man is a 
stream whose source is hidden,” says the 
philosopher, Ralph Waldo Emerson; “always 
our being is descending into us from we 
know not whence.” The human body is 
given, as shown in its very construction, to 
be the instrumentality of expression to the 
soul it incarnates. It has not been limited 
to one way of expression. It has been 
richly gifted in this as in other things. 
One way is gesture. 

Gesture was, undoubtedly, man’s first and 
only language. Gesture includes more than 
the movements of the hands and arms, or 




PHYSICAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 


87 


the body as a whole. It necessarily includes 
all the physical agents, all parts of the body, 
the most subtle of all being the eye and 
mouth. In reference to the mouth, this does 


not mean its action in speech. There is a 
subtle movement of the mouth accompany¬ 
ing both speech and silence that is most 
significant. 


Gultupe of the 




OW, how can we cultivate this 
responsive power of the body 
to enable the body to oe a 
more ready, more transparent 
medium for the mind ? Ob¬ 
viously, the first essential con¬ 
dition is a healthy body, and 
physical culture aids in effecting this as pow¬ 
erfully as in rendering the muscles elastic. 
Exercising any groups of muscles impels, 
physiologically, to the instinctive adjustment 
of all the muscles to effect unity with the 
group exercised. 

For example, exercise the muscles of the 
hand, put the hand in a certain attitude ; the 
whole body, if it be in a normal, pliable con¬ 
dition, will feel constrained, uncomfortable, 
unless it is permitted to adjust itself in an 
attitude agreeing with that of the hand. Ii 
the body be allowed to assume, in all its 
parts, the corresponding attitude, there is a 
comfortable muscular feeling. This instinc¬ 
tive feeling in the muscles is muscular sense, 
and very good common sense it is, too. 

To sum up, in a few words, the trend of 
these statements concerning gesture is only 
to say to the sincere student, let nature work 
in her own divine way. Cultivate the mind 
to comprehend, the body to respond, and 
your gestures will take care of themselves, 
as have always the gestures of every God- 
inspired orator and reader. 

Yet, to have some practical instruction, 
based on the principles already stated, will 
aid the young student. 


Delsarte taught his criteria of gesture of 
the hand with a cube. Holding the hand 
out straight, palm up, so that the cube can 
rest on it, signifies upholding, sustaining. 
Delsarte adds, “ giving,” “receiving;” but 
it will be observed the action of the hand is 
the same for both. The hand passed to the 
side gives the position of separation, which 
Delsarte calls “ definition.” If the hand be 
raised to attract attention, the forefinger will 
be inclined to act, thus separating the person 
desired from others. The hand passed to 
the top of the cube covers it, protects ; thus 
held flat, signifies protection; curved, im¬ 
plies something more tender—a caress. 

Use of the Hand. 

The san. „ gesture is a true one when de¬ 
scribing certain actions, as of animals running 
—they cover so much ground. The term 
“ cover ” is considered by one of our own 
great teachers a more generic term than 
“ protect.” The hand passed to the opposite 
side gives the attitude of rejection, a familiar 
gesture. The hand passed to the outer end, 
palm toward the cube, signifies limitation ; 
passed to the end next the person, back of 
hand to cube, fingers pointing up, signifies 
revelation. The palm may mean repulsion 
or attraction, depending on the sentiment. 

A person of great responsiveness is apt to 
use both hands and also both arms. The 
whole personality is interested. In merely 
mental activity—reasoning—one hand, one 
finger will be employed. 








88 


THE DELSARTE SYSTEM. 


“ The “ perpendicular ” movements of the 
arm are those of appellation, salutation, 
affirmation. The “ lateral ” movements are 
those of declaration, negation, rejection. 
The “ forward” movements are those of re¬ 
pulsion, attraction, supplication. 

The altitude of gesture depends somewhat 
on the position of the object of thought. 
The hand will move in curves—nature’s own 
lines. All gestures are affected by the alti¬ 
tude which indicates the moral plane. 
Greater intellectuality gives higher gestures. 
The more vividly the imagination works, 
rendering the thought brilliant, the higher 
the gestures. Tendencies of character will 
modify the gestures. A great and profound 
teacher sums up the matter thus : “ The 

rounded, the complete individual is one 
whose gestures, like the singer’s voice, play 
up and down the scale. 

It must be remembered that we have 
spoken of the gestures of only one agent, 
the hand. The nobler and subtler gestures 
are of the face and chest. The eye has a 
language of its own ; it is a wonderful agent 
of expression. Look your thought; speak 
it with your eyes. All the features of your 
face were made to talk. Let your face speak 
all emotions—surprise, joy, fear, hope, ex¬ 
pectancy, anguish, in short, every mood of 
the inner being. Feel the emotions ; make 
them your own, and then express them 
naturally. 

Exercises for the Body. 

1 . With body erect and hands at sides, 
move the head to right and left, and forward 
and backward ; cultivates the muscles of the 
neck. 

2 . With hands on the hips, move the 
upper part of the body to right and left, and 
forward and backward ; this cultivates the 
musc^" ^ the chest and back. 


3 . Close the hands, extend the arms in 
front, and bring the hands together behind 
the back; repeat at least twenty times. 

4 . Stand erect, with arms straight at the 
sides; move the arms outward from the 
sides, and elevate them, bringing the hands 
above the head; repeat at least twenty times. 

5 . Hold the right arm out horizontally, 
palm of hand upward ; double the left arm, 
the tips of the fingers resting on the shoulder; 
then stretch out the left arm, at the same 
time doubling the right arm and placing the 
tips of the fingers on the right shoulder; 
repeat, and then make the movements with 
both arms simultaneously. 

Hands and Arms. 

6. Holding the arms straight, swing them 
with a rotary motion, thrusting them forward 
as they are elevated and backward as they 
are lowered, bringing them to the sides, and 
then repeat. 

7 . Lift the hands from the sides to the 
shoulders, then raise the arms at full length 
above the head, and also extend them hori¬ 
zontally, dropping them at the sides ; repeat. 

8. Standing erect, with the hands on the 
hips, lower the body, bending the knees, the 
weight resting on the toes, and rise; repeat 
at least fifteen times, but not too fast. 

9 . Placing the hands on the hips, right leg 
forward and left leg slightly bent ; thrust 
the body forward, thus straightening the left 
leg and bending the right; then placing the 
left leg forward, repeat movements. 

10 . With the body bent forward, closed 
hands between the knees, raise the body and 
elevate the hands above the head, taking 
care to keep the arms straight; repeat. 

11 . Place the hands on the front side of 
the hips, bend the body forward, and then 
rise to an erect position, at the same time 
throwing the head backward ; repeat. 






PHYSICAL CULTURE AND EXPRESSION. 


89 


12. Steady yourself with one hand on a 
chair; place the other hand on the hip and 
swing the leg forward across the other; 
then backward ; repeat, and then swing the 
other leg in like manner. 

13. Steady yourself with one hand on a 
chair, place the other hand on the hip, and 
swing the leg forward and backward ; repeat, 
and then swing the other leg in like manner. 

Free Gymnastics. 

14. Stretch the body forward, placing the 
hands on the bottom of a chair; then 
straighten the arms and raise the body. 
This must not be repeated so many times as 
to render the muscles sore and stiff. 

15. Extend the arms forward at full 
length, palms downward; then move the 
hands backward and forward as far as pos¬ 
sible ; this renders the fingers d muscles 
of the wrist pliant. 

16. Stand erect with hands on the hips 
and light weight on the head ; then rise on 
the toes and fall. 

17. Extend the arms slightly from the 
sides, close the hands and then rotate them; 
this cultivates the muscles of the arms. 

18. With body erect and hands on the 
hips, fill the lungs to their utmost capacity ; 
then slowly emit the breath. Fill the lungs 
again, and emit more rapidly ; again, and 
emit with a quick, explosive force. 

The parts primarily and directly con¬ 
cerned in the production of the human voice 
in speech and song are the articulating 
organs and chambers of resonance, the vocal 
cords, the lungs, and the muscles of respira¬ 
tion. We cannot, however, separate the 
voice from any of the vital parts. 

The prime physical aid to the cultivation 
of the voice is a healthy body. All the 
vocal organs should respond quickly and 
easily to mind and will, to the thought and 


emotion, and the mental effort employed in 
expressing them. 

The reader must always remember that 
his work is distinctly and wholly for others. 
Keep ever in mind that you read your selec¬ 
tion to please, to instruct, to inspire your 
fellow-beings, and not to exhibit yourself 
and your powers ; then there will be no 
danger of self-consciousness. 

Then be thoroughly and entirely alive. 
No perfection of manner can atone for lack 
of life. Again, although there is no human 
device by which to measure it, time is neces¬ 
sary for the transmission of thought. It takes 
time for your voice to reach the physical 
ear of the listener, then time for the thought 
to reach his consciousness and produce its 
effect. Give time for the thought to implant 
itself. In addition to this, there is no more 
suggestive emphasis than a pause. 

You Must Think on Your Feet. 

Take care not to do all your thinking 
beforehand ; cultivate the power to think on 
your feet, at the time you are speaking, 
otherwise your reading will indeed be a reci¬ 
tation—a mere mechanical recapitulation of 
past thinking—and it will lack the fire of the 
soul’s present action, which alone touches 
and inflames the hearts of others. A selec¬ 
tion just committed, on the other hand, with¬ 
out having had time to be well-grounded and 
analyzed, will be given in a mass—all alike. 

Talk with your audience, not at them or 
over their heads. Cultivate a conversational 
style. It has been said of one of the greatest 
of our orators—Wendell Phillips—that his 
oratory was that of “ a gentleman talking.” 

Remember, the greatest thing you bring 
to an audience is your own personality. 
Would you succeed in your art, cultivate all 
that goes to make up the great artist—body, 
heart and soul. 






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How to Remember 

The Loisette Memory System 




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Whatever win aid the 

memory’, render it 
more quick and re¬ 
tentive, enable it to 
lay hold of facts, 
figures and circum¬ 
stances, and store 
them away, only to 
be instantly’ brought forth when 
required, cannot fail to be of 
great value to every individual. 
So much has been said about 
Loisette’s memory system, the 
art has been so widely advertised, 
and so carefully guarded from all 
the profane who do not send five or many 
dollars to the professor, that a few pages 
showing how every man may be his own 
Loisette may be both interesting and valu¬ 
able. 

In the first place, the system is a good 
one, and well worth the labor of mastering, 
and if the directions are implicitly followed 
there can no doubt that the .memory will be 
greatly strengthened and improved, and that 



mnemonic feats otherwise impossible may’ be 
easily performed. 

Loisette, however, is not an inventor, but 
an introducer. He stands in the same rela- 
90 


tion to Dr. Pick that the retail dealer hold.*! 
to the manufacturer: the one produced the 
article; the other brings it to the public. 
Even this statement is not quite fair to Loi¬ 
sette, for he has brought much practical 
common sense to bear upon Pick’s system, 
and, in preparing the new art of mnemonics 
for the market, in many ways he has made 
it his own. New and valuable rules and 
suggestions have been added. 

If each man would reflect upon the 
method by which he himself remembers 
things, he would find his hand upon the key’ 
of the whole mystery’. For instance, the 
author was once trying to remember the 
word blytlie. There occurred to my mind 
the words “bellman,” “belle,” and then the 
verse: 

“-the peasant upward climbing 

Hears the bells of Buloss chiming, ’ ’ 

“Barcarole,” “barrack,” and so on until fin¬ 
ally the word “blythe” presented itself with 
a strange insistence, long after I had ceased 
trying to recall it. 

On another occasion, when trying to recall 
the name “ Richardson,” I got the words “hay¬ 
rick,” “ Robertson,” “ Randallstown,” and 
finally “ wealthy,” from which, naturally, I got 
“ rich ” and “ Richardson ” almost in a breath. 







































































THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM. 


91 


Still anotner example: trying to recall the 
name of an old schoolmate, “Grady,” I got 
“Brady,” “grave,” “gaseous,” “gastro¬ 
nome,” “gracious,” and I finally abandoned 
the attempt, simply saying to myself that it 
began with a “ G,” and there was an “a” 
sound after it. The next morning, when 
thinking of something entirely different, the 
name “Grady” came up in my mind with as 
much distinctness as though some one had 
whispered it in my ear. 

Words of Similar Sounds. 

This remembering was done without any 
conscious effort on my part, and was evi¬ 
dently the result of the exertion made the 
day before when the mnemonic processes 
were put to work. Every reader must have 
had a similar experience which he can recall, 
and which will fall in line with the examples 
given. 

It follows, then, that when we endeavor, 
without the aid of any system, to recall a 
forgotten fact or name, our memory presents 
to us words of similar sound or meaning in 
its journey toward the goal to which we 
have started it. This goes to show that our 
ideas are arranged in groups in whatever 
secret cavity or recess of the brain they 
occupy, and that the arrangement is one not 
alphabetical exactly, and not entirely by mean¬ 
ing, but after some fashion partaking of both. 

If you are looking for the word “ meadow,” 
you may reach “ middle ” before you come to 
it, or “Mexico,” or many words beginning 
with the “m” sound, or containing the “dow,” 
as “window” or “dough,” or you may get 
“ field ” or “ farm ”—but you are on the right 
track, and if you do not interfere with your 
intellectual process you will finally come to 
the idea which you are seeking. 

How often have you heard people say, “ I 
foreet his name ; it is something like Beadle 


or Beagle—at any rate it begins with a B.” 
Each and all of these were unconscious Loi- 
settians, and they were practicing blindly, 
and without proper method or direction, the 
excellent system which he teaches. The 
thing, then, to do—and it is the final and 
simple truth which Loisette teaches—is to 
travel over this ground in the other direc¬ 
tion—to cement the fact you wish to remem¬ 
ber to some other fact or word which you 
know will be brought out by the implied 
conditions—and thus you will always be 
able to travel from your given starting-point 
to the thing which you wish to call to mind. 


How the Mind Works. 

To illustrate : let the broken line in the 
annexed diagram represent a train of thought. 
If we connect the idea “a" with ‘ V” through 
the steps b, c and d , the tendency 
of the mind ever afterwards will 
be to get to e from a that way, or 
from any of the intermediates that 
d way. It seems as though a chan¬ 
nel were cut in our mind-stuff 
along which the memory flows. 
How to make it flow this way will be seen 
later on. Loisette, in common with all 
mnemonic teachers, uses the old device of 
representing numbers by letters—and as this 
is the first and easiest step in the art, this 
seems to be the most logical place to intro¬ 
duce the accepted equivalents of the Arabic 
numerals. 



0 is always represented by 5, z or c soft. 

1 is always represented by t, th or d. 

2 is always represented'by n. 

3 is always represented by m. 

4 is always represented by r. 

5 is always represented by /. 

6 is always represented by sh,j, ch soft or g soft. 

7 is always represented by g hard, k , c hard, q or; 
final ng. 

8 is always represented by f or v. 

9 is always represented by p or / 




92 


HOW TO REMEMBER. 


All the other letters are simply to fill up. 
Double letters in a word count only as one. 
In fact, the system goes by sound, not by 
spelling—for instance, “this” or “dizzy” 
would stand for ten; “catch” or “gush” 
would stand for 76 , and the only difficulty is 
to make some word or phrase which will 
contain only the significant letters in the 
proper order, filled out with non-significants 
in some guise of meaning or intelligibility. 
You can remember the equivalents by noting 
the fact that z is the first letter of “zero,” 
and c of “cipher,” t has but one stroke, n 
has two, in three. The script f is very like 
8 , the script p like 9 ; r is the last letter of 
four , / is the Roman numeral for fifty, which 
suggests five. The others may be retained 
by memorizing these two nonsense lines: 

Six shy Jewesses chase George. 

Seven ^reat £ings came quarreling. 

Suppose you wished to get some phrase 
or word that would express the number 
3 , 685 , you arrange the letters this way: 



You can make out “image of law,” “my 
shuffle,” “ matchville,” etc., etc., as far as 
you like to work it out. 

Now, suppose that you wished to memo¬ 
rize the fact that $1,000,000 in gold weighs 
3,685 pounds, you go about it in this way, • 
and here is the kernel and crux of Loisette’s 
system • 


“How much does $ 1 , 000,000 in gold 
weigh ?” 

“ Weigh—scales.” 

“Scales—statue of Justice.” 

“Statue of Justice —image of law.” 

The process is simplicity itself. The thing 
you wish to recall, and that you fear to for¬ 
get, is the weight; consequently you cement 
your chain of suggestion to the idea which 
is most prominent in your mental question. 
What do you weigh with? Scales. What 
does the mental picture of scales suggest ? 
The statue of Justice, blindfolded and weigh 
ing out award and punishment to man. 
Finally, what is the statue of Justice but the 
image of law? and the words “image of 
law,” translated back from the significant 
lexers g soft,/"and /, give you 3—6—8—5, 
the number of pounds in $1,000,000 in gold. 
The process is plain and simple. 

Firmly Fixed. 

You bind together in your mind each 
separate step in the journey, the one sug¬ 
gests the other, and you will find a year from 
now that the fact will be as fresh in your 
memory as it is to-day. You cannot lose it. 
It is chained to you by an unbreakable 
mnemonic tie. Mark, that it is not claimed 
that “weight” will of itself suggest “scales,” 
and “scales,” “statue of Justice,” etc., but 
that, having once passed your attention up 
and down that ladder of ideas, your mental 
tendency will be to take the same route, and 
get to the same goal again and again. In¬ 
deed, beginning with the weight of $1,000,- 
000 , “image of law” will turn up in your 
mind without your consciousness of any in¬ 
termediate station on the way, after some 
iteration and reiteration of the original chain. 

Again, so as to fasten the process in the 
reader’s mind even more firmly, suppose that 
it were desired to fix the date of the battle 























93 


THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM. 


of Hastings (A. D. 1066 ) in the memory ; 
1066 may be represented by the words “the 
wise judge” {th— 1, J = 0, j = 6, dg = 6; 
the others are non-significants); a chain 
might be made thus : 

Battle of Hastings—arbitrament of war. 

Arbitrament of war—arbitration. 

Arbitration—-j udgment. 

Judgment—the wise judge. 

Make mental pictures, connect ideas, re¬ 
peat words and sounds, go about it any way 
you please, so that you will form a mental 
habit of connecting the “battle of Hastings” 
with the idea of “arbitrament of war,” and so 
on for the other links in the chain, and the 
work is done. 

One Idea Suggests Another. 

Loisette makes the beginning of his sys¬ 
tem unnecessarily difficult, to say nothing 
of his illogical arrangement in the grammar 
of the art of memory, which he makes the 
first of his lessons. He analyzes suggestion 
into— 

1 . Inclusion. 

2 . Exclusion. 

3 . Concurrence. 

All of which looks scientific and orderly, 
but is really misleading, and badly named. 
The truth is that one idea will suggest 
another: 

1 . By likeness or opposition of meaning, 
as “house” suggests “room” or “ door,” 
etc.; or, “white” suggests “black;” “cruel,” 
“kind,” etc. 

2 . By likeness of sound, as “harrow” 
and “barrow;” “Henry” and “Hennepin.” 

3 . By mental juxtaposition, a peculiarity 
different in each person, and depending upon 
each one’s own experience. Thus, “ St. 
Charles ” suggests “ railway bridge ” to me, 
because I was vividly impressed by the 
breaking of the Wabash bridge at that point. 


“ Stable” and “broken leg” come near each 
other in my experience, so do “cow” and 
“ shot-gun ” and “ licking.” 

Out of these three sorts of suggestions, it 
is possible to get from any one fact to any 
other in a chain certain and safe, along which 
the mind may be depended upon afterwards 
always to follow. 

Necessity of Attention. 

The chain is, of course, by no means all. 
Its making and its binding must be accom¬ 
panied by a vivid, methodically directed 
attention, which turns all the mental light 
gettable in a focus upon the subject passing 
across the mind’s screen. Before Loisette 
was thought of this was known. In the old 
times in England, in order to impress upon 
the mind of the rising generation the parish 
boundaries in the rural districts, the boys 
were taken to each of the landmarks in 
succession, the position and bearing of each 
pointed out carefully, and, in order to deepen 
the impression, the young people were then 
and there vigorously thrashed, a mechanical 
method of attracting attention, which was 
said never to have failed. 

This system has had its supporters in 
many of the old-fashioned schools, and there 
are men who will read these lines who can 
recall with an itching sense of vivid expres¬ 
sion the 144 lickings which were said to go 
with the multiplication table. 

In default of a thrashing, however, the 
student must cultivate as best he can an 
intense fixity of perception upon every fact 
or word or date that he wishes to make per¬ 
manently his own. It is easy. It is a 
matter of habit. If you will you can pho¬ 
tograph an idea upon your cerebral gelatine 
so that neither years nor events will blot it 
out or overlay it. 

You must be clearly and distinctly aware 



94 


HOW TO REMEMBER. 


of the thing you are putting into your mental 
treasure-house, and drastically certain of the 
cord by which you have tied it to some other 
thing of which you are sure. Unless it is 
worth your while to do this, you might as 
well abandon any hope of mnemonic improve¬ 
ment, which will not come without the hardest 
kind of hard work, although it is work that 
will grow constantly easier with practice and 
reiteration. 

You need, then : 

1. Methodic suggestion. 

2. Methodic attention. 

3. Methodic reiteration. 

And this is all there is to Loisette, and a 
great deal it is. Two of them will not do 
without the third. You do not know how 
many steps there are from your hall-door to 
your bed-room, although you have attended 
to and often reiterated the journey. But if 
there are twenty of them, and you have once 
bound the word “ nice,” or “ nose,” or 
“ news,” or “ hyenas,” to the fact of the 
stairway, you could never forget it. 

The Mental Discipline. 

The Professor makes a point, and very 
wisely, of the importance of working through 
some established chain, so that the whole 
may be carried away in the mind—not alone 
for the value of the facts so bound together, 
but for the mental discipline so afforded. 

Here, then, is the “ President Series,” 
which contains the name and date of inaugu¬ 
ration of each president from Washington to 
Cleveland. The manner in which it is to be 
mastered is this : Beginning at the top, try 
to find in your mind some connection be¬ 
tween each word and the one following it. 
See how you can, at some future time, make 
one suggest the next, either by suggestion 
of sound or sense, or by mental juxtaposition. 
When you have found this, dwell on it atten¬ 


tively for a moment or two. Pass it back¬ 
ward and forward before you, and then go 
on to the next step. 

The chain runs thus, the names of the 
presidents being in small caps, the date words 
in italics : 

President.Chosen as the first word as the 

one most apt to occur to the 
mind of any one wishing to 
repeat the names of the presi¬ 
dents. 


Dentist. President and dentist. 

Draw.What does a dentist do? 

To give up .When something is drawn from 

one it is given up. This is a 
date phrase meaning 1789. 

Self-sacrifice.There is an association of thought 

between giving up and self-sac¬ 
rifice. 


Washington _Associate the quality of self-sacri¬ 

fice with Washington’s char¬ 
acter. 


Morning wash. JFashington and wash. 

Dew.Early wetness and dew. 

Flower beds.Dew r and flowers. 

Took a bouquet .Flowers and bouquet. Date 

phrase (1797). 

Garden...Bouquet and garden. 

Eden.The first garden. 

Adam.Juxtaposition of thought. 

Adams .Suggestion by sound. 

Fall.Juxtaposition of thought. 

Failure.Fall and failure. 

Deficit .Upon a failure there is usually a 

deficit. Date word (1801). 

Debt.The consequence of a deficit. 

Bonds.Debt and bonds. 

Confederate bonds.Suggestion by meaning. 

Jefferson Davis.Juxtaposition of thought. 

Jefferson. 

Now follow out the rest for yourself, 


taking about ten at a time, and binding 
those you do last to those you have done 
before, each time, before attacking the next 
bunch. 


1 

Jefferson 
Judge Jeffreys 
bloody assize 
bereavement 
too heavy a sob 


2 

tough make 

oaken furniture 
bureau 
Van Buren 
rent 


3 

Theophilus 
fill us 
FlREMORE 
more fuel 
the flame 






















THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM. 


95 


parental griel 

side-splitting 

flambeau 

mad son 

divert 

bow 

Madison 

annoy 

arrow 

Madeira 

harassing 

Pierce 

first-rate wine 

Harrison 

hurt 

frustrating 

Old Harry 

feeling 

defeating 

the tempter 

wound 

feet 

the fraud 

soldier 

toe the line 

painted clay 

cannon 

row 

baked clay 

Buchanan 

Monroe 

tiles 

rebuke 

row 

Tyeer 

official censure 

boat 

Wat Tyler 

to officiate 

steamer 

poll tax 

wedding 

the funnel 

compulsory 

linked 

windpipe 

free will 

Lincoen 

throat 

free offering 

link 

quinzy 

burnt offering 

stroll 

Quincy Adams 

poker 

sea shore 

quince 

Poek 

the heavy shell 

fine fruit 

end of dance 

mollusk 

the fine boy 

termination ‘ly’ 

unfamiliar word 

sailor boy 

adverb 

dictionary 

sailor 

part of speech 

Johnson’s - 

jack tar 

part of a man 

Johnson 

Jackson 

Tayeor 

son 

stone wall 

measurer 

bad son 

indomitable 

theodolite 

dishonest boy 

thievish boy 

hazy 

well fed 

take 

clear 

well read 

give 

vivid 

author 

Grant 

brightly lighted 

Arthur 

award 

camp fire 

round table 

school premium 

w r ar field 

tea table 

examination 

Garfieed 

tea cup 

cramming 

Guiteau 

half full 

fagging 

murderer 

divide 

laborer 

prisoner 

cleave 

hay field 

prison fare 

CeEveeand 

Hayes 

half fed 


It will be 

noted that some of the date 


words, as “ free will,” only give three figures 
of the date, 845; but it is to be supposed 
that if the student knows that many figures 
in the date of Polk’s inauguration he can 
guess the other one. 

The curious thing about this system will 
now become apparent. If the reader has 
learned the series so that he can say it down 
from President to Cleveland, he can with no 
effort, and without any further preparation, 
say it backward from Cleveland up to the 


commencement! There could be no better 
proof that this is the natural mnemonic sys¬ 
tem. It proves itself by its works. 

The series should be repeated backwards 
and forwards every day for a month, and 
should be supplemented by a series of the 
reader’s own making, and by this one, which 
gives the numbers from 0 to 100, and which 
must be chained together before they can be 


learned: 

0—hoes 


1 wheat 

34 mare 

67 jockey 

2 hen 

35 mill 

68 shave 

3 home 

36 image 

69 ship 

4 hair 

37 mug 

70 eggs 

5 oil 

38 muff 

71 gate 

6 shoe 

39 mob 

72 gun 

7 hook 

40 race 

73 comb 

8 off 

41 hart 

74 hawker 

9 bee 

42 horn 

75 coal 

10 daisy 

43 army 

76 cage 

11 tooth 

44 warrior 

77 cake 

12 dine 

45 royal 

78 coffee 

13 time 

46 arch 

79 cube 

14 tower 

47 rock 

80 vase 

15 dell 

48 wharf 

81 feet 

16 ditch 

49 rope 

82 vein 

17 duck 

50 wheels 

83 fame 

18 dove 

51 lad 

84 fire 

19 tabby 

52 lion 

85 vial 

20 hyenas 

53 lamb 

86 fish 

21 hand 

54 lair 

87 fig 

22 nun 

55 lily 

88 fife 

23 name 

56 lodge 

89 fib 

24 owner 

57 lake 

90 pies. 

25 nail 

58 leaf 

91 putty 

26 hinge 

59 elbow 

92 pane ' 

27 ink 

60 chess 

93 bomb 

28 knife 

61 cheat 

94 bier 

29 knob 

62 chain 

95 bell 

30 muse 

63 sham 

96 peach 

31 mayday 

64 chair 

97 book 

32 hymen 

65 jail 

98 beef 

33 mama 

66 judge 

99 pope 


100—diocese 


By the use of this table, which should be 
committed as thoroughly as the President 
series, so that it can be repeated backwards 
and forwards, any date, figure or number 
can be at once constructed, and bound by 






HOW TO REMEMBER. 


m 

the usual chain to the fact which you wish it 
to accompany. 

When the student wishes to go farther 
and attack larger problems than the simple 
binding of two facts together, there is little in 
Loisette’s system that is new, although there 
is much that is good. If it is a book that is 
to be learned as one would prepare for an 
examination, each chapter is to be considered 
separately. 

Make a Synopsis. 

Of each a Precis is to be written in which 

j. 

the writer must exercise all his ingenuity to 
reduce the matter in hand to its final skeleton' 
of fact. This he is to commit to memory, 
both by the use of the chain and the old 
system of interrogation. Suppose after much 
labor through a wide space one boils a 
chapter or an event down to the final irredu¬ 
cible sediment: “ Magna Charta was exacted 
by the barons from King John at Runny¬ 
mede.” 

You must now turn this statement this 
way and that way, asking yourself about 
it every possible and impossible question, 
gravely considering the answers, and, if you 
find any part of it especially difficult to 
remember, chaining it to the question which 
will bring it out. Thus, “ What was exacted 
by the barons from King John at Runny¬ 
mede?” “Magna Charta.” “By whom 
was Magna Charta exacted from King John 
at Runnymede ?” “By the barons.” “From 
whom was,” etc., etc.? “King John.” 
“From what king,” etc., etc.? “King 
John.” “ Where was Magna Charta,” etc., 
etc.? “At Runnymede.” 

And so on and so on, as long as your 
ingenuity can suggest questions to ask, or 
points of view from which to consider the 
statement. Your mind will be finally satu¬ 
rated with the information, and prepared to 


spill it out at the first squeeze of the ex¬ 
aminer. This, however, is not new. It was 
taught in the schools hundreds of years 
before Loisette was born. Old newspaper 
men will recall in connection with it Horace 
Greeley’s statement that the test of a news 
item was the clear and satisfactory manner 
in which a report answered the interroga¬ 
tories, “What?” “When?” “Where?” 
“Who?” “Why?” 

In the same way Loisette advises the 
learning of poetry. For example : 

“The Assyrian came down like a wolf on 
the fold.” 

“Who came down ?” 

“ How did the Assyrian come down ? ” 

“Like what animal did ?” etc. 

And so on and so on, until the verses are 
exhausted of every scrap of information to 
be had out of them by the most assiduous 
cross-examination. 

Remembering Figures. 

Whatever the reader may think of the 
availability or value of this part of the sys¬ 
tem, there are so many easily applicable 
tests of the worth of much that Loisette has 
done, that it may be taken with the rest. 

Few people, to give an easy example, can 
remember the ratio between the circumfer¬ 
ence and the diameter of the circle—beyond 
four places of decimals, or at most six— 
3.141592 + . Here is the value to 108 
decimal places : 

3.14159265-3589793238-4626433832-795 
0288419-71693993754 j58209749-445 
9230781-6406286208*998620348-2534 
211706-7982148086 + 

By a very simple application of the numeri¬ 
cal values these 108 decimal places can be 
carried in the mind and recalled about as fast 






THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM. 


97 


as you can write them down. All that is to 
be done is to memorize these nonsense lines : 

Mother Day will buy any shawl. 

My love pick up my new muff. 

A Russian jeer may move a woman. 

Cables enough for Utopia. 

Get a cheap ham pie by my cooley. 

The slave knows a bigger ape. 

I rarely hop on my sick foot. 

Cheer a sage in a fashion safe. 

A baby fish now views my wharf. 

Annually Mary Ann did kiss a jay. 

A cabby found a rough savage. 

Now translate each significant into its 
proper value and you have the task accom¬ 
plished. “Mother Day,” m — 3, th = 1, 
r = 4, d = 1, and so on. Learn the lines 
one at a time by the method of interroga¬ 
tories. “Who will buy any shawl?” 
** Which Mrs. Day will buy a shawl? ” “Is 
Mother Day particular about the sort of 
shawl she will buy? ” “ Has she bought a 

shawl?” etc., etc. Then cement the end of 
each line to the beginning of the next 
one thus, “ Shawl ” — “ warm garment ”— 
4i warmth ”—“ love ”—“ my love,” and go 
on as before. Stupid as the work may seem 
to you, you can memorize the figures in fif¬ 
teen minutes in this way so that you will not 
forget them in fifteen years. Similarly you 
can take Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates, and 
turn fact after fact into nonsense lines like 
these which you cannot lose. 


And this ought to be enough to show 
anybody the whole art. If you look back 
across the sands of time and find out that it 
is that ridiculous old “ Thirty days hath 
September” which comes to you when you 
are trying to think of the length of October 
—if you can quote your old prosody, 

“O datur ambiguis,” etc., 

with much more certainty than you cai 
serve up your Horace ; if, in fine, jingles 
and alliterations, wise and otherwise, have 
stayed with you, while solid and serviceable 
information has faded away, you may be 
certain that here is the key to the enigma of 
memory. 

You can apply it to yourself in a hundred 
ways. If you wish to clinch in your mind 
the fact that Mr. Love lives at 485 Dear¬ 
born Street, what is more easy than to turn 
485 into the word “rifle” and chain the 
ideas together, say thus : “ Love—happiness 
—good—time picnic—forest—wood rangers 
—range—rifle range— rifle •—fine weapon— 
costly weapon—dearly bought— Dearborn.” 

Or, if you wish to remember Mr. Bow¬ 
man’s name, and you notice he has a mole 
on his face which is apt to attract your 
attention when you next see him, cement the 
ideas thus: “ Mole, mark, target, archer, 
Bowman.” 


7 










lowing list the Synonyms are first given; 
then follow, in parenthesis, the Antonyms, 
or words of opposite meaning. 

All persons who would acquire an elegant 
style in literary composition, correspondence 
or ordinary conversation, will find this com¬ 
prehensive Dictionary of Synonyms and 
Antonyms of great value. Jewels of thought 
should be set in appropriate language. 


k OR the purpose of avoiding too 
much repetition in writing and 
speaking it is necessary to have 
a Dictionary of words of simi¬ 
lar meaning. A Synonym is 
one of two or more words of 
similar significance which may 
often be used interchangeably. An Antonym 
is a word of opposite meaning. In the fol- 



In this Table the lette*' a means adjective ; 

ABANDON—forsake., desert, renounce, relinquish. 
(Keep, cherish.) 

ABANDONED — deserted, forsaken, profligate, 
wicked, reprobate, dissolute, flagitious, corrupt, 
depraved, vicious. (Respected, esteemed, cher¬ 
ished, virtuous.) 

ABASEMENT—degradation, fall, degeneracy, hu¬ 
miliation, abjectness, debasement, servility. (Ele¬ 
vation, promotion, honor.) 

ABASH—disconcert, discompose, confound, confuse, 
shame, bewilder. (Embolden.) 

ABBREVIATE—shorten, curtail, contract, abridge, 
condense, reduce, compress. (Lengthen, extend, 
enlarge, expand.) 

ABDICATE—renounce, resign, relinquish. (Usurp.) 

ABET—incite, stimulate, whet, encourage, back up, 
second, countenance, assist. (Dampen, discour¬ 
age, dispirit, depress, repress, oppose.) 

ABETTOR—instigator, prompter, assistant, coad¬ 
jutor, accomplice, accessory, particeps criminis. 
(Extinguisher.) 

ABHOR—loathe, abominate, (Love, admire.) 

ABILITY—power, skill, gumption, efficiency, mas¬ 
tery, qualification, faculty, expertness. (Incom¬ 
petence, inefficiency, inability.) 

ABJECT—despised, despicable, vile, grovelling, 
mean, base, worthless, servile. (Supreme, august, 
commanding, noble.) 

A BJURE—forswear, disclaim, unsay, recant, revoke, 
deny, disown. (Attest, affirm.) 

98 


'J means verb ; n means noun or substantive. 

ABLE—competent, qualified, skilled, efficient, capa¬ 
ble, clever, adroit, adept, strong, telling, masterly. 
(Incompetent, weak, unskilful, unqualified.) 

ABODE—dwelling, residence, domicile, home, quar¬ 
ters, habitation, lodging, settlement. (Transition, 
shifting, wandering, pilgrimage, peregrination.) 

ABOLISH—efface, extinguish, annihilate, nullify, 
destroy, undo, quash, annul, cancel, abrogate, 
quench, suppress, vitiate, revoke. (Introduce, 
establish, enforce, restore.) 

ABOMINABLE—detestable, hateful, odious, exe¬ 
crable. (Choice, excellent, attractive, select.) 

ABORTIVE—ineffectual, futile, inoperative, defec¬ 
tive, inadequate. (Efficient, productive, complete.) 

ABOUT—around, near to, nearly, approximately, 
contiguous. (Remote from, distant.) 

ABSCOND —take oneself off, “ vamoose,” disappear, 
decamp, run away. (Thrust oneself into notice.) 

ABSENT—not present, wanting, absentminded, 
abstracted, inattentive, listless, dreamy, visionary. 
(Present, collected, composed, vigilant* observant.) 

ABSOLUTE—certain, unconditioned, unconditional, 
unlimited, unrestricted, transcendent, authorita¬ 
tive, paramount, imperative, arbitrary, despotic. 
(Conditional, limited, hampered, fettered.) 

ABSORB—suck up, imbibe, engross, drain away, 
consume. (Reserve, save, spare, husband, econ¬ 
omize, hoard up.) 

ABSURD—unreasonable, nonsensical, foolish, vain, 
impracticable. (Reasonable, prudent, veracious.) 
























SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


99 


ABUSE, v. —pervert, deprave, traduce, debase, dis¬ 
parage, slander, calumniate, rail at, reproach, 
depreciate. (Improve, develop, cultivate, promote, 
bless, magnify, appreciate.) 

ABUSE, n. —perversion, ill-usage, depravation, de¬ 
basement, slander, reproach. (Cultivation, use, 
promotion, development, appreciation, praise.) 

ACCEDE—-join, assent, acquiesce in, comply, agree, 
concur, coincide, approve. (Dissent, object, 
decline, refuse.) 

ACCELERATE—hasten, hurry, speed, expedite, 
quicken, precipitate, facilitate. (Retard, delay, 
procrastinate, arrest, stop, impede, suspend.) 

ACCEPT—take, receive, assume, acknowledge, en¬ 
dorse. (Refuse, repudiate, protest, disown.) 

ACCEPTABLE—pleasant, grateful, welcome. (Re¬ 
pugnant, displeasing.) 

ACCIDENT—casualty, contingency, hap, mishap, 
chance, mischance, misadventure. (Law, order.) 

ACCOMMODATE—adjust, adapt, fit, conform, rec¬ 
oncile, suit, oblige, furnish, convenience. (Cross, 
thwart, counteract, plot against, checkmate, de¬ 
feat, inconvenience.) 

ACCOMPLICE—confederate, ally, associate, acces¬ 
sory, particeps criminis. (Adversary, rival, spy, 
opponent, enemy.) 

ACCOMPLISH—complete, perform, finish, fulfil, 
execute, perfect, consummate, achieve, effect, carry 
out. (Fail, miscarry, undo, wreck, frustrate.) 

ACCOMPLISHMENT—success, fulfilment, comple¬ 
tion, performance, execution, achievement, con¬ 
summation, attainment. (Failure, miscarriage, 
wreck, ruin.) 

ACCORD—harmonize, agree, allow, grant, concede. 
(Jar, clash with, deny, disallow.) 

ACCOST—address, confront, speak to, greet, salute. 
(Evade, fight shy of.) 

ACCOUNT, v. —compute, estimate, reckon up, take 
stock of. (Leave unexplained, unsolved.) 

ACCOUNT, n. —reckoning, relation, charge, bill. 
(Riddle, mystery, puzzle, unknown quantity.) 

ACCOUNTABLE—answerable, responsible, amen¬ 
able. (Exempt, free, irresponsible.) 

ACCUMULATE—heap up, save, collect. (Scatter, 
dissipate, diffuse, spend, squander.) 

ACCUMULATION—heap, amount, glut, (Dissi¬ 
pation, dissemination, distribution, diminution.) 

ACCURATE—definite, precise, correct, exact. (In¬ 
accurate, wrong, erroneous, blundering, careless.) 

ACHIEVE—complete, gain, win. 

ACHIEVEMENT—feat, exploit, distinguished per¬ 
formance, acquirement. (Abortion, frustration, 
failure, shortcoming, defect.) 

ACKNOWLEDGE—avow, confess, own, recognize, 
admit, grant, concede. (Repudiate, disclaim, 
disallow, disown, deny. 

ACQUAINT—make known, apprise, inform, com¬ 
municate, intimate, notify. (Leave ignorant, keep 
secret, conceal.) 

ACQUAINTANCE—knowledge, familiarity, fellow¬ 
ship, companionship. (Ignorance, stranger.) 

ACQUIESCE—yield, concur, agree, assent. (Protest, 
object, dissent, secede, oppose.) 


ACQUIT—set free, release, discharge, clear, absolve, 
exculpate, exonerate, liberate, deliver. (Accuse, 
impeach, charge, blame, convict.) 

ACT, v. —do, perform, commit, operate, work, prac¬ 
tice, behave, personate, play, enact. (Neglect, 
cease, desist, rest, wait, lie idle, refrain.) 

ACTION—working, agency, operation, business, 
gesture, engagement, fight, deed, battle, feat. 
(Inaction, repose, rest, idleness, ease, indolence, 
inertia, passiveness, quiescence, dormancy.) 

ACTIVE—energetic, busy, stirring, alive, brisk,, 
operative, lively, agile, nimble, diligent, sprightly, 
alert, quick, supple, prompt, industrious. (Passive,, 
inert, dead, extinct, dull, torpid, sluggish, indo¬ 
lent, lazy, dormant, quiescent, asleep.) 

ACTUAL—real, positive, existing, certain. (False, 
imaginary, theoretical, illusive, fictitious.) 

ACUTE—sharp, pointed, penetrating, piercing, 
keen, * poignant, pungent, intense, violent, shrill, 
sensitive, sharp-witted, shrewd, discriminating, 
clever, cunning. (Obtuse, blunt, bluff, dull, flat, 
callous, stupid, apathetic.) 

ADAPT—fit, suit, adjust, conform, regulate. (Misfit, 
discommode, dislocate.) 

ADDICTED—committed to, devoted, prone, given 
up to, inclined, habituated. (Uncommitted, free, 
uncompromised, neutral.) 

ADDITION—annexation, accession, supplement, 
adjunct, affix, appendage, accessory, increment, 
increase, complement, plus , more. (Subtraction, 
deduction, retrenchment, curtailment, deprivation, 
minus , less, loss, impoverishment.) 

ADDRESS—speech, salutation, accost, appeal ; also 
skill, dexterity, adroitness ; also direction, name ; 
also residence. (Response, answer, reply, rejoin¬ 
der; also awkwardness, maladroitness, clumsiness, 
slovenliness .) 

ADHESION—sticking, adherence, adoption, attach¬ 
ment, espousal. (Repulsion, revulsion, antipathy, 
aversion, hostility, incompatibility, dislike.) 

ADJACENT—next, near, nigh, at hand, alongside, 
close by, adjoining, contiguous, bordering, neigh¬ 
boring, proximate. (Remote, foreign, distant, 
aloof, far, apart, asunder.) 

ADJOURN—put off, postpone, defer, delay, keep in 
abeyance, prorogue, suspend, procrastinate, retard, 
waive, remand, reserve. (Conclude, clinch, ac¬ 
celerate, precipitate.) 

ADJUNCT—appendage, affix, annex, annexation, 
appendix, adhesion, appurtenance. (Curtailment, 
retrenchment, lop, mutilation, reduction, clipping, 
docking, filching.) 

ADJUST—make exact, set right, fit, adapt, dovetail, 
arrange, harmonize, settle, regulate. (Confound, 
confuse muddle, disorder, perplex, embarrass, 
entangle, clash, jar, jumble, disarrange, unsettle.) 

ADMIRABLE—wonderful, excellent, choice, noble, 
grand, estimable, lovely, ideal, surpassing, extra¬ 
ordinary, eminent. (Detestable, vile, mean, con¬ 
temptible, despicable, worthless, wretched, villain¬ 
ous, pitiful.) 

ADMIT—allow, permit, suffer, receive, usher, grant, 
acknowledge, confess, concede, accept. (Deny, 
refuse, shut out, forbid, disown, disclaim.) 





100 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


ADVANTAGEOUS—profitable, serviceable, useful, 
beneficial, helpful, of value. (Disadvantageous, 
detrimental, prejudicial, injurious, hurtful, harm¬ 
ful, deleterious, obnoxious, pernicious.) 

AFFECTION—bent, inclination, partiality, attrac¬ 
tion, impulse, love, desire, passion, fascination ; 
also suffering, disease, morbidness. (Repulsion, 
revulsion, antipathy, dislike, recoil, aversion, 
estrangement, indifference, coldness, alienation ; 
also wholeness, soundness, healthiness.) 

. AFFECTIONATE—loving, kind, fond, doting, ten¬ 
der, amiable, cordial, hearty, good-hearted. (Cold, 
unloving, unkind, heartless, selfish, crabbed, sour, 
malign, malicious, malevolent, misanthropic, cyn¬ 
ical, ill-natured, cruel, hating.) 

AGREEABLE—pleasant, acceptable, grateful, re¬ 
freshing, genial, pleasing, palatable, sweet, charm¬ 
ing, delectable. (Disagreeable, displeasing, un¬ 
pleasant, ungrateful, harsh, repellent, painful, 
noxious, plaguy, irritating, annoying, mortifying.) 

ALTERNATING—reciprocal, correlative, inter¬ 
changeable, by turns, vice versa. (Monotonous, 
unchanging, continual.) 

AMBASSADOR—messenger, envoy, emissary, le¬ 
gate, nuncio, diplomatist, diplomate, representa¬ 
tive, vicegerent, plenipotentiary, minister, agent. 
(Principal, government, sovereign, power.) 

AMEND—improve, correct, better, meliorate, rec¬ 
tify, prune, repair, revise, remedy, reform. (Injure, 
impair, damage, harm, hurt, mar, mangle, blemish, 
deteriorate, ruin, spoil.) 

.ANGER—resentment, animosity, wrath, indignation, 
pique, umbrage, huff, displeasure, dungeon, irrita¬ 
tion, irascibility, choler, ire, hate. (Kindness, 
benignity, bonhomie , good nature.) 

APPROPRIATE—assimilate, assume, possess one¬ 
self of, take, grab, clutch, collar, snap up, capture, 
steal. (Relinquish, give up, surrender, yield, re¬ 
sign, forego, renounce, abandon, discard, dismiss.) 

ARGUE—reason, discuss, debate, dispute, contend. 
(Obscure, darken, mystify, mislead, misrepresent, 
evade, sophisticate.) 

ARISE—rise, ascend, mount, climb, soar, spring, 
emanate, proceed, issue. (Descend, fall, gravitate, 
drop, slide, settle, decline, sink, dismount, alight.) 

ARTFUL—cunning, crafty, skilful, wily, designing, 
politic, astute, knowing, tricky. (Artless, naive, 
natural, simple, plain, ingenuous, frank, sincere, 
open, candid, guileless, straightforward, direct.) 

ARTIFICE—contrivance, stratagem, trick, design, 
plot, machination, chicanery, knavery, jugglery, 
guile, jobbery. (Artlessness, candor, openness, 
simplicity, innocence, ingenuousness.) 

ASSOCIATION—partnership, fellowship, solidarity, 
league, alliance, combination, coalition, federa¬ 
tion, junto, cabal. (Opposition, antagonism, con¬ 
flict, counteraction, resistance, hinderance, count¬ 
erplot, detachment, individualism.) 

ATTACK—assault, charge, onset, onslaught, incur¬ 
sion, inroad, bombardment, cannonade. (Defence, 
protection, guard, ward, resistance, stand, repulse, 
rebuff, retreat.) 

AUDACITY—boldness, defiance, prowess, intre¬ 
pidity, mettle, game, pluck, fortitude, rashness, 
temerity, presumption, foolhardiness, courage, 


hardihood. (Cowardice, pusillanimity, timidity, 
meekness, poltroonery, fear, caution, calculation, 
discretion, prudence.) 

AUSTERE—severe, harsh, rigid, stern, rigorous, 
uncompromising, inflexible, obdurate, exacting, 
straight-laced, unrelenting. (Lax, loose, slack, 
remiss, weak, pliant, lenient, mild, indulgent, 
easy-going, forbearing, forgiving.) 

AVARICIOUS—tight-fisted, griping, churlish, par¬ 
simonious, stingy, penurious, miserly, niggardly, 
close, illiberal, ungenerous, covetous, greedy, 
rapacious. (Prodigal, thriftless, improvident, ex¬ 
travagant, lavish, dissipated, freehanded.) 

AVERSION—antipathy, revulsion, repulsion, dis¬ 
like, recoil, estrangement, alienation, repugnance, 
disgust, nausea. (Predilection, fancy, fascination, 
allurement, attraction, magnet.) 

AWE—dread, fear, reverence, prostration, admira¬ 
tion, bewilderment. (Familiarty, indifference, 
heedlessness, unconcern, contempt, mockery.) 

AXIOM—maxim, aphorism, apophthegm, adage, 
motto, dictum , theorem, truism, proverb, saw. 
(Absurdity, paradox.) 

BABBLE—splash, gurgle, bubble, purl, ripple, prat¬ 
tle, clack, gabble, clash, jabber, twaddle, prate, 
chapter, blab. (Silence, hush.) 

BAD—depraved, defiled, distorted, corrupt, evil, 
wicked, wrong, sinful, morbid, foul, peccant, nox¬ 
ious, pernicious, diseased, imperfect, tainted, 
touched. (Good, whole, sound, healthy, benefi¬ 
cial, salutary, prime, perfect, entire, untouched, 
unblemished, intact, choice, worthy.) 

BAFFLE—thwart, checkmate, defeat, disconcert, 
confound, block, outwit, traverse, contravene, 
frustrate, balk, foil. (Aid, assist, succor, further, 
forward, expedite, sustain, second, reinforce.) 

BASE—crude, undeveloped, low, villainous, mean, 
deteriorated, misbegotten, ill-contrived, ill-consti¬ 
tuted. (Noble, exalted, lofty, sublime, excellent, 
elect, choice, aristocratic, exquisite, capital.) 

BEAR—carry, hold, sustain, support, suffer, endure, 
beget, generate, produce, breed, hatch. (Lean, 
depend, hang, yield, sterile, unproductive.) 

BEASTLY—bestial, animal, brutal, sensual, gross, 
carnal, lewd. (Human, humane, virtuous, moral, 
ethical, intellectual, thoughtful, spiritual.) 

BEAT—strike, smite, thrash, thwack, thump, pum¬ 
mel, drub, leather, baste, belabor, birch, scourge, 
defeat, surpass, rout, overthrow. (Protect, de¬ 
fend, soothe.) 

BEAUTIFUL—-fair, complete, symmetrical, hand¬ 
some. (Ugly, repulsive, foul.) 

BECOMING—suiting, accordant, fit, seemly. (Dis¬ 
crepant, improper, in bad form.) 

BEG—beseech, crave, entreat. (Offer, proffer.) 

BEHAVIOR—carriage, deportment, conduct. 

BENEFICENT—bountiful, generous, liberal. (Sor¬ 
did, mercenary.) 

BENEFIT—good, advantage, service. (Loss, detri¬ 
ment, injury.) 

BENEVOLENCE—well-wishing, charity. (Male¬ 
volence, malice, hate.) 

BLAME—censure, reproach. (Approve, honor.', 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


101 


BLEMISH—flaw, stain, spot, imperfection, defect. 
(Ornament, decoration, embellishment, adorn¬ 
ment, finery, gilding.) 

BLIND—dimsighted, ignorant, uninformed. (Sharp- 
sighted, enlightened.) 

BLOT—efface, cancel, expunge, erase. (Record.) 

BOLD—brave, daring, fearless, intrepid, courageous. 
(Cowardly, timid, shy, chicken-hearted.) 

BORDER—margin, boundary, frontier, confine, 
fringe,_ hem, selvedge, valance. (Inclosure, in¬ 
terior, inside.) 

BOUND—circumscribe, limit, restrict, confine, en¬ 
close ; also leap, jump, hop, spring, vault, skip. 
(Enlarge, clear, deliver; also plunge, dip, sink.) 

BRAVE—dare, defy. (Cave in, show the white 
feather.) 

BREAK—bruise, crush, pound, squeeze, crack, snap, 
splinter. (Bind, hold together, knit, rivet.) 

BREEZE—blow, zephyr. (Stillness, hush, calm.) 

BRIGHT—shining, lustrous, radiant. (Dull, dim.) 

BRITTLE—frangible, fragile, frail. (Tough.) 

BURIAL—interment, sepulture, obsequies. (Exhu¬ 
mation, disinterment.) 

BUSINESS—occupation, employment, pursuit, voca¬ 
tion, calling, profession, craft, trade. (Leisure, 
vacation, play.) 

BUSTLE—stir, fuss, ado, flurry. (Quiet, stillness.) 

CALAMITY — misfortune, disaster, catastrophe. 
(Good luck, prosperity.) 

CALM—still, motionless, placid, serene, composed. 
(Stormy, unsettled, restless, agitated, distracted.) 

CAPABLE—competent,able,efficient. (Unqualified.) 

CAPTIOUS—censorious, cantankerous. (Concilia¬ 

tory, bland.) 

CARE—solicitude, concern. (Negligence, careless¬ 
ness, nonchalance.) 

CARESS—fondle, love, pet. (Spurn, disdain.) 

CARNAGE—butchery, gore, massacre, slaughter. 

CAUSE—origin, source, ground, reason, motive 

CENSURE—reprehend, chide. (Approve.) 

CERTAIN—sure, infallible. (Doubtful, dubious.) 

CESSATION—discontinuance, stoppage, rest, halt. 
(Perseverance, persistence, continuance.) 

CHANCE—accident, luck. (Intention, purpose.) 

’CHANGE—exchange, bourse , mart, emporium. 

CHANGEABLE—mutable, variable, fickle. (Stead¬ 
fast, firm.) 

CHARACTER—constitution, nature, disposition. 

CHARM—fascination, enchantment, witchery, at¬ 
traction. (Nuisance, mortification, bore, plague.) 

CHASTITY—purity, virtue. (Concupiscence.) 

CHEAP—inexpensive, worthless. (Dear, costly.) 

CHEERFUL—blithe, lightsome, brisk, sprightly. 
(Melancholy, sombre, morose, gloomy, sad.) 

CHIEF—sachem, head, ruler. (Vassal, henchman.) 

CIRCUMSTANCE—situation, predicament. 

CLASS—division, category, department, order, kind, 
sort, genus, species, variety. 


CLEVER—adroit, dexterous, expert, deft, ready, 
smart. (Awkward, dull, shiftless, clumsy.) 

CLOTHED—dressed, arrayed, apparelled. (Dis¬ 
robed, stripped.) 

COARSE—crude, unrefined. (Refined, cultivated.) 

COAX—cajole, wheedle, fawn, lure, induce, entice. 
(Dissuade, indispose, warn, admonish.) 

COLD—frigid, chill, inclement. (Hot, glowing.) 

COLOR—hue, tint, tinge, tincture, dye, shade, stain. 
(Pallor, paleness, wanness, blankness, achroma¬ 
tism, discoloration.) 

COMBINATION—coalescence, fusion, faction, coali¬ 
tion, league. (Dissolution, rupture, schism.) 

COMMAND—empire, rule. (Anarchy, license.) 

COMMODITY—goods, effects, merchandise, stock. 

COMMON—general, ordinary, mean, base. (Rare, 
exceptional, unique. 

COMPASSION—pity, commiseration, sympathy. 
(Cruelty, severity.) 

COMPEL—force, coerce, oblige, necessitate, make, 
constrain. (Let alone, tolerate.) 

COMPENSATION—amends, atonement, requital. 
(Withholding.) 

COMPENDIUM—abstract, epitome, digest. (Am¬ 
plification, expansion.) 

COMPLAIN—lament, murmur, regret, repine, de¬ 
plore. (Rejoice, exult, boast, brag, chuckle.) 

COMPLY—consent, yield, acquiesce. (Refuse, 
deny, decline.) 

COMPOUND, a. —composite, complex, blended. 
(Simple, elementary.) 

COMPREHEND—comprise, contain, embrace, in¬ 
clude, enclose, grasp. (Exclude, reject, mistake, 
eliminate, loss.) 

CONCEAL—hide, secrete, cover, screen, shroud, 
veil, disguise. (Publish, report, divulge ) 

CONCEIVE—grasp, apprehend, devise, invent. 
(Ignorant of.) 

CONCLUSION—result, finding. (Undetermined.) 

CONDEMN—convict, find guilty, sentence, doom. 
(Acquit.) 

CONDUCT, v. —direct, manage, govern. (Follow, 
obey, submit.) 

CONFIRM—corroborate, ratify, endorse, support, 
uphold. (Weaken, enfeeble, reduce.) 

CONFLICT—contend, contest, wrestle, tussle, clash, 
wrangle. (Harmonize, agree, fraternize, concur.) 

CONFUTE—refute, disprove. (Demonstrate.) 

CONQUER—defeat, vanquish, overcome. (Fail, be 
beaten, lose.) 

CONSEQUENCE—effect, derivation, result, event, 
issue. (Cause, origin, source, antecedent.) 

CONSIDER—reflect, deliberate. (Forget, ignore.) 

CONSISTENT—accordant, concordant, compatible, 
consonant, congruous, reconcilable, harmonious. 
(Discordant, discrepant.) 

CONSOLE—relieve, soothe, comfort. (Embitter.) 

CONSTANCY—continuance, tenacity, stability. 

(Irresolution, fickleness.) 

CONTAMINATE—Pollute, stain, taint, tarnish, 
blur, smudge, defile. (Cleanse, purify, purge.) 





102 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


CONTEMN—despise, disdain, scorn. (Esteem, ap- 
precite, admire.) 

CONTEMPLATE—survey, scan, observe, intend. 
(Disregard.) 

CONTEMPTIBLE—despicable, paltry, shabby, beg¬ 
garly, worthless, vile, cheap, trashy. (Estimable.) 

CONTEND—fight, wrangle, vie. (Be at peace.) 

CONTINUAL—perpetual, endless, ceaseless. (Mo¬ 
mentary, transient.) 

CONTINUE—remain, persist, endure. (Desist,stay.) 

CONTRADICT—deny, gainsay, oppose. (Affirm, 
assert, declare.) 

CORRECT—mend, rectify. (Impair, muddle.) 

COST—expense, charge, price, value. 

COVETOUSNESS—avarice, cupidity, extortion. 
(Generosity, liberality.) 

COWARDICE — poltroonery, faint - heartedness. 
(Courage, boldness, intrepidity.) 

CRIME—offence, trespass, misdemeanor, felony, 
transgression. (Innocence, guiltlessness.) 

CRIMINAL—culprit, felon, convict. (Paragon.) 

CROOKED—twisted, distorted, bent, awry, wry, 
askew, deformed. (Straight, upright.) 

CRUEL—brutal, ferocious, barbarous, blood-thirsty, 
fiendish. (Kind, benignant, benevolent.) 

CULTIVATION—tillage, culture. (Waste.) 

CURSORY—fugitive, hurried, perfunctory. (Per¬ 
manent, thorough.) 

CUSTOM—habit, wont, usage, fashion, practice. 

DANGER—peril, hazard, jeopardy. (.Safety ) 

DARK—obscure, sombrous, opaque, unintelligible. 
(Light, luminous, shining, clear, lucid.) 

DEADLY—mortal, fatal, destructive, lethal. 

DEAR—costly, precious, high-priced, beloved, dar¬ 
ling, pet, favorite. (Cheap, disliked, despised.) 

DEATH—decease, demise, dissolution. (Birth, life.) 

DECAY, n. —decline, consumption, atrophy. (De¬ 
velopment, growth.) 

DECEIVE—cheat, defraud, cozen, overreach, gull, 
dupe, swindle, victimize. (Truthfulness.) 

DECEIT, n .—imposition, fraud, deception. (Vera¬ 
city, honesty.) 

DECIDE—determine, resolve, conclude, settle, ad¬ 
judicate, arbitrate, terminate. (Hesitate, dilly¬ 
dally, shuffle.) 

DECIPHER—interpret, explain, construe, unravel. 
(Mistake, confound.) 

DECISION—determination, conclusion, firmness. 
(Wavering, hesitancy.) 

DECLAMATION—harangue, oration, recitation, 
tirade, speech. 

DECLARATION—affirmation, assertion. (Denial.) 

DECREASE—diminish, lessen, reduce, wane, de¬ 
cline. (Increase, grow, enlarge.) 

DEDICATE—consecrate, devote, offer, apportion. 

DEED—act, transaction, exploit, document. 

DEEM—judge, estimate, consider, esteem, suppose. 

DEEP—profound, abtruse, hidden, extraordinarily 
wise. (Shallow, superficial.) 


DEFACE—mar, spoil, injure, disfigure. (Beautify.) 

DEFAULT—shortcoming, deficiency, defect, im¬ 
perfection. (Sufficiency, satisfaction.) 

DEFENCE—fortification, bulwark, vindication, jus¬ 
tification, apology. 

DEFEND—shield, vindicate. (Assault, accuse.) 

DEFICIENT—incomplete, lacking. (Entire, per¬ 
fect, whole.) 

DEFILE—soil, smutch, besmear, begrime. 

DEFINE—limit, bound. (Enlarge, expand.) 

DEFRAY—pay, settle, liquidate, satisfy, clear. 

DEGREE—grade, extent, measure, ratio, standard. 

DELIBERATE, a. —circumspect, wary, cautious. 
(Heedless, thoughtless.) 

DELICACY—nicety, dainty, tit-bit, taste, refine¬ 
ment, modesty. (Grossness, coarseness, vulgarity, 
indecorum.) 

DELICATE—dainty, refined. (Coarse, beastly.) 

DELICIOUS—savory, palatable, luscious, charm¬ 
ing, delightful. (Offensive, nasty, odious, shock¬ 
ing, nauseous.) 

DELIGHT—gratification, felicity. (Mortification, 
vexation.) 

DELIVER—transfer, consign, utter, liberate, de¬ 
clare. (Keep, retain, restrain, check, bridle.) 

DEMONSTRATE—prove,show, manifest. (Mystify, 
obscure.) 

DEPART—quit, vacate, retire, withdraw, remove. 

DEPRIVE—strip, bereave, despoil. (Invest, equip.) 

DEPUTE—commission, delegate, accredit, entrust. 

DERISION—ridicule, scoffing, mockery, raillery, 
chaff, badinage. (Awe, dread, reverence.) 

DERIVATION—origin, source, spring, emanation, 
etymology. 

DESCRIBE—delineate, portray, style, specify, 
characterize. 

DESECRATE—profane, blaspheme, revile. (Con¬ 
secrate, sanctify.) 

DESERVE—merit, be entitled to, earn, justify. 

DESIGN, n. —delineation, illustration, sketch, plan, 
drawing, portraiture, draught, projection, scheme’ 
proposal, outline. 

DESIRABLE—eligible, suitable, acceptable. (Unfit, 
objectionable.) 

DESIRE, n. —wish, longing, hankering, appetite. 

DESOLATE, a. —lonely, solitary, bereaved, forlorn, 
forsaken, deserted, bleak, dreary. (Befriended’ 
social, festive.) 

DESPERATE—frenzied, frantic, furious. (Calm 
composed, moderate.) 

DESTINY—fatality, doom, predestination, decree, 
fate. (Casualty, accident, contingency, chance.) 

DESTRUCTIVE—mischievous, disastrous, deleteri- 
(Creative, beneficial.) 

DESUETUDE—disuse, discontinuance. (Use, habit 
practice.) 

DESULTORY—immethodical, disconnected, ramb¬ 
ling, discontinuous, interrupted, fitful,’ inter¬ 
mittent. (Continuous, consecutive, constant. ) 

DETAIL, n.— particular, item, count, specialtv 
individuality. * 





SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


103 


DETAIL, v. —particularize, enumerate, specify. 
(Generalize.) 

DETER—discourage, dissuade. (Encourage, incite.) 

DETRIMENT—damage, loss. (Benefit, improve¬ 
ment, betterment.) 

DEVELOP- unfold, expand, increase. (Extirpate.) 

DEVOID—wanting, destitute, bereft, denuded, bare, 
emptied, void. (Provided, supplied, furnished.) 

DEVOTED—destined, consecrated, sworn to. 

DICTATE—enjoin, order, prescribe, mark out. 

DICTATORIAL—authoritative, imperative, over¬ 
bearing, imperious, arbitrary, domineering. 

DIE—expire, perish, depart this life, cease. 

DIET—food, victuals, nourishment, aliment, board, 
sustenance, fare, viands, meal, repast, menu. 

DIFFER—vary, diverge, disagree, bicker, nag, 
split. (Accord, harmonize.) 

DIFFERENT—various, diverse, unlike. (Identical.) 

DIFFICULT—hard, tough, laborious, arduous, for¬ 
midable. (Easy, facile, manageable, pliant.) 

DIFFUSE—discursive, digressive, diluted. (Con¬ 
densed, concise, terse.) 

DIGNIFY—elevate, exalt, ennoble, honor, advance, 
promote. (Degrade, disgrace, demean, vulgarize.) 

DILATE—widen, extend, enlarge, expand, descant, 
expatiate. (Contract, narrow, compress, reduce.) 

DILATORY—slow, tardy, slow-paced, procrastina¬ 
ting, lagging, dawdling. (Prompt, peremptory, 
quick, instant.) 

DILIGENCE—zeal, ardor, assiduity. (Indolence.) 

DIMINISH—lessen, reduce, curtail, retrench, bate, 
abate, shorten, contract. (Increase, augment, 
aggrandize, enlarge.) 

DISABILITY—incapacity, unfitness. (Power.) 

DISCERN—descry, perceive, distinguish, espy, scan, 
recognize, understand, discriminate. (Ignore.) 

DISCIPLINE—order, training, drill, schooling.) 
(Laxity, disorder, confusion, anarchy.) 

DISCOVER—detect, find, unveil, reveal, open, ex¬ 
pose, publish, disclose. (Cover, conceal, hide.) 

DISCREDITABLE — disreputable, reprehensible, 
blameworthy, shameful, scandalous, flagrant. 
(Exemplary, laudable, commendable.) 

DISCREET—prudent, politic, cautious, wary, 
guarded, judicious. (Reckless, heedless, rash, 
unadvised, foolhardy, precipitate.) 

DISCREPANCY—disagreement, discordance, incon¬ 
gruity, disparity, unfitness, clash, jar. (Concord, 
unison, harmony, congruity.) 

DISCRIMINATION — distinction, differentiation, 
discernment, appreciation, acuteness, judgment, 
tact, nicety. (Confusion.) 

DISEASE—illness, sickness, ailment, indisposition, 
complaint, malady, disorder. (Health, sanity, 
soundness, robustness.) 

DISGRACE, n. —stigma, reproach, brand, dishonor, 
shame, scandal, odium, infamy. (Honor.) 

DISGUST—distate, loathing, nausea, aversion, re¬ 
vulsion, abhorrence. (Predilection, partiality, in¬ 
clination, bias.) 


DISHONEST—fraudulent, unfair, tricky, unjust. 
(Straightforward, open, sincere, honest, fair, right, 
just impartial.) 

DISMAY, v. —alarm, startle, scare, frighten, affright, 
terrify, astound, appal, daunt. (Assure, cheer.) 

DISMAY, n. —terror, dread, fear, fright. (Courage.) 

DISMISS—send off, discharge, disband. (Instal, 
retain, keep.) 

DISPEL—scatter, disperse, dissipate, drive off, 
chase. (Collect, rally, summon, gather.) 

DISPLAY, v. —exhibit, show, parade. (Conceal.) 

DISPOSE—arrange, place, order, marshal, rank, 
group, assort, distribute, co-ordinate, collocate. 
(Derange, embroil, jumble, muddle, huddle.) 

DISPUTE, v. —discuss, debate, wrangle, controvert, 
contend. (Homologate, acquiesce in, assent to.) 

DISPUTE, n. —argument, controversy, contention, 
polemic. (Homologation, acquiesence.) 

DISTINCT—separate, detached. (Joined, involved.) 

DISTINGUISH—perceive, separate. (Confound.) 

DISTINGUISHED—famous, noted, marked, emi¬ 
nent, celebrated, illustrious. (Obscure, mean.) 

DISTRACT—divert, disconcert, perplex, bewilder, 
fluster, dazzle. (Observe, study, note, mark.) 

DISTRIBUTE—disperse, disseminate, dispense, re¬ 
tail, apportion, consign, dole out. (Accumulate.) 

DISTURB—derange, displace, unsettle, trouble, vex, 
worry, annoy. (Compose, pacify, quiet, soothe.) 

DIVIDE—disjoin, part, separate, sunder, sever, 
cleave, split, rend, partition, distribute. (Con¬ 
stitute, unite.) 

DIVINE, a. —God-like, holy, heavenly. (Devilish.) 

DIVINE, n. —clergyman, churchman, priest, pastor, 
shepherd, parson, minister. (Layman.) 

DO—effect, make, accomplish, transact, act. 

DOCILE—teachable, willing. (Refractory, stub¬ 
born, obstinate.) 

DOCTRINE—teaching, lore, tenet, dogma, articles 
of faith, creed. (Ignorance, superstition.) 

DOLEFUL—woeful, dismal. (Joyous, merry.) 

DOOM, n y —sentence, fate, lot, destiny, decree. 

DOUBT—uncertainty, skepticism, hesitation. (Cer¬ 
tainty, faith.) 

DRAW—pull, attract, inhale, sketch, delineate. 

DREAD, n. —fear, horror, alarm, terror, dismay, 
apprehension. (Confidence, fearlessness.) 

DREADFUL—fearful, alarming, formidable, por» 
tentous, direful, terrible, horrid, awful. (Mild, 
winsome, gentle.) 

DRESS, n. —clothing, raiment, attire, apparel, 
clothes, trousseau. (Nudity, nakedness.) 

DRIFT—tendency, direction, course, bearing, tenor. 

DROLL—funny, laughable, grotesque, farcical, odd. 
(Dull, serious, solemn, grave.) 

DRY, a. —arid, parched, bald, flat, dull. (Aqueous, 
green, fresh, juicy, interesting.) 

DUE—owing, indebted, just, fair, proper. 

DULL—heavy, sad, commonplace, gloomy, stupid. 
(Bright, gay, brilliant.) 







104 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


DUNCE—blockhead, ignoramus, simpleton, donkey, 
ninny, dolt, booby, goose, dullard, numskull, dun- 
derpate, clodhopper. (Sage, genius, man of 
talent, wit.) 

DURABLE—abiding, lasting. (Evanescent.) 

DWELL—stay, abide, sojourn, remain, tarry, stop. 
(Shift, wander, remove, tramp.) 

DWINDLE—pine, waste, shrink, shrivel, diminish. 

EAGER—keen, desirous, craving, ardent, impatient, 
intent, impetuous. (Loth, reluctant.) 

EARN—gain, win, acquire. (Lose, miss, forfeit.) 

EARNEST, a .— serious, resolved. (Trifling, giddy, 
irresolute, fickle.) 

EARNEST, n .— pledge, gage, deposit, caution. 

EASE, n. —content, rest, satisfaction, comfort, re¬ 
pose. (Worry, bother, friction, agitation, turmoil.) 

EASE, v. —calm, console, appease, assuage, allay, 
mitigate. (Worry, fret, alarm, gall, harass.) 

EASY—light, comfortable, unconstrained. (Hard, 
difficult, embarrassed, constrained.) 

ECCENTRIC—wandering, irregular, peculiar, odd, 
unwonted, extraordinary, queer, nondescript. 
(Orderly, customary.) 

ECONOMICAL—frugal, thrifty, provident. (Squan¬ 
dering, wasteful.) 

EDGE—verge, brink, brim, rim, skirt, hem. 

EFFECT, v. —produce, bring about, execute. 

EFFECTIVE—efficient, operative, powerful, effi¬ 
cacious, competent. (Impotent, incapable, in¬ 
competent, inefficient.) 

EFFICACY—efficiency, virtue, competence, agency, 
i nstrumentality. 

ELIMINATE—expel, weed, thin, decimate, exclude, 
bar, reject, repudiate, winnow, eject, cast out. 
(Include, comprehend, incorporate, embrace.) 

ELOQUENCE—oratory, rhetoric, declamation, fa- 
cundity, grandiloquence, fluency. (Mumbling, 
stammering.) 

ELUCIDATE—clear up, unfold, simplify, explain, 
decipher, unravel, disentangle. (Darken, obscure.) 

ELUDE—escape, avoid, shun, slip, disappear, shirk. 

EMBARRASS—perplex, entangle, involve, impede. 
(Relieve, unravel.) 

EMBELLISH—adorn, decorate, beautify. (Tar¬ 
nish, disfigure.) 

EMBOLDEN—animate, encourage, cheer, instigate, 
impel, urge, stimulate. (Discourage, dispirit, 
dampen, depress.) 

EMINENT—exalted, lofty, prominent, renowned, 
distinguished, famous, glorious, illustrious. (Base, 
obscure, low, unknown.) 

EMIT—send out, despatch, spirt, publish, promul¬ 
gate, edit. (Reserve, conceal, hide.) 

EMOTION—feeling, sensation, pathos, nerve, ardor, 
agitation, excitement. (Apathy, frigidity, phlegm, 
nonchalance .) 

EMPLOY—occupy, engage, utilize, exercise, turn 
to account, exploit, make use of. 

ENCOMPASS—encircle, surround, gird, beset. 

ENCOUNTER, v .—meet, run against, clash. 


ENCOUNTER, n. —attack, conflict, assault, onset, 
engagement. 

END, n. —object, aim, result, purpose, conclusion, 
upshot, termination. (Beginning, motive.) 

ENDEAVOR, z/.—attempt, try, essay, strive. 

ENDURANCE—stay, stability, stamina, fortitude. 

ENDURE—sustain, bear, brook, undergo. 

ENEMY—foe, antagonist, adversary, opponent. 
(Friend, ally.) 

ENERGETIC—active, vigorous, sinewy, nervous, 
forcible. (Lazy, languid, inert, flabby, flaccid, 
slack, effete.) 

ENGAGE—occupy, busy, entice, captivate. 

ENGROSS—monopolize, absorb, take up. 

ENGULF—swallow up, drown, submerge, bury. 

ENJOIN—order, command, decree, ordain, direct, 
appoint, prescribe, bind, impose, stipulate. 

ENJOYMENT—pleasure, relish, zest. (Privation, 
grief, misery.) 

ENLARGE—expand, widen, augment, broaden, in¬ 
crease, extend. (Diminish, narrow, straighten.) 

ENLIGHTEN—illumine, instruct. (Darken, be¬ 
fog, mystify.) 

ENLIVEN—cheer, animate, exhilarate, brighten, 
incite, inspire. (Sadden, deaden, mortify.) 

ENMITY—hostility, hatred, antipathy, aversion, 
detestation. (Love, fondness, predilection.) 

ENORMOUS—huge, immense, vast, stupendous, 
monstrous, gigantic, colossal, elephantine. (Tiny, 
little, minute, puny, petty, diminutive, infinites¬ 
imal, dwarfish.) 

ENOUGH—sufficient, adequate. (Short, scrimp, 
insufficient.) 

ENRAGED—infuriated, wrathful, wroth, rabid, mad, 
raging. (Pacified, calmed, lulled, assuaged ) 

ENRAPTURE—captivate, fascinate, enchant, be¬ 
witch, ravish, transport, entrance. (Irritate, gall, 
shock, repel.) 

ENROLL—enlist, register, enter, record. 

ENTERPRISE—undertaking, endeavor, adven¬ 
ture, pursuit. 

ENTHUSIASM—ardor, zeal, glow, unction, fervor. 
(Coolness, indifference, apathy, nonchalance . ) 

ENTHUSIAST—visionary, fanatic, devotee, zealot. 

EQUAL—even, level, co-ordinate, balanced, alike, 
equable, equitable. (Unequal, disproportionate.)' 

ERADICATE—root out, extirpate. (Cherish.) 

ERRONEOUS—fallacious, inaccurate, incorrect, 
untrue, false, inexact. (Accurate, just, right.) 

ERROR—mistake, blunder, slip, delusion, fallacy, 
deception. (Truth, fact, verity, gospel, veracity.) 

ESPECIALLY—chiefly, particularly, peculiarly. 

ESSAY—endeavor, experiment, trial, attempt, ven¬ 
ture, dissertation, treatise, disquisition, tract. 

ESTABLISH—settle, fix, set, plant, pitch, lay down, 
confirm, authenticate, substantiate, verify. 

ESTEEM, n. —value, appreciation, honor, regard. 
(Contempt, depreciation, disparagement.) 

ESTIMATE, v. —value, assess, rate, appraise, gauge. 

ETERNAL—everlasting, perpetual, endless, immor¬ 
tal, infinite. (Finite, transitory, temporary.) 





SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


10$ 


EVADE—avoid, shun, elude, dodge, parry. 

EVEN—plain, flat, level, smooth. (Uneven, rough, 
indented, protuberant.) 

EVENT—occurrence, incident, affair, transaction, 
contingency. 

EVIU—ill, harm, mischief, disaster, bane, calamity, 
catastrophe. (Good, benefit, advantage, boon.) 

, EXACT, a. —precise, literal, particular, correct. 
EXAMINATION—investigation, inquiry, search, 
research, scrutiny, exploration, test, sitting, trial. 

EXCEED—excel, outdo, transcend, surpass. 

EXCEPTIONAL—uncommon, unusual, rare, extra¬ 
ordinary. (General, ordinary, regular, normal.) 

EXCITE—urge, rouse, stir, awaken. (Assuage, 
calm, still, tranquilize.) 

EXCURSION—tour, trip, expedition, ramble. 

EXEMPT—free, absolved, cleared, discharged. 
(Implicated, included, bound, obliged.) 

EXERCISE, n. —operation, practice, office, action^ 
performance. (Stagnation, rest, stoppage.) 

EXHAUSTIVE—complete, thorough, out-and-out. 

EXIGENCY—predicament, emergency, crisis, push, 
pass, turning point, conjecture. 

EXPRESS, v. —utter, tell, declare, signify. 

EXTRAVAGANT — excessive, prodigal, profuse, 
wasteful, lavish, thriftless. (Penurious, stingy.) 

FABLE—parable, tale, myth, romance. (Truth, 
fact, history, event, deed.) 

FACE—aspect, visage, countenance. 

FACETIOUS—pleasant, j ocular. (Serious.) 
FACTOR—manager, agent, officer. 

FAIL—fall short, be deficient. (Accomplish.) 
FAINT—feeble, languid. (Forcible.) 

FAIR—clear. (Stormy.) 

FAIR—equitable, honest, reasonable. (Unfair.) 
FAITH—creed. (Unbelief, infidelity.) 

FAITHFUL—true, loyal, constant. (Faithless.) 
FAITHLESS—perfidious, treacherous. (Faithful.) 
FALL—drop, droop, sink, tumble. (Rise.) 

FAME—renown, reputation. 

FAMOUS—celebrated, renowned. (Obscure.) 
FANCIFUL—capricious, fantastical, whimsical. 

FAN C Y—imagination. 

FAST—rapid, quick, fleet, expeditious. (Slow.) 
FATIGUE—weariness, lassitude. (Vigor.) 

FEAR—timidity, timorousness. (Bravery.) 
FEELING—sensation, sense. 

FEELING—sensibility. (Insensibility.) 
FEROCIOUS—fierce, savage, wild. (Mild.) 
FERTILE—fruitful, prolific, plenteous. (Sterile.) 
FICTION—falsehood, fabrication. (Fact.) 
FIGURE—allegory, emblem, metaphor, symbol, 
picture, type. 

FIND—descry, discover, espy. (Lose, overlook.) 
FINE, a. —delicate, nice. (Coarse.) 

FINE, n— forfeit, forfeiture, mulct, penalty. 

FIRE—glow, heat, warmth. 


FIRM—constant, solid, steadfast, fixed. (Weak.) 

FIRST—foremost, chief, earliest. (Last.) 

PTT—accommodate, adapt, adjust, suit. 

FIX—determine, establish, settle, limit. 

FLAME—blaze, flare, flash, glare. 

FLAT—level, even. 

FLEXIBLE—pliant, pliable, ductile. (Inflexible.) 

FLOURISH—prosper, thrive. (Decay.) 

FLUCTUATING—wavering, hesitating, oscillating,, 
vacillating, change. (Firm, steadfast, decided.) 

FLUENT—flowing, glib, voluble, unembarrassed, 
ready. (Hesitating.) 

FOLKS—persons, people, individuals. 

FOLLOW—succeed, ensue, imitate, copy, pursue. 

FOLLOWER—partisan, disciple, adherent, retainer, 
pursuer, successor. 

FOLLY—silliness, foolishness, imbecility, weak¬ 
ness. (Wisdom.) 

FOND—enamored, attached, affectionate. (Distant.} 

FONDNESS—affection, attachment, kindness, love. 
(Aversion.) 

FOOLHARDY—venturesome, incautious, hasty, ad¬ 
venturous, rash. (Cautious.) 

FOOLISH—simple, silly, irrational, brainless, im¬ 
becile, crazy, absurd, preposterous, ridiculous, 
nonsensical. (Wise, discreet.) 

FOP—dandy, dude, beau, coxcomb, puppy, jacka¬ 
napes. (Gentlemen.) 

FORBEAR—abstain, refrain, withhold. 

FORCE, n .— strength, vigor, dint, might, energy, 
power, violence, army, host. 

FORCE, v .— compel. (Persuade.) 

FORECAST—forethought, foresight, premeditation, 
prognostication. 

FOREGO—quit, relinquish, let go, waive. 

FOREGOING—antecedent, anterior, preceding, pre¬ 
vious, prior, former. 

FORERUNNER—herald, harbinger, precursor. 

FORESIGHT—forethought, forecast, premeditation. 

FORGE—coin, invent, frame, feign, fabricate. 

FORGIVE—pardon, remit, absolve, acquit, excuse. 

FORLORN—forsaken, abandoned, deserted, deso¬ 
late, lone, lonesome. 

FORM, n. —ceremony, solemnity, observance, rite, 
figure, shape, conformation, fashion, appearance, 
representation, semblance. 

FORM, v .—make, create, produce, constitute, ar¬ 
range, fashion, mould, shape. 

FORMAL—ceremonious, precise, exact, stiff, me¬ 
thodical, affected. (Informal, natural.) 

FORMER—antecedent, anterior, previous, prior, 
preceding, foregoing. 

FORSAKEN—abandoned, forlorn, deserted, deso¬ 
late, lone, lonesome. 

FORTHWITH—immediately, directly, instantly, 
instantaneously. (Anon.) 

FORTITUDE—endurance, resolution, fearlessness, 
dauntlessness. (Weakness.) 

FORTUNATE—lucky, happy, auspicious, successful, 
prosperous. (Unfortunate.) 





106 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


FORTUNE—chance, fate, luck, doom, possession, 
destiny, property, riches. 

FOSTER—cherish, nurse, tend, harbor. (Neglect.) 

FOUL—impure, nasty, filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled.' 
(Pure, clean.) 

FRACTIOUS—cross, captious, petulent, splenetic, 
touchy, testy, peevish, fretful. (Tractable.) 

FRAGILE—brittle, frail, delicate, feeble. (Strong.) 

FRAGMENTS—pieces, scraps, leavings, remnants, 
chips, remains. 

FRAILTY—weakness, failing, foible, imperfection, 
fault, blemish. (Strength.) 

FRAME, v. —construct, invent, coin, fabricate, feign, 
forge, mold, make, compose. 

FRANCHISE—right, exemption, immunity, privi¬ 
lege, freedom, suffrage. 

FRANK—artless, candid, sincere, free, easy, open, 
familiar, ingenious, plain. (Tricky, insincere.) 

FRANTIC — distracted, furious, raving, frenzied, 
mad. (Quiet, subdued.) 

FRAUD—deceit, deception, duplicity, guile, cheat, 
imposition. (Honesty.) 

FREAK—fancy, humor, vagary, whim, caprice, 
crochet. (Purpose, resolution.) 

FREE, a. —liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, 
munificent, frank, artless, candid, familiar, open, 
independent, unconfined, unreserved, unrestricted, 
exempt, clear, loose, easy, careless. (Slavish, 
stingy, artful, costly.) 

FREE, v. —release, set free, deliver, rescue, liberate, 
enfranchise, affranchise, emancipate, exempt. 
(Enslave, bind.) 

FREEDOM — liberty, independence, unrestraint, 
familiarity, franchise, exemption. (Slavery.) 

FREQUENT—often, common, general. (Rare.) 

FRET—gall, chafe, agitate, irritate, vex. 

FRIENDLY—amicable, social, sociable. (Distant, 
reserved, cool.) 

FRIGHTFUL—fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, awful, 
terrific, horrible, horrid. 

FRIVOLOUS—trifling, trivial, petty. (Serious.) 

FRUGAL-—provident, economical, saving. (Waste¬ 
ful, extravagant.) 

FRUITFUL—fertile, prolific, productive, abundant, 
plentiful, plenteous. (Barren, sterile.) 

FRUITLESS—vain, useless, idle, bootless, unavail¬ 
ing, without avail. 

FRUSTRATE—defeat, foil, balk, disappoint. 

FULFILL—accomplish, effect, complete. 

FULLY—completely, abundantly, perfectly. 

FULSOME — coarse, gross, sickening, offensive, 
rank. (Moderate.) 

FURIOUS—violent, boisterous, vehement, dashing, 
sweeping, rolling, impetuous, frantic, distracted, 
stormy, angry, raging, fierce. (Calm.) 

FUTILE—trifling, trivial, frivolus. (Effective.) 

GAIN, n —profit, emolument, advantage, benefit, 
winnings, earnings. (Loss.) 

GAIN, v. —get, acquire, obtain, attain, procure, 
earn, win, achieve, reap, realize, reach. (Lose.) 


GALLANT—brave, bold, courageous, gay, showy, 
fine, intrepid, fearless, heroic. 

GALLING—chafing, irritating. (Soothing.) 

GAME—play, pastime, diversion, amusement. 

GANG—band, horde, company, troop, crew. 

GAP—breach, chasm, hollow, cavity, cleft, device, 
rift, chink. 

GARNISH—embellish, adorn, beautify, decorate. 

GATHER—pick, cull, assemble, muster, infer, col¬ 
lect. (Scatter.) 

GAUDY—showy, flashy, tawdry, gay, glittering, be¬ 
spangled. (Sombre.) 

GAUNT—emaciated, scraggy, skinny, meagre, lank, 
attenuated, spare, lean, thin. (Well-fed.) 

GAY—cheerful, merry, lively, jolly, sprightly, 
blitfe. (Solemn.) 

GENERATE—form, make, beget, produce. 

GENERATION—formation, race, breed, stock, 

kind, age, era. 

GENEROUS—beneficent, noble, honorable, bounti¬ 
ful, li eral, free. (Niggardly.) 

GENIAL—cordial, hearty, festive. (Distant, cold.) 

GENIUS—intellect, invention, talent, taste, nature, 
character, adept. 

GENTEEL—refined, polished, fashionable, polite, 
well-bred. (Boorish.) 

GENTLE—placid, mild, bland, meek, tame, docile. 
(Rough, uncouth,) 

GENUINE—real, true, unaffected. (False.) 

GESTURE—attitude, action, posture. 

GET—obtain, earn, gain, attain, procure, achieve. 

GHASTLY—pallid, wan, hideous, grim, shocking. 

GHOST—spectre, sprite, apparition, phantom. 

GIBE—scoff, sneer, flout, jeer, mock, taunt, deride. 

GIDDY—unsteady, thoughtless. (Steady.) 

GIFT—donation, benefaction, grant, alms, gratuity, 
boon, present, faculty, talent. (Purchase.) 

GIGANTIC—colossal, huge, enormous, prodigious, 
vast, immense. (Diminutive.) 

GIVE—grant, bestow, confer, yield, impart. 

GLAD—pleased, cheerful, joyful, gladsome, cheer¬ 
ing, gratified. (Sad.) 

GLEAM—glimmer, glance, glitter, shine, flash. 

GLEE—gayety, merriment, mirth, joviality, joy, 
hilarity. (Sorrow.) 

GLIDE—slip, slide, run, roll on. 

GLIMMER, v. —gleam, flicker, glitter. 

GLIMPSE—glance, look, glint. 

GLITTER—gleam, shine, glisten, glister, radiate. 

GLOOM—cloud, darkness, dimness, blackness, dull¬ 
ness, sadness. (Light, brightness, joy.) 

GLOOMY—lowering, lurid, dim, dusky, sad, gium. 
(Bright, clear.) 

GLORIFY—magnify, celebrate, adore, exalt. 

GLORIOUS—famous, renowned, distinguished, ex¬ 
alted, noble. (Infamous.) 

GLORY honor, fame, renown, splendor, grandeur. 
(Infamy.) 

GLUT—gorge, stuff, cram, cloy, satiate, block up. 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


GO—depart, proceed, move, budge, stir. 

GOD—Creatoi, Lord, Almighty, Jehovah, Omnipo¬ 
tence, Providence. 

GODLY—righteous, devout, holy, pious, religious. 
GOOD—benefit, weal, advantage, profit. (Evil.) 

GOOD, a. —virtuous, righteous, upright, -just, true. 
(Wicked, bad.) 

GORGE, glut, fill, cram, stuff, satiate. 

GORGEOUS—superb, grand, magnificent, splendid. 
(Plain, simple.) 

GOVERN—rule, direct, manage, command. 

GOVERNMENT—rule, state, control, sway. 

GRACEFUL—becoming, comely, elegant, beautiful. 
(Awkward.) 

GRACIOUS—merciful, kindly, beneficent. 
GRADUAL—slow, progressive. (Sudden.) 

GRAND—majestic, stately, dignified, lofty, elevated, 
exalted, splendid, gorgeous, superb, magnificent, 
sublime, pompous. (Shabby.) 

GRANT—bestow, impart, give, yield, cede, allow, 
confer, invest. 

GRANT—gift, boon, donation. 

GRAPHIC—forcible, telling, picturesque, pictorial. 
GRASP—catch, seize, gripe, clasp, grapple. 

GRATEFUL—agreeable, pleasing, welcome, thank¬ 
ful. (Harsh.) 

GRATIFICATION—enjoyment, pleasure, deiight, 
reward. (Disappointment.) 

GRAVE, a. —serious, sedate, solemn, sober, pressing, 
heavy. (Giddy.) 

GRAVE, n .—tomb, sepulchre, vault. 

GREAT—big, huge, large, majestic, vast, grand, 
noble, august. (Small.) 

GREEDINESS—avidity, eagerness. (Generosity.) 
GRIEF—affliction, sorrow, trial, tribulation. (Joy.) 

GRIEVE—mourn, lament, sorrow, pain, wound, 
hurt, bewail. (Rejoice.) 

GRIEVOUS—painful, afflicting, heavy, unhappy. 
GRIND—crush, oppress, grate, harass, afflict. 

GRISLY—terrible, hideous, grim, ghastly, dreadful. 

(Pleasing.) 

GROSS—coarse, outrageous, unseemly, shameful, 
indelicate. (Delicate.) 

GROUP—assembly, cluster, collection, clump, order. 
GROVEL—crawl, cringe, fawn, sneak. 

GROW—increase, vegetate, expand, advance. (De¬ 
cay, diminution,) 

GROWL—grumble, snarl, murmur, complain. 
GRUDGE—malice, rancor, spite, pique, hatred. 
GRUFF—rough, rugged, blunt, rude, harsh, surly, 
bearish. (Pleasant.) 

GUILE—deceit, fraud. (Candor.) 

GUILTLESS—harmless, innocent. 

GUILTY—culpable, sinful, criminal. 

HABIT—custom, practice. 

HAIL—accost, address, greet, salute, welcome. 
HAPPINESS—beatitude, blessedness, bliss, felicity. 
(Unhappiness.) 


107 

HARBOR—haven, port. 

HARD—firm, solid. (Soft.) 

HARD—arduous, difficult. (Easy.) 

HARM—injury, huit, wrong, infliction. (Benefit.) 
HARMLESS—safe, innocuous, innocent. (Hurtful.) 
HARvSH —rough, rigorous, severe, gruff. (Gentle.) 
HASTEN—accelerate, dispatch, expedite. (Delay.) 
HASTY—hurried, ill-advised. (Deliberate.) 
HATEFUL—odious, detestable. (Lovable.) 
HATRED—enmity, ill-will, rancor. (Friendship.) 
HAUGHTINESS—arrogance, pride. (Modesty.) 
HAUGHTY—arrogant, disdainful, supercilious. 
HAZARD—risk, venture. 

HEALTHY—salubrious, salutary. (Unhealthy.) 
HEAP—accumulate, amass, pile. 

HEARTY—cordial, sincere, warm. (Insincere.) 
HEAVY—burdensome, ponderous. (Light.) 

HEED—care, attention. 

HEIGHTEN—enhance, exalt, elevate, raise. 
HEINOUS—atrocious, flagrant. (Venial.) 

HELP—aid, assist, relieve, succor. (Hinder.) 

HERETIC—sectary, sectarian, schismatic, dissenter, 

! non-conformist. 

HESITATE—falter, stammer, stutter. 

HIDEOUS—grim, ghastly, grisly. (Beautiful.) 
HIGH—lofty, tall, elevated. (Deep.) 

HINDER—impede, obstruct, prevent, (Help.) 
HINT—allude, refer, suggest, intimate, insinuate. 
HOLD—detain, keep, retain. 

HOLINESS—sanctity, piety, sacredness. 

HOLY—devout, pious, religious. 

HOMELY—plain, ugly, coarse. (Beautiful.) 

HONESTY—integrity, probity, uprightness. (Dis¬ 
honesty. ) 

HONOR, v .—respect, reverence. (Dishonor.) 
HOPE—confidence, expectation, trust. 

HOPELESS—desperate. 

HOT—ardent, burning, fiery. (Cold.) 

HOWEVER—nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet. 

HUMBLE—modest, submissive, plain, unostenta¬ 
tious, simple. (Haughty.) 

HUMBLE—degrade, humiliate, mortify. (Exalt.) 
HUMOR—mood, temper. 

HUNT—seek, chase. 

HURTFUL—noxious, pernicious. (Beneficial.) 
HUSBANDRY—cultivation, tillage. 

HYPOCRITE—dissembler, imposter, canter. 
HYPOTHESIS—theory, supposition. 

IDEA—thought, imagination. 

IDEAL—imaginary, fancied. (Actual.) 

IDLE—indolent, lazy. (Industrious.) 
IGNOMINIOUS—shameful, scandalous, infamous. 
(Honorable.) 

IGNOMINY—shame, disgrace, obloquy, reproach. 
IGNORANT—unlearned, illiterate, uninformed, 
uneducated. (Knowing.) 








108 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


ILL, n. —evil, wickedness, misfortune, mischief, 
harm. (Good.) 

ILL, ci. —sick, indisposed, diseased. (Well.) 

ILL-TEMPERED—crabbed, sour, acrimonious, 
surly. (Good-natured.) 

ILL-WILL—enmity, antipathy. (Good-will.) 

ILLEGAL—unlawful, illicit, contraband, illegiti¬ 
mate. (Legal.) 

ILLIMITABLE—boundless, immeasurable, infinite. 

ILLITERATE—unlettered, unlearned, untaught, 
uninstructed. (Learned, educated.) 

ILLUSION—fallacy, deception, phantasm. 

ILLUSORY—imaginary, chimerical. (Real.) 

ILLUSTRATE—explain, elucidate, clear. 

ILLUSTRIOUS—celebrated, noble, eminent, famous, 
renowned. (Obscure.) 

IMAGE—likeness, picture, representation, effigy. 

IMAGINARY—ideal, fanciful, illusory. (Real.) 

IMAGINE—conceive, fancy, apprehend, think. 

IMBECILITY—silliness, senility, dotage. 

IMITATE—copy, ape, mimic, mock, counterfeit. 

IMMACULATE—unspotted, spotless, unsullied, 
stainless. (Soiled.) 

IMMEDIATE—pressing, instant, next, proximate. 

IMMEDIATELY—instantly, forthwith, directly. 

IMMENSE—vast, enormous, huge, prodigious. 

IMMUNITY—privilege, prerogative, exemption. 

IMPAIR—injure, diminish, decrease. 

IMPART—reveal, divulge, disclose, discover, afford. 

IMPARTIAL—just, equitable, unbiased. (Partial.) 

IMPASSIONED—glowing, burning, fiery, intense. 

IMPEACH—accuse, charge, arraign, censure. 

IMPEDE—hinder, retard, obstruct. (Help.) 

IMPEDIMENT—obstruction, hindrance, obstacle, 
barrier. (Aid.) 

IMPEL—animate, induce, incite, instigate, em¬ 
bolden. (Retard.) 

IMPENDING—imminent, threatening. 

IMPERATIVE—commanding, authoritative. 

IMPERFECTION—fault, blemish, defect, vice. 

IMPERIL—endanger, hazard, jeopardize. 

IMPERIOUS—commanding, dictatorial, imperative, 
authoritative, lordly, overbearing, domineering. 

IMPERTINENT—intrusive, meddling, officious, 
rude, saucy, impudent, insolent. 

IMPETUOUS—violent, boisterous, furious, vehe¬ 
ment. (Calm.) 

IMPIOUS—profane, irreligious. (Reverent.) 

IMPLICATE—involve, entangle, embarrass. 

IMPLY—involve, comprise, infold, import, denote. 

IMPORTANCE—signification, significance, avail, 
consequence, weight, gravity, moment. 

IMPOSING—impressive, striking, majestic, august, 
noble, grand. (Insignificant.) 

IMPOTENCE—weakness, incapacity, infirmity, 
fraility, feebleness. (Power.) 

IMPOTENT—weak, feeble, helpless, enfeebled, 
nerveless, infirm. (Strong.) 


IMPRESSIVE—stirring, forcible, exciting, moving. 

IMPRISON—incarcerated, shut up, immure, con¬ 
fine. (Liberate.) 

IMPRISONMENT—captivity, durance. 

IMPROVE—amend, better, mend, reform, rectify, 
ameliorate, apply, use, employ. (Deteriorate.) 

IMPROVIDENT—careless, incautious, imprudent 
prodigal, wasteful, reckless, rash. (Thrifty.) 

IMPUDENCE—assurance, impertinence, confidence, 
insolence, rudeness. 

IMPUDENT—saucy, brazen, bold, impertinent, 
forward, rude, insolent, immodest, shameless. 

IMPULSE—incentive, incitement, instigation. 

IMPULSIVE—rash, hasty, forcible. (Deliberate.) 

IMPUTATION—blame, censure, reproach, charge. 

INADVERTENCY—error, oversight, blunder, in¬ 
attention, carelessness, negligence. 

INCENTIVE—motive, inducement, impulse. 

INCITE—instigate, excite, provoke, stimulate,urge, 
encourage, impel. 

INCLINATION—leaning, slope, disposition, bent,, 
tendency, bias, affection, attachment, wish, liking, 
desire. (Aversion.) 

INCLINE, v. —slope, lean, slant, tend, bend, turn, 
bias, dispose. 

INCLOSE—surround, shut in, fence in, cover, wrap. 

INCLUDE—comprehend, comprise, contain, take 
in, embrace. 

INCOMMODE—annoy, plague, molest, disturb, 
inconvenience, trouble. (Accommodate.) 

INCOMPETENT—incapable, unable, inadequate. 

INCREASE, v. —extend, enlarge, augment, dilate, 
expand, amplify, raise, enhance, aggravate, mag¬ 
nify, grow. (Diminish.) 

INCREASE, n .— augmentation, accession, addition, 
enlargement, extension. (Decrease.) 

INCUMBENT—obligatory. 

INDEFINITE—vague, uncertain, unsettled, loose, 
lax. (Definite.) 

INDICATE—point out, show, mark. 

INDIFFERENCE — apathy, carelessness, listless¬ 
ness, insensibility. (Application, assiduity.) 

INDIGENCE—want, neediness, penury, poverty, 
destitution, privation. (Affluence.) 

INDIGNATION—anger, wrath, ire, resentment. 

INDIGNITY—insult, affront, utrage, opprobrium, 
obloquy, reproach, ignominy. (Honor.) 

INDISCRIMINATE—promiscuous, chance, indis¬ 
tinct, confused. (Select, chosen.) 

INDISPENSABLE—essential, necessary, requisite, 
expedient. (Unnecessary, supernumerary.) 

INDISPUTABLE—undeniable, undoubted, incon 
testable, indubitable, unquestionable, infallible. 

INDORSE—ratify, confirm, superscribe. 

INDULGE—foster, cherish, fondle. (Deny.) 

INEFFECTUAL—vain, useless, unavailing, fruit¬ 
less, abortive, inoperative. (Effective.) 

INEQUALITY—disparity, disproportion, dissimi 
larity, unevenness. (Equality.) 

INEVITABLE—unavoidable, not to be avoided 





SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


109 


INFAMOUS—scandalous, shameful, ignominious, 
opprobrious, disgraceful. (Honorable.) 

INFERENCE—deduction, corollary, conclusion. 

INFERNAL—diabolical, fiendish, devilish, hellish. 

INFEST—annoy, plague, harass, disturb. 

INFIRM—week, feeble, enfeebled. (Robust.) 

INFLAME—anger, irritate, enrage, chafe, incense, 
nettle, aggravate, embitter, exasperate. (Allay.) 

INFLUENCE, v. —bias, sway, prejudice, preposess. 

INFLUENCE, n. —credit, favor, reputation, weight, 
character, authority, sway, ascendency. 

INFRINGE—invade, intrude, contravene, break, 
transgress, violate. 

INGENUOUS—artless, candid, generous, sincere, 
open, frank, plain. (Crafty.) 

INHUMAN—cruel, brutal, savage, barbarous, ruth¬ 
less, merciless, ferocious. (Humane.) 

INIQUITY—injustice, wrong, grievance. 

INJURE—damage, hurt, deteriorate, wrong, spoil, 
aggrieve, harm, mar, sully. (Benefit.) ' 

INJURIOUS—hurtful, baneful, pernicious, deleteri¬ 
ous, noxious, prejudicial, wrongful. (Beneficial.) 

INJUSTICE—wrong, iniquity, grievance. (Right.) 

INNOCENT—guiltless, sinless, harmless, inoffen¬ 
sive, innoxious. (Guilty.) 

INNOCUOUS—harmless, safe, innocent. (Hurtful.) 

INORDINATE—intemperate, irregular, disorderly, 
excessive, immoderate. (Moderate.) 

INQUIRY—investigation, examination, research, 
scrutiny, disquisition, question, interrogation. 

INQUISITIVE—prying, peeping, curious, peering. 

INSANE—deranged, delirous, demented. (Sane.) 

INSANITY—madness, mental aberration, lunacy, 
delirium. (Sanity.) 

INSINUATE—hint, intimate, suggest, infuse, intro¬ 
duce, ingratiate. 

INSIPID—dull, fiat, mawkish, tasteless, inanimate, 
vapid, lifeless. (Bright, sparkling.) 

INSOLENT—rude, saucy, impertinent, abusive, pert, 
scurrilous, opprobrious, insulting, offensive. 

INSPIRE—animate, exhilarate, enliven, breathe, 
cheer, inhale. 

INSTABILITY—mutability, fickleness, mutableness, 
wavering. (Stability, firmness.) 

INSTIGATE—stir up, persuade, animate, stimulate, 
incite, urge, encourage. 

INSTIL—implant, inculcate, infuse, insinuate. 

INSTRUCT—inform, teach, educate, enlighten. 

INSTRUMENTAL— conducive, assistant, helping. 

INSUFFICIENCY — incompetency, incapability, 
inadequacy, deficiency, lack. 

INSULT—affront, outrage, indignity. (Honor.) 

INSULTING—insolent, impertinent, abusive, rude. 

INTEGRITY—uprightness, honesty, completeness, 
probity, entirety, entireness, purity. (Dishonesty.) 

INTELLECT—understanding, sense, brains, mind, 
intelligence, ability, talent, genius. (Body.) 

INTELLECTUAL— mental, metaphysical. (Brutal.) 

INTELLIGIBLE—clear, obvious, plain. (Abstruse.) 


INTEMPERATE—immoderate, excessive, drunken, 
nimious, inordinate. (Temperate.) 

INTENSE—ardent, earnest, glowing, fervid, burn¬ 
ing, vehement. 

INTENT—design, purpose, intention, drift, view, 
aim, purport, meaning. 

INTERCOURSE—commerce, connection, intimacy. 

INTERDICT—forbid, prohibit, inhibit, proscribe, 
debar, restrain from. (Allow.) 

INTERFERE—meddle, intermeddle, interpose. 

INTERMINABLE—endless, interminate, infinite, 
unlimited, illimitable, boundless. (Brief.) 

INTERPOSE—intercede, arbitrate, mediate, inter¬ 
fere, meddle. 

IMTERPRET—explain, expound, elucidate, unfold. 

INTIMATE—hint, suggest, insinuate, express, tell, 
signify, impart. 

INTIMIDATE—dishearten, alarm, frighten, scare, 
appal, daunt, cow, browbeat. (Encourage.) 

INTOLERABLE—insufferable, unbearable, insup¬ 
portable, unendurable. 

INTREPID—bold, brave, daring, fearless, daunt¬ 
less, undaunted, courageous, valorous, valiant, 
heroic, gallant, chivalrous, doughty. (Cowardly, 
faint-hearted.) 

INTRIGUE—plot, cabal, conspiracy, combination, 
artifice, ruse, amour. 

INTRINSIC—real, true, genuine, sterling, native, 
natural. (Extrinsic.) 

INVALIDATE—quash, cancel, overthrow, vacate, 
nullify, annul. 

INVASION—incursion, irruption, inroad, aggres¬ 
sion, raid, fray. 

INVECTIVE—abuse, reproach, railing, censure, 
sarcasm, .satire. 

INVENT—devise, contrive, frame, find out, discover. 

INVESTIGATION—examination, search, inquiry, 
research, scrutiny. 

INVETERATE — confirmed, chronic, malignant. 
(Inchoate.) 

INVIDIOUS—envious, hateful, odious, malignant. 

INVIGORATE—brace, harden, nerve, strengthen, 
forti fy. (E ne rvate.) 

INVINCIBLE—unconquerable, impregnable, insur¬ 
mountable. 

INVISIBLE—unseen, imperceptible, impalpable. 

INVITE—ask, call, bid, request, allure, attract. 

INVOKE—invocate, call upon, appeal, refer, im¬ 
plore, beseech. 

INVOLVE—implicate, entangle, compromise. 

IRKSOME—wearisome, tiresome, tedious, annoy¬ 
ing. (Pleasant.) 

IRONY—sarcasm, satire, ridicule, raillery. 

IRRATIONAL—foolish, silly, imbecile, brutish, 
absurd, ridiculous. (Rational.) 

IRREGULAR—eccentric, anomalous, inordinate, 
intemperate. (Regular.) 

IRRELIGIOUS—profane, godless, impious, sacri¬ 
legious, desecrating. 

IRREPROACHABLE—blameless, spotless. 

IRRESISTIBLE—resistless, irrepressible. 







110 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


IRRESOLUTE —wavering, undetermined, unde¬ 
cided, vacillating (Determined.) 

IRRITABLE—excitable, irascible, susceptible, sensi¬ 
tive. (Calm.) 

IRRITATE—aggravate, worry, embitter, madden. 
ISSUE, v. —emerge, rise, proceed, flow, spring. 
ISSUE, n. —end, upshot, effect, result, offspring. 
JADE—harass, weary, tire, worry. 

JANGLE—wrangle, conflict, disagree. 

JARRING—conflicting, discordant, inconsonant. 
JAUNT—ramble, excursion, trip. 

JEALOUSY—suspicion, envy. 

JEOPARD—hazard, peril, endanger. 

JEST—-joke, sport, divert, make game of. 

JOURNEY—travel, tour, passage. 

JOY—gladness, mirth, delight. (Grief.) 

JUDGE—justice, referee, arbitrator. 

JOYFUL—glad, rejoicing, exultant. (Mournful.) 
JUDGMENT—discernment, discrimination. 

JUSTICE—equity, right. Justice is right as estab¬ 
lished by law; equity according to the circum¬ 
stances of each particular case. (Injustice.) 

JUSTNESS—accuracy, correctness, precision. 

KEEP—preserve, save. (Abandon.) 

KILL—assassinate, murder, slay. 

KINDRED—affinity, consanguinity, relationship. 
KNOWLEDGE—erudition, learning. (Ignorance.) 

LABOR—toil, work, effort, drudgery. (Idleness.) 

LACK—need, deficiency, scarcity, insufficiency. 
(Plenty.) 

LAMENT—mourn, grieve, weep. (Rejoice.) 
LANGUAGE—dialect, idiom, speech, tongue. 

LASCIVIOUS—loose, unchaste, lustful, lewd, lech¬ 
erous. (Chaste.; 

LAST—final, latest, ultimate. (First.) 

LAUDABLE—commendable. (Blamable.) 
LAUGHABLE—comical, droll, ludicrous. (Serious.) 
LAWFUL—legal, legitimate, licit. (Illegal.) 

LEAD—conduct, guide. (Follow.) 

LEAN—meager. (Fat.) 

LEARNED—erudite, scholarly. (Ignorant.) 
LEAVE, v. —quit, relinquish. 

LEAVE, n .—liberty, permission. (Prohibition.) 
LIFE—existence, animation, spirit. (Death.) 
LIFELESS—dead, inanimate. 

LIFT—erect, elevate, exalt, raise. (Lower.) 

LIGHT—clear, bright. (Dark.) 

LIGHTNESS—flightiness, giddiness, levity, volatil¬ 
ity. (Seriousness.) 

LIKENESS—resemblance, similarity. (Unlikeness.) 
LINGER—lag, loiter, tarry, saunter. (Hasten.) 
LITTLE—diminutive, small. (Great.) 
LIVELIHOOD—living, maintenance, subsistence. 

LIVELY—jocund, merry, sportive, sprightly, viva¬ 
cious. (Slow, languid, sluggish.) 

LONG—extended, extensive. (Short.) 


LOOK—appear, seem, aspect, glance, peep. 

LOSE—miss, forfeit. (Gain.) 

LOSS—detriment, damage, deprivation. (Gain.) 

LOUD—clamorous, high-sounding, noisy. (Low, 
quiet.) 

LOVE—affection. (Hatred.) 

LOW—abject, mean. (Noble.) 

LUNACY—derangement, insanity, mania, madness. 
(Sanity.) 

LUSTER—brightness, brilliancy, splendor. 

LUXURIANT—exuberant. (Sparse.) 

MACHINATION—plot, intrigue, cabal, conspiracy. 
(Artlessness.) 

MAD—crazy, delirious, insane, rabid, violent, frantic. 
(Sane, rational, quiet.) 

MADNESS—insanity, fury, rage, frenzy. 

MAGISTERIAL—august, dignified, majestic, pomp¬ 
ous, stately. 

MAKE—form, create, produce. (Destroy.) 

MALEDICTION—anathema, curse, imprecation. 

MALEVOLENT—malicious, virulent, malignant. 
(Benevolent.) 

MALICE—spite, rancor, ill-feeling, grudge, ani¬ 
mosity, ill-will. (Benignity.) 

MALICIOUS—see malevolent. 

MANACLE, v. —shackle, fetter, chain. (Free.) 

MANAGE—contrive, concert, direct. 

MANAGEMENT—direction, superintendence, care. 

MANGLE—tear, lacerate, mutilate, cripple, maim. 

MANIA—madness, insanity, lunacy. 

MANIFEST, v. —reveal, prove, evince, exhibit, dis¬ 
play, show. 

MANIFEST, a. —clear, plain, evident, open, appar¬ 
ent, visible. (Hidden, occult.) 

MANIFOLD—several, sundry, various, divers. 

MANLY—masculine, vigorous, courageous, brave, 
heroic. (Effeminate.) 

MANNER—habit, custom, way, air, look. 

MANNERS—morals, habits, behavior, carriage. 

MAR—spoil, ruin, disfigure. (Improve.) 

MARCH—tramp, tread, walk, step, space. 

MARGIN—edge, rim, border, brink, verge. 

MARK, n— sign, note, symptom, token, indication, 
trace, vestige, track, badge, brand. 

MARK, v— impress, print, stamp, engrave, note. 

MARRIAGE—wedding, nuptials, matrimony. 

MARTIAL—military, warlike, soldierlike. 

MARVEL—wonderful, miracle, prodigy. 

MARVELOUS—wondrous, wonderful, miraculous. 

MASSIVE — bulky, heavy, weighty, ponderous, 
solid, substantial. (Flimsy.) 

MASTERY—dominion, rule, sway, ascendancy. 

MATCHLESS—unrivaled, unequaled, unparalleled, 
peerless, incomparable, inimitable, surpassing! 
(Common, ordinary.) 

MATERIAL, a— corporeal, bodily, physical, tem¬ 
poral, momentous. (Spiritual, immaterial.)’ 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Ill 


MAXIM—adage, apothegm, proverb, saying, by¬ 
word, saw. 

MEAGER—poor, lank, emaciated, barren, dry, un¬ 
interesting. (Rich.) 

MEAN, a — stingy, niggardly, low, abject, vile, 
ignoble, degraded, contemptible, vulgar, despic¬ 
able. (Generous.) 

MEAN, v. —design, purpose, intend, contemplate, 
signify, denote, indicate. 

MEANING — signification, import, acceptation, 
sense, purport. 

MEDIUM—organ, channel, instrument, means. 
MEDLEY—mixture, variety, diversity, miscellany. 
MEEK—unassuming, mild, gentle. (Proud.) 

MELANCHOLY - —low-spirited, dispirited, dreamy, 
sad. (Jolly, buoyant ) 

MELLOW—ripe, mature, soft. (Immature.) 

MELODIOUS—tuneful, musical, silver, dulcet, 
sweet. (Discordant.) 

MEMORABLE—signal, distinguished, marked. 
MEMORIAL—monument, memento. 

MEMORY—remembrance, recollection. 

MENACE, n. —threat. 

MEND—repair, amend, correct, better, ameliorate, 
improve, rectify. 

MENTION—tell, name, communicate, impart, di¬ 
vulge, reveal, disclose, inform, acquaint. 

MERCIFUL—compassionate, lenient, clement, 
tender, gracious, kind. (Cruel.) 

MERCILESS—hard-hearted, cruel, unmerciful, piti¬ 
less, remorseless, unrelenting. (Kind.) 

MERRIMENT—mirth, joviality,jollity. (Sorrow.) 

MERRY—cheerful, mirthful, joyous, gay, lively, 
sprightly, hilarious, blithe, blithesome, jovial, 
sportive, jolly. (Sad.) 

METAPHORICAL—figurative, allegorical. 
METHOD—way, manner, mode, process, order, 
rule, regularity, system. 

MIEN—air, look, manner, aspect, appearence. 
MIGRATORY—roving, strolling, wandering, va¬ 
grant. (Settled, sedate, permanent.) 

MIMIC—imitate, ape, mock. 

MINDFUL—observant, attentive. (Heedless.) 
MISCELLANEOUS—promicuous, indiscriminate. 
MISCHIEF—injury, harm, damage, hurt. (Benefit.) 
MISCREANT—caitiff, villain, ruffian. 
MISERABLE—unhappy, wretched, distressed, af¬ 
flicted. (Happy.) 

MISERLY—stingy, niggardly, avaricious, griping. 
MISERY—wretchedness, woe, destitution, penury, 
privation, beggary. (Happiness.) 

MISFORTUNE—calamity, disaster, mishap, catas¬ 
trophe. (Good luck.) 

MISS—omit, lose, fall, miscarry. 

MITIGATE—alleviate, relieve, abate. (Aggravate.) 
MODERATE—temperate, abstemious, sober, absti¬ 
nent. (Immoderate.) 

MODEST—chaste, virtuous, bashful. (Immodest.) 
MOIST—wet, damp, dank, humid. (Dry.) 
MONOTONOUS—unvaried, tiresome. (Varied.) 


MONSTROUS—shocking, dreadful, horrible, huge.. 

MONUMENT—memorial, record, remembrancer. 

MOOD—humor, disposition, vein, temper. 

MORBID—sick, ailing, sickly, diseased, corrupted. 
(Normal, sound.) 

MOROSE—gloomy, sullen, surly, fretful, crabbed* 
crusty. (Joyous.) 

MORTAL—deadly, fatal, human. 

MOTION—proposition, proposal, movement. 

MOTIONLESS—still, stationary, torpid, stagnant. 

(Active, moving.) 

MOUNT—arise, rise, ascend, soar, tower, climb. 

MOURNFUL—sad, sorrowful, lugubrious, grievous* 
doleful, heavy, (Happy.) 

MOVE—actuate, impel, induce, prompt, instigate* 
persuade, stir, agitate, propel, push. 

MULTITUDE—crowd, throng, host, mob, swarm. 
MURDER, v. —kill, assassinate, slay, massacre. 

MUSE, v. —meditate, contemplate, think, reflect, 
cogitate, ponder. 

MUSIC—harmony, melody, symphony. 

MUSICAL—tuneful, melodious, harmonious, sweet. 
MUSTY—stale, sour, fetid. (Fresh, sweet.) 

MUTE—dumb, silent, speechless. 

MUTILATE—maim, cripple, disable, disfigure. 

MUTINOUS—insurgent, seditious, tumultuous, tur¬ 
bulent, riotous. (Obedient, orderly.) 

MUTUAL — reciprocal, interchanged, correlative. 
(Sole, solitary.) 

MYSTERIOUS—dark, obscure, hidden, secret, dim, 
mystic, enigmatical, unaccountable. (Open, clear. ) 

MYSTIFY—confuse, perplex. (Clear, explain.) 

NAKED—nude, bare, uncovered, unclothed, rough* 
rude, simple. (Covered, clad.) 

NAME, v. —denominate, entitle, style, designate, 
term, call, christen. 

NAME, n. —appellation, designation, denomination* 
title, cognomen, reputation, character, fame, 
credit, repute. 

NARRATE—tell, relate, detail, recount, describe, 
enumerate, rehearse, recite. 

NASTY—filthy r , foul, dirty, unclean, impure, gross, 
indecent, vile. 

NATION—people, community, realm, state. 

NATIVE—indigenous, inborn, vernacular. 
NATURAL—original, regular, normal, bastard. 
(Unnatural, forced.) 

NEAR—nigh, neighboring, close, adjacent, contig¬ 
uous, intimate. (Distant.) 

NECESSARY—needful, expedient, essential, indis¬ 
pensable, requisite. (Useless.) 

NECESSITATE—compel, force, oblige. 

NECESSITY—need, occasion,exigency, emergency, 
urgency, requisite. 

NEED, n. —necessity, distress, poverty, indigence, 
want, penury. 

NEED, v. —require, want, lack. 

NEGLECT, v. —disregard, slight, omit, overlook. 









112 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


NEGLECT, n. —omission, failure, default, slight, 
negligence, remisness, carelessness. 

NEIGHBORHOOD—environs, vicinity, nearness, 
adjacency, proximity. 

NERVOUS—timid, timorous, shaky. 

NEW—fresh, recent, novel. (Old.) 

NEWS—tidings, intelligence, information. 

NICE—exact, accurate, good, particular, precise, 
fine, delicate. (Careless, coarse, unpleasant.) 

NIMBLE—active, brisk, lively, alert, quick, agile, 
prompt. (Awkward.) 

NOBILITY—aristocracy, greatness, grandeur. 

NOBLE—exalted, elevated, illustrious, great, grand, 
lofty. (Low.) 

NOISE—cry, outcry, clamor, row, din, uproar, 
tumult. (Silence.) 

NONSENSICAL—irrational, absurd, silly, foolish. 
(Sensible.) 

NOTABLE—plain, evident, remarkable, striking, 
signal, rare. (Obscure.) 

NOTE, n. —token, symbol, mark, sign, indication, 
remark, comment. 

NOTED—distinguished, remarkable, eminent, re¬ 
nowned. (Obscure.) 

NOTICE, n. —advice, notification, intelligence. 

NOTICE, v. —mark, note, observe, attend to, heed. 

NOTIFY, v. —publish, acquaint, apprise, inform. 

NOTION—conception, idea, belief, opinion. 

NOTORIOUS — conspicuous, open, obvious, ill- 
famed. (Unknown.) 

NOURISH — nurture, cherish, ^foster, supply. 
(Starve, famish.) 

NOURISHMENT—food, diet, sustenance, nutrition. 

NOVEL—modern, new, fresh, recent, unused, rare, 
strange. (Old.) 

NOXIOUS—hurtful, deadly poisonous, deleterious, 
baneful. (Beneficial.) 

NULLIFY—annul, vacate, invalidate, quash, can¬ 
cel, repeal. (Affirm.) 

NUTRITION—food, diet, nutriment, nourishment. 

OBDURATE—hard, callous, hardened, unfeeling, 
insensible. (Yielding, tractable.) 

OBEDIENT—compliant, submissive, dutiful, re¬ 
spectful. (Obstinate.) 

OBESE—corpulent, fat, adipose. (Attenuated.) 

OBEY, v. —conform, comply, submit. (Rebel.) 

OBJECT, n. —aim, end, purpose, design, mark. 

OBJECT, v. —oppose, except to, contravene, im¬ 
peach, deprecate. (Assent.) 

OBNOXIOUS—offensive. (Agreeble.) 

OBSCURE—undistinguished, unknown. (Distin¬ 
guished. ) 

OBSTINATE—contumacious, headstrong, stubborn, 
obdurate. (Yielding.) 

OCCASION—opportunity. 

OFFENCE—affront, misdeed, misdemeanor, trans¬ 
gression, trespass. 

OFFENSIVE—insolent, abusive. (Inoffensive.) 

-OFFICE—charge, function, place. 


OFFSPRING—issue, progeny, children, posterity. 
OLD—aged, superanuated, ancient, antique, anti¬ 
quated, obsolete, old-fashioned. (Young, new.) 

OMEN—presage, prognostic. 

OPAQUE—dark. (Bright, transparent.) 

OPEN—candid, unreserved, clear, fair. (Hidden.) 
OPINION—notion, view, judgment, sentiment. 
OPINIONATED—conceited, egotistical. (Modest.) 
OPPOSE—resist, withstand, thwart. (Give way.) 
OPTION—choice. 

ORDER—method, system, regularity. (Disorder.) 

ORIGIN—cause, occasion, beginning. (End.) 
OUTLIVE—survive. 

OUTWARD—external, outside, exterior. (Inner.) 
OVER—above. (Under.) 

OVERBALANCE—outweigh, preponderate. 
OVERBEAR—bear down, overwhelm, overpower. 
OVERBEARING—haughty, arrogant. (Gentle.) 
OVERFLOW—inundation, deluge. 

OVERRULE—supersede, suppress. 

OVERSPREAD—overrun, ravage. 

OVERTURN—invert, overthrow, reverse, subvert. 
(Establish, fortify.) 

OVERWHELM—crush, defeat, vanquish. 

PAIN—suffering, qualm, pang, agony, anquish. 
(Pleasure.) 

PALLID—pale, wan. (Florid.) 

PART—division, portion, share, fraction. (Whole.) 

PARTICULAR—exact, distinct, singular, strange, 
odd. (General.) 

PATIENT—passive, submissive. (Obdurate.) 

PEACE—calm, quiet, tranquility. (War, trouble, 
riot, turbulence.) 

PEACEABLE—pacific, peaceful, quiet. (Trouble¬ 
some, riotous.) 

PENETRATE—bore, pierce, perforate. 

PENETRATION—acuteness, sagacity. (Dullness.) 

PEOPLE—nation, persons, folks. 

PERCEIVE—note, observe, discern, distinguish. 

PERCEPTION—conception, notion, idea. 

PERIL—danger, pitfall, snare. (Safety.) 

PERMIT—allow, tolerate. (Forbid.) 

PERSUADE—allure, entice, prevail upon. 

PHYSICAL—corporeal, bodily, material. (Mental.) 

PICTURE—engraving, print, representation, illus¬ 
tration, image. 

PITEOUS—doleful, woeful, rueful. (Joyful.) 
PITILESS—see merciless. 

PITY—compassion, sympathy. (Cruelty.) 

PLACE, ii. spot, site, position, post, situation. 
PLACE, v. —order, dispose. 

PLAIN—open, manifest, evident. (Secret.) 

PLAY—game, sport, amusement. (Work.) 
PLEASE—gratify, pacify. (Displease.) 

PLEASURE—charm, delight, j oy. (Pain.) 

PLENTIFUL—abundant, ample, copious, plenteous. 
(Scarce.) 






113 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


POISE—balance, equilibrium, evenness. 

POSITIVE—absolute, peremptory, decided, certain. 
(Negative, undecided.) 

POSSESSOR—owner, proprietor. 

POSSIBLE—practical, practicable. (Impossible.) 

POVERTY—penury, indigence, need. (Wealth.) 

POWER—authority, force, strength, dominion. 

POWERFUL—mighty, potent. (Weak.) 

PRAISE—commend, extol, laud. (Blame.) 

PRAYER—entreaty, petition, request, suit. 
PRETENCE, n. —pretext, subterfuge. 

PREVAILING—predominant, prevalent, general. 
(Isolated, sporadic.) 

PREVENT—obviate, preclude. 

PREVIOUS—antecedent, introductory, preparatory, 
preliminary. (Subsequent.) 

PRIDE—vanity, conceit. (Humility.) 

PRINCIPALLY—chiefly, essentially, mainly. 

PRINCIPLE—ground, reason, motive, impulse, 
maxim, rule, rectitude, integrity. 

PRIVILEGE—immunity, advantage, favor, claim, 
prerogative, exemption, right. 

PROBITY—rectitude, uprightness, honesty, integ¬ 
rity, sincerity, soundness. (Dishonesty.) 

PROBLEMATICAL—uncertain, doubtful, dubious, 
questionable, disputable, suspicious. (Certain.) 

PRODIGIOUS—huge, enormous, vast, amazing, 
astonishing, astounding, surprising, remarkable, 
wonderful. (Insignificant.) 

PROFESSION—business, trade, occupation, office, 
vocation, employment, engagement, avowal. 

PROFFER—volunteer, offer, propose, tender. 

PROFLIGATE—abandoned, dissolute, depraved, 
vicious, degenerate, corrupt. (Virtuous.) 

PROFOUND—deep, fathomless, penetrating, recon¬ 
dite, solemn, abstruse. (Shallow.) 

PROFUSE—extravagant, prodigal, lavish, copious, 
improvident, excessive, plentiful. (Succinct.) 

PROLIFIC—productive, generative, fertile, fruitful, 
teeming. (Barren ) 

PROLIX—diffuse, long, prolonged, tedious, wordy, 
tiresome, verbose, prosaic. (Concise, brief.) 

PROMINENT—eminent, conspicuous, marked, im¬ 
portant, leading. (Obscure.) 

PROMISCUOUS—mixed, unarranged, mingled, in¬ 
discriminate. (Select.) 

PROMPT—See punctual. 

PROP, v. —maintain, sustain, support, stay. 

PROPAGATE—spread, circulate, diffuse, dissemin¬ 
ate, extend, breed, increase. (Suppress.) 

PROPER—legitimate, right, just, fair, equitable, 
honest, suitable, fit, adapted, meet, becoming, 
befitting, decent, pertinent. (Wrong.) 

PROSPER—flourish, succeed, grow rich, thrive, 
advance. (Fail.) 

PROSPERITY—well-being, weal, welfare, happi¬ 
ness, good luck. (Poverty.) 

PROXY—agent, representative, substitute, deputy. 

PRUDENCE—carefulness, judgment, discretion, 
wisdom. (Indiscretion.) 

8 


PRURIENT—itching, craving, hankering, longing. 

PUERILE—youthful, juvenile, boyish, childish, 
infantile, trifling, weak, silly. (Mature.) 

PUNCTILIOUS—nice, particular, formal, precise. 
(Negligent.) 

PUNCTUAL — exact, precise, nice, particular, 
prompt, timely. (Dilatory.) 

PUTREFY—rot, decompose, corrupt, decay. 

PUZZLE, v .—preplex, confound, embarrass, pose, 
bewilder, confuse, mystify. (Enlighten.) 

QUACK—imposter, pretender, charlatan, empiric, 
mountebank. (Savant.) 

OUAINT—artful, curious, far-fetched, fanciful, odd. 

QUALIFIED—competent, fitted. (Incompetent.) 

QUALITY—attribute, rank, distinction. 

QUERULOUS — doubting, complaining, fretting, 
repining. (Patient.) 

QUESTION—query, inquiry, interrogatory. 

QUIBBLE—cavil, evade, equivocate, shuffle. 

QUICK—lively, ready, prompt, alert, nimble, agile, 
active, brisk, expeditious, adroit, fleet, rapid, im¬ 
petuous, swift, sweeping, dashing, clever. (Slow.) 

QUOTE—note, repeat, cite, adduce. 

RABID—mad, furious, raging, frantic. (Rational.) 

RACE—course, match, pursuit, career, family, clan, 
house, ancestry, lineage, pedigree. 

RACK—agonize, wring, torture, excruciate, harass, 
distress. (Soothe.) 

RACY—spicy, pungent, smart, spirited, vivacious, 
lively. (Dull, insipid.) 

RADIANCE—splendor, brightness, brilliance, bril¬ 
liancy, lustre, glare. (Dullness.) 

RADICAL—organic, innate, fundamental, original, 
constitutional, inherent, complete, entire. (Super¬ 
ficial. In a political sense, uncompromising; 
antonym, moderate.) 

RANCID—fetid, rank, stinking, sour, tainted, foul. 
(Fresh, sweet.) 

RANCOR—malignity, hatred, hostility, antipathy, 
animosity, enmity, ill-will, spite. (Forgiveness.) 

RANK—order, degree, dignity, consideration. 

RANSACK—rummage, pillage, overhaul, explore. 

RANSOM—emancipate, free, unfetter. 

RANT—bombast, fustian, cant. 

RAPACIOUS—ravenous, voracious, greedy, grasp¬ 
ing. (Generous.) 

RAPT—ecstatic, transported, ravished, entranced, 
charmed. (Distracted.) 

RAPTURE—ecstacy, transport, bliss. (Dejection.) 

RARE—scarce, singular, uncommon, unique. 

RASCAL—scoundrel, rogue, knave, vagabond. 

RASH—hasty, precipitate, foolhardy, adventurous, 
heedless, reckless, careless. (Deliberate.) 

RATE—value, compute, appraise, estimate, abuse. 

RATIFY—confirm, establish, substantiate, sanction. 
(Protest, oppose.) 

RATIONAL—reasonable, sagacious, judicious, wise, 
sensible, sound. (Unreasonable.) 

RAVAGE—overrun, overspread, desolate, despoil. 



114 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


RAVISH—enrapture, enchant, charm, delight. 

RAZE—demolish, destroy, overthrow, dismantle, 
ruin. (Buildup.) 

REACH—touch, stretch, attain, gain, arrive at. 

READY—prepared, ripe, apt, prompt, adroit, handy. 
(Slow, dilatory.) 

READ—actual, literal, practical, positive, certain, 
genuine, true. (Unreal.) 

REALIZE—accomplish, achieve, effect, gain, get, 
acquire, comprehend. 

REAP—gain, get, acquire, obtain. 

REASON, n .—motive, design, end, proof, cause, 
ground, purpose. 

REASON, v. —deduce, draw from, trace, conclude. 

REASONABLE—rational, wise, honest, fair, right, 
just. (Unreasonable.) 

REBELLION—insurrection, revolt. 

RECANT—recall, abjure, retract, revoke. 

RECEDE—retire, retreat, withdraw, ebb. 

RECEIVE—accept, take, admit, entertain. 

RECEPTION—receiving, levee, receipt, admission. 

RECESS—retreat, depth, niche, vacation. 

RECREATION—sport, pastime, play, amusement, 
game, fun. 

REDEEM—ransom, recover, rescue, deliver, save. 

REDRESS—remedy, repair, remission, abatement. 

REDUCE—abate, lessen, decrease, lower, shorten. 

REFINED—polite, courtly, polished, cultured, puri¬ 
fied, genteel. (Boorish.) 

REFLECT—consider, cogitate, think, muse, censure. 

REFORM — amend, correct, better, restore, im¬ 
prove. (Corrupt.) 

REFORMATION—improvement, reform, amend¬ 
ment. (Corruption.) 

REFUGE—asylum, protection, harbor, shelter. 

REFUSE, v. —deny, reject, repudiate, decline, with¬ 
hold. (Accept.) 

REFUSE, n. —dregs, dross, scum, rubbish, leavings. 

REFUTE—disprove, falsify, negative. (Affirm.) 

REGARD, v. —mind, heed, notice, behold, respect, 
view, consider. 

REGRET, n. —grief, sorrow, lamentation, remorse. 

REGULAR—orderly, uniform, customary, ordinary, 
stated. (Irregular.) 

REGULATE—methodize, arrange, adjust, organize, 
govern, rule. (Disorder.) 

REIMBURSE—refund, repay, satisfy, indemnify. 

RELEVANT—fit, proper, suitable, appropriate, apt, 
pertinent. (Irrelevant.) 

RELIANCE—trust, hope, dependence, confidence. 
(Suspicion.) 

RELIEF—succor, aid, help, redress, alleviation. 

RELINQUISH—give up, forsake, resign, surrender, 
quit, leave, forego. (Retain.) 

REMEDY—help, relief, redress, cure, specific. 

REMORSELESS—pitiless, relentless, cruel, ruth¬ 
less, merciless, barbarous. (Merciful, humane.) 

REMOTE—distant, far, secluded, indirect. (Near.) 

REPRODUCE—propagate, imitate, represent, copy. 


REPUDIATE—disown, discard, disavow, renounce, 
disclaim. (Acknowledge.) 

REPUGNANT—antagonistic, distasteful. (Agree¬ 

able. ) 

REPULSIVE—forbidding, odious, ugly, disagree¬ 
able, revolting. (Attractive.) 

RESPITE—reprieve, interval, stop, pause. 

REVENGE—vengeance, retaliation, requital, retri¬ 
bution. (Forgiveness.) 

REVENUE—produce, income, fruits, proceeds. 

REVERENCE, n. —honor, respect, awe, veneration, 
deference, worship, homage. (Execration.) 

REVISE—review, reconsider. 

REVIVE—refresh, renew, renovate, animate, resus¬ 
citate, vivify, cheer, comfort. 

RICH—wealthy, affluent, opulent, copious, ample, 
abundant, exuberant, plentiful, fertile, gorgeous, 
superb, fruitful. (Poor.) 

RIVAL, n. —antagonist, opponent, competitor. 

ROAD—way, highway, route, course, path, path¬ 
way, anchorage. 

ROAM—ramble, rove, wander, stray, stroll. 

ROBUST—strong, lusty, vigorous, sinewy, stalwart, 
stout, sturdy, able-bodied. (Puny.) 

ROUT, v .—discomfit, beat, defeat, overthrow. 

ROUTE—road, course, march, way, journey, path. 

RUDE—ragged, rough, uncouth, unpolished, harsh, 
gruff, impertinent, saucy, flippant, impudent, inso¬ 
lent, saucy, churlish. (Polite, polished.) 

RULE—sway, method, system, law, maxim, guide, 
precept, formula, regulation, government, test, 
standard. 

RUMOR—hearsay, talk, fame, report, bruit. 

RUTHLESS—cruel, savage, barbarous, inhuman, 
merciless, remorseless, relentless. (Considerate.) 

SACRED—holy, hallowed, divine, consecrated, dedi¬ 
cated, devoted. (Profane.) 

SAFE—secure, harmless, trustworthy. (Perilous.) 

SANCTION—confirm, countenance, encourage, sup¬ 
port, ratify, authorize. (Disapprove.) 

SANE—sober, lucid, sound, rational. (Crazy.) 

SAUCY—impertinent, rude, impudent, insolent, 
flippant, forward. (Modest.) 

SCANDALIZE—shock, disgust, offend, calumniate, 
vilify, revile, malign, traduce, defame, slander. 

SCANTY — bare, pinched, insufficient, slender, 
meager. (Ample.) 

SCATTER — strew, spread, disseminate, disperse, 
dissipate, dispel. (Collect.) 

SECRET—clandestine, concealed, hidden sly un¬ 
derhand, latent, private. (Open.) 

SEDUCE—allure, attract, decoy, entice, abduct, 
inveigle, deprave. 

SENSE—discernment, appreciation, view, opinion 
feeling, perception, sensibility, susceptibility, sig¬ 
nificance, thought, judgment, signification, mean¬ 
ing, import, purport, wisdom. 

SENSIBLE—wise, intelligent, reasonable, sober 
sound, conscious, aware. (Foolish.) 

SETTLE—arrange, adjust, regulate, conclude. 






SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


115 


SEVERAL,—sundry, divers, various, many. 

SEVERE—harsh, stern, stringent, unmitigated, un¬ 
yielding, rough. (Eenient.) 

SHAKE—tremble, shudder, shiver, quake, quiver. 

SHALLOW — superficial, flimsy, slight. (Deep, 
thorough.) 

SHAME—disgrace, dishonor. (Honor.) 

SHAMEFUL—degrading, scandalous, disgraceful, 
outrageous. (Honorable.) 

SHAMELESS—immodest, impudent, indecent, in¬ 
delicate, brazen. 

SHAPE—form, fashion, mold, model. 

SHARE—portion, lot, division, quantity, quota. 
SHARP—acute, keen. (Dull.) 

SHINE—glare, glitter, radiate, sparkle. 

SHORT—brief, concise, succinct, summary. (Long.) 
SHOW, n. —exhibition, sight, spectacle. 

SICK—diseased, sickly, unhealthy. (Healthy.) 

SICKNESS—illness, indisposition, disease, disorder. 
(Health.) 

SIGNIFICANT, a. —expressive, material, important. 
(Insignificant.) 

SIGNIFICATION—import, meaning, sense. 
SILENCE—speechlessness, dumbness. (Noise.) 
SILENT—dumb, mute, speechless. (Talkative.) 
SIMILE—comparison, similitude. 

SIMPLE—single, uncompounded, artless, plain. 
(Complex, compound.) 

SIMULATE—dissimulate, dissemble, pretend. 
SINCERE—candid, hearty, honest, pure, genuine, 
real. (Insincere.) 

SITUATION—condition, plight, predicament, state. 
SIZE—bulk, greatness, magnitude, dimension. 
SLAVERY — servitude, enthrallment, thralldom. 

(Freedom.) 

SLEEP—doze, drowse, nap, slumber. 

SLEEPY—somnolent. (Wakeful.) 

SLOW—dilatory, tardy. (Fast.) 

SMELL—fragrance, odor, perfume, scent. 
SMOOTH—even, level, mild. (Rough.) 

SOAK—drench, imbrue, steep. 

SOCIAL—sociable, friendly, communicative. (Un¬ 
social.) 

SOFT—gentle, meek, mild. (Hard.) 

SOLICIT—importune, urge. 

SOLITARY—sole, only, single. 

SORRY—grieved, poor, paltry, insignificant. (Glad, 
respectable.) 

SOUL—mind, spirit. (Soul is opposed body, 
mind to matter.) 

SOUND, a. —healthy, sane. (Unsound 
SOUND, 7i. —tone, noise, silence. 

SPACE—room. 

SPARSE—scanty, thin. (Luxuriant.) 

SPEAK—converse, talk, confer, say, tell. 

SPECIAL—particular, specific. (General.) 

SPEND— expend, exhaust, consume, waste, disi- 
pate. (Save.) 


SPORADIC—isolated, rare. (General, prevalent.) 
SPREAD—disperse, diffuse, expand, disseminate. 
SPRING—fountain, source. 

STAFF—prop, support, stay. 

STAGGER—reel, totter. 

STAIN—soil, discolor, spot, sully, tarnish. 

STATE—commonwealth, realm. 

STERILE—barren, unfruitful. (Fertile.) 

STIFLE—choke, suffocate, smother. 

STORMY—rough, boisterous, tempestuous. (Calm.) 
STRAIGHT—direct, right. (Crooked.) 

STRAIT, a. —narrow, confined. 

STRANGER—alien, foreigner. (Friend.) 
STRENGTHEN—fortify, invigorate. (Weaken.) 
STRONG—robust, sturdy, powerful. (Weak.) 

■ STUPID—dull, foolish, obtuse, witless. (Clever.) 
SUBJECT—exposed to* liable, obnoxious. (Exempt.) 

SUBJECT — inferior, suborbinate. (Superior to, 
above.) 

SUBSEQUENT—succeeding, following. (Previous.) 
SUBSTANTIAL—solid, durable. (Unsubstantial.) 
SUIT—accord, agree. (Disagree.) 

SUPERFICIAL—flimsy, shallow, untrustworthy. 
(Thorough.) 

SUPERFLUOUS—unnecessary. (Necessary.) 
SURROUND—encircle, encompass, environ. 
SUSTAIN—maintain, support. 

SYMMETRY—proportion. , 

SYMPATHY—commiseration, compassion. 
SYSTEM—method, plan, order. 

SYSTEMATIC — orderly, regular, methodical. 

(Chaotic.) 

TAKE—accept, receive. (Give.) 

TALKATIVE—garrulous, loquacious, communica¬ 
tive. (Silent.) 

TASTE—flavor, relish, savor. (Tastelessness.) 

TAX—custom, duty, impost, excise, toll. 

TAX—assessment, rate. 

TEASE—taunt, tantalize, torment, vex. 
TEMPORARY, a. —fleeting, transient, transitory. 
(Permanent.) 

TENACIOUS—pertinacious, retentive. 
TENDENCY—aim, drift, scope. 

TENET—position, view, conviction, belief. 

TERM—boundary, limit, period, time. 
TERRITORY—dominion. 

THANKFUL—grateful, obliged. (Thankless.) 
THANKLESS—ungracious, profitless, ungrateful, 
unthankful. 

THAW—melt, dissolve, liquefy. (Freeze.) 
THEATRICAL—dramatic, showy, ceremonious. 
THEFT—robbery, depredation, spoliation. 

THEME—subject, topic, text, essay. 

THEORY—speculation, scheme, plea, hypothesis, 
conjecture. 

THEREFORE—accordingly, consequently, hence. 





116 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


THICK—dense, close, compact, solid, coagulated, 
muddy, turbid, misty, vaporous. (Thin.) 

THIN—slim, slender, slight, Aims} 7 , lean, scraggy, 
attenuated. 

THINK—cogitate, consider, reflect, ponder, muse, 
contemplate, meditate, conceive, fancy, imagine, 
apprehend, hold, esteem, reckon, consider, deem, 
regard, believe, opine. 

THOROUGH—accurate, correct, trustworthy, com¬ 
plete, reliable. (Superficial.) 

THOUGHT—idea, conception, imagination, fancy, 
conceit, notion, supposition, care, provision, con¬ 
sideration, opinion, view, sentiment, reflection, 
deliberation. 

THOUGHTFUL — considerate, careful, cautious, 
heedful, contemplative, reflective, provident, pen¬ 
sive, dreamy. (Thoughtless.) 

THOUGHTLESS—inconsiderate, rash, precipitate, 
improvident, heedless. 

TIE, v. —bind, restrain, restrict, oblige, secure, ?'o:n, 

unite. (Loose.) 

• 

TIME—duration, season, period, era, age, date, 
span, spell. 

TOLERATE—allow, admit, receive, suffer, permit, 
let, endure, abide. (Oppose.) 

TOP—summit, apex, head, crown, surface. (Base, 
bottom.) 

TORRID—burning, hot, parching, scorching. 

TORTUOUS—twisted, winding, crooked, indirect. 

TORTURE—to:ment, anguish, agony. 

TOUCHING—tender, affecting, moving, pathetic. 

TRACTABLE—docile, manageable, amenable. 

TRADE—traffic, commerce, dealing, occupation, 
employment, office. 

TRADITIONAL—oral, uncertain, transmitted. 

TRAFFIC—trade, exchange, commerce. 

TRAMMEL, n .— fetter, shatter, clog, bond, impedi¬ 
ment, chain, hindrance. 

TRANQUIL — still, unruffled, peaceful, hushed, 
quiet. (Noisy, boisterous.) 

TRANSACTION—negotiation, occurrence, proceed¬ 
ing, affair. 

TRAVEL—trip, peregrination, excursion, journey, 
tour, voyage. 

TREACHEROUS—traitorous, disloyal, treasonable, 
faithless, false-hearted. (Trustworthy, faithful.) 

TRITE—stale, old, ordinary, commonplace, hack¬ 
neyed. (Novel.) 

TRIUMPH—achievement, ovation, victory, jubila¬ 
tion, conquest. (Failure, defeat.) 

TRIVIAL—trifling, petty, small, frivolous, unim¬ 
portant, insignificant. (Important.) 

TRUE—genuine, actual, sincere, unaffected, true¬ 
hearted, honest, upright, veritable, real, veracious, 
authentic, exact, accurate, correct. 

TUMULTUOUS—turbulent, riotous, disorderly, dis¬ 
turbed, confused, unruly. (Orderly.) 

TURBID—foul, thick, muddy, impure, unsettled. 

TYPE—emblem, symbol, figure, sign, kind, letter. 

TYRO—novice, beginner, learner. 


UGLY—unsightly, plain, homely, ill-favored, hid¬ 
eous. (Beauti.ul.) 

UMBRAGE—offense, dissatisfaction, resentment. 

UMPIRE—referee, arbitrator, judge, arbiter. 

UNANIMITY—accord, agreement, unity, concord. 
(Discord.) 

UNBRIDLED—wanton, licentious, dissolute, loose. 

UNCERTAIN—doubtful, dubious, questionable, fit¬ 
ful, equivocal, ambiguous, indistinct, fluctuating. 

UNCIVIL —rude, discourteous, disrespectful, dis¬ 
obliging. (Civil.) 

UNCLEAN—dirty, foul, filthy, sullied. (Clean.) 

UNCOMMON—rare, strange, scarce, singular,choice. 
(Common, ordinary.) 

UNCONCERNED—careless, indifferent, apathetic. 
(Anxious.) 

UNCOUTH—strange, odd, clumsy. (Graceful.) 

UNCOVER—reveal, strip, expose, lay bare. (Hide.) 

UNDER—below, underneath, beneath, subordinate, 
lower, inferior. (Above.) 

UNDERSTANDING—knowledge, intellect, intelli¬ 
gence, faculty, comprehension, mind, reason. 

UNDO—annul, frustrate, untie, unfasten, destroy. 

UNEASY—restless, disturbed, unquiet, awkward, 
stiff. (Quiet.) 

UNEQUAL—uneven, not alike, irregular. (Even.) 

UNEQUALED—matchless, unique, novel, new. 

UNFIT, a. —improper, unsuitable, inconsistent, un¬ 
timely, incompetent. (Fit.) 

UNFIT, v. —disable, incapacitate, disqualify. (Fit.) 

UNFORTUNATE — calamitous, ill-fated, unlucky, 
wretched, unhappy, miserable. (Fortunate.) 

UNGAINLY — clumsy, awkward, lumbering, un¬ 
couth. (Pretty.) 

UNHAPPY—miserable, wretched, distressed, pain¬ 
ful, afflicted, disastrous, drear, dismal. (Happy.) 

UNIFORM—regular, symmetrical, equal, even, 
alike, unvaried. (Irregular.) 

UNINTERRUPTED—continuous, perpetual, un¬ 
ceasing, incessant, endless. (Intermittent.) 

UNION—junction, combination, alliance, confeder¬ 
acy, league, coalition, agreement. (Disunion.) 

UNIQUE—unequal, uncommon, rare, choice, match¬ 
less. (Common, ordinary.) 

UNITE—join, conjoin, combine, concert, add, attach. 
(Separate, disrupt, sunder.) 

UNIVERSAL—general, all, entire, total, catholic. 
(Sectional.) 

UNLIMITED—absolute, undefined, boundless, infi¬ 
nite. (Limited.) 

UNREASONABLE—foolish, silly, absurd, prepos¬ 
terous, ridiculous. 

UNRIVALED — unequaled, unique, unexampled, 
incomparable, matchless. (Mediocre.) 

UNRULY—ungovernable, unmanageable, refrac¬ 
tory. (Tractable, docile.) 

UNUSUAL—rare, unwonted, singular, uncommon, 
remarkable, strange. (Common.) 

UPHOLD—maintain, defend, sustain, suppo^ -in¬ 
dicate. (Desert, abandon.) 






SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


117 


UPRIGHT — vertical, perpendicular, erect, just, 
equitable, fair, pure, honorable. (Prone.) 

UPRIGHTNESS—honesty, integrity, fairness, good¬ 
ness, probity, virtue, honor. (Dishonesty.) 

URGE—incite, impel, push, drive, instigate, stimu¬ 
late, press, induce, solicit. 

URGENT—pressing, imperative, immediate, serious, 
v,’anted. (Unimportant.) 

USAGE—custom, fashion, practice, prescription. 

USE, n . — usage, practice, habit, custom, avail, 
advantage, utility, benefit, application. (Disuse.) 

USUAL—ordinary, common, accustomed, habitual, 
wonted, customary, general. (Unusual.) 

UTMOST—farthest, remotest, uttermost, greatest. 

UTTER, a. —extreme, excessive, sheer, mere, pure. 

UTTER, v. —speak, articulate, pronounce, express. 

UTTERLY—totally, completely, wholly, altogether. 

VACANT—empty, unfilled, unoccupied, thought¬ 
less, unthinking. (Occupied.) 

VAGRANT, n. —wanderer, beggar, tramp, rogue. 

VAGUE—unsettled, undetermined, pointless, un¬ 
certain, indefinite. (Definite.) 

VAIN—useless, fruitless, empty, worthless, inflated, 
proud, conceited, unreal. (Effectual, humble.) 

VALIANT—brave, bold, valorous, courageous, gal¬ 
lant. (Cowardly.) 

VALID—weighty, strong, powerful, sound, binding, 
efficient. (Invalid.) 

VALOR—courage, gallantry, boldness, bravery, 
heroism. (Cowardice.) 

VALUE, v. —appraise, assess, reckon, appreciate, 
estimate, prize, esteem, treasure. (Despise,) 

VARIABLE — changeable, unsteady, inconstant, 
shifting, wavering, fickle, restless. (Constant.) 

VARIETY—difference, diversity, change, diversi¬ 
fication, mixture, medley, miscellany. (Same¬ 
ness, monotony.) 

VAST—spacious, boundless, mighty, enormous, im¬ 
mense, colossal, gigantic, prodigious. (Confined.) 

VAUNT—boast, brag, puff, hawk, advertise, parade. 

VENERABLE—grave, sage, wise, old, reverend. 

VENIAL—pardonable, excusable, justifiable. (Se¬ 
rious, grave.) 

VENOM—poison, virus, spite, malice, malignity. 

VENTURE, n. —speculation, chance, peril, stake. 

VERACITY—truth, truthfulness, credibility, accu¬ 
racy. (Falsehood.) 

VERBAL—oral, spoken, literal, parole, unwritten. 

VERDICT—judgment, finding, decision, answer. 

VEXATION—chagrin, mortification. (Pleasure.) 

VIBRATE—oscillate, swing, sway, wave, thrill. 

VICE—vileness, corruption, depravity, pollution, 
immorality, wickedness, guilt, iniquity. (Virtue.) 

VICIOUS—corrupt, depraved, debased, bad, unruly, 
contrary, demoralized, profligate, faulty. (Gentle, 
virtuous.) 

VICTIM—sacrifice, food, prey, sufferer, dupe, gull. 

VICTUALS—viands, bread, meat, provisions, fare, 
food, repast. 


VIOLENT—boisterous, furious, impetuous, vehe¬ 
ment. (Gentle.) 

VIRTUOUS—upright, honest, moral. (Profligate.! 

VISION—apparition, ghost, phantom, specter. 

VOLUPTUARY—epicure, sensualist. 

VOUCH—affirm, asserverate, assure, aver. 

WAIT—await, expect, look for, wait for. 

WAKEFUL—vigilant, watchful. (Sleepy.) 

WANDER—range, ramble, roam, rove, stroll. 

WANT—lack, need. (Abundance.) 

WARY—circumspect, cautious. (Foolhardy.) 

WASH—clean, rinse, wet, moisten, stain, tint. 

WASTE, v. —squander, dissipate, lavish, destroy,, 
decay, dwindle, wither. 

WAY—method, plan, system, means, manner, mode,, 
form, fashion, course, process, road, route, track,, 
path, habit, practice. 

WEAKEN—debilitate, enfeeble, enervate, invali¬ 
date. (Strengthen.) 

WEARY—harass, jade, tire, fatigue. (Refresh.) 

WEIGHT — gravity, heaviness, burden, load. 
(Lightness.) 

WELL-BEING—happiness, prosperity, welfare. 

WHOLE—entire, complete, total, integral. (Part.) 

WICKED—iniquitous, nefarious. (Virtuous.) 

WILL—wish, desire. 

WILLINGLY—spontaneously, voluntarily. (Un¬ 
willingly. ) 

WIN—get, obtain, gain, procure, effect, realize, 
accomplish, achieve. (Lose.) 

WINNING—attractive, charming, fascinating, be¬ 
witching, enchanting, dazzling. (Repulsive.) 

WISDOM — prudence, foresight, far-sightedness, 
sagacity. (Foolishness.) 

WONDER, v. —admire, amaze, astonish, surprise. 

WONDER, n. —marvel, miracle, prodigj^. 

WRONG—injustice, injury. (Right.) 

YAWN—gape, open wide. 

YEARN—hanker after, long for, desire, crave. 

YELL—bellow, cry out, scream. 

YELLOW—golden, saffron-like. 

YELP—bark, sharp cry, howl. 

YET—besides, nevertheless, notwithstanding, how¬ 
ever, still, ultimately, at last, so far, thus far. 

YIELD—bear, give, afford, impart, communicate, 
confer, bestow, abdicate, resign, cede, surrender. 

YIELDING—supple, pliant, bending, compliant, 
submissive, unresisting. (Obstinate. ^ 

YOKE, v. —couple, link, connect. 

YORE—long ago, long since. 

YOUTH—boy, lad, minority, adolescence. 

YOUTHFUL—juvenile, puerile. (Old.) 

ZEAL—energy, fervor, ardor, earnestness, enthu- 
siam, eagerness. (Indifference.) 

ZEALOUS—warm, ardent, fervent, enthusiastic, 
anxious. (Indifferent, careless.) 

ZEST—relish, gusto, flavor. (Disgust.) 







UR capacity to love and 
awaken this tender 
passion, is as much a 
gift, a real genius, as 
any other; and the 
basis of all conjugal 
excellence. On it 
rests the entire superstructure 
of wedlock. Out of it, like 
limbs and fruit from their trunk, 
grow. all marital virtues and 
enjoyments. Its full and per¬ 
fect action perfectly fulfils them 
all. They are complete when 
its action is perfect, but incom¬ 
plete when it is weak. 

Those in whom it is vigorous and normal, 
cannot make poor husbands or wives, though 
faulty in other respects; nor those good ones 
in whom it is deficient, however many or 
great their excellences. The former are 
always extra fond, loving, doting, devoted, 
and happy in wedlock when fond at all, yet 
when antagonistic, become the more so the 
better it is developed ; for, like a two-edged 
sword, it cuts fearfully, the wrong way when 
it does not cut the right. 

Love is stronger in some, and weaker in 
others. As some excel in one gift, yet lack 
another, are good in music but poor in fig- 
118 


ures, etc. ; so this loving, lovable capacity is 
strong in some but weak in others. The 
difference between different persons in this 
respect is indeed heaven-wide. Those in 
whom it is large and normal, instinctively 
make good husbands or wives without 
effort; yet those who lack it make poor 
ones, though they try their best. A man 
ever so industrious, steady, provident, liberal, 
pious, moral, intelligent, if this faculty is 
weak, is only a poor, commonplace husband, 
unloving and unloved ; comparatively soul¬ 
less, withered, barren, indifferent, cold- 
hearted, rigid, uncouth, and cares little for 
woman in general, or wife in particular, and 
is cared little for by either; while he in 
whom it is hearty and normal, is rich in 
conjugal affection. 

Noble Men and Women. 

He loves woman in general, and wife in 
particular, which both awakens their love, 
and teaches him instinctively just how to 
comport himself toward both. He is all 
warmth, glowing and rich in all the mascu¬ 
line attributes ; while he in whom it is defi¬ 
cient is unmanned, emasculated in soul and 
body, and proportionally worthless as a hus¬ 
band. 

A woman whose love is weak, is cold. 




















COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


119 


spiritless, passive, tame and barren in all the 
feminine attractions and virtues ; half dead 
and alive; like leather as compared with 
skin, having the female groundwork, but 
lacking its life and soul; may indeed be a 
great worker and a good housekeeper; the 
kindest and best of neighbors ; refined, 
proper and much besides ; but will be bar¬ 
ren in womanliness, and therefore lack this 
4 ‘ one thing needful” in conjugality, this very 
heart’s core of female nature, and the lovable 
wife. Though good in all other respects, 
yet as a wife proper she is proportionally 
good for nothing. “ I would as soon marry 
a post as her,” said a well-sexed man of an 
extra nice, refined, intellectual, squeamish, 
unmarried woman of thirty, in whom this 
faculty was wanting. 

Love and Marriage. 

In all who are indifferent to marriage this 
faculty is feeble and vice versa. It may be 
naturally strong, yet temporarily weakened 
by physical debility, or sexual impairments, 
or surfeited, or deadened by early errors, or 
disappointed love. Yet this alone is the 
marrying and marriageable element, all else 
being subservient to this great prerequisite. 

Expect an insipid marriage if it is feeble 
in yourself or companion ; and that minor 
differences will alienate you, where hearty 
love would harmonize. Yet to those who 
marry for station, home or money, it is less 
important. 

All hail this love element, this conjugal 
inspiration and gift. So far from being 
mean, low-lived, sensualizing, it takes its 
dignified rank among the human capacities. 
Its perversion alone is despicable; yet so is 
that of all the others. As worship is self- 
exalting when rightly exercised, yet degrades 
when perverted to idolatry; so perverted 
love creates the vilest of the vices ; yet no 


human virtue is more praiseworthy, purifying 
or elevating than its proper exercise; and 
when powerful and normal, becomes a real 
genius, and as much to be prized and culti¬ 
vated as a talent for invention, poetry, ora¬ 
tory, logic. As we honor a gifted musician 
much, why not a prime husband or wife 
more? Is not love as great a human en¬ 
dowment as reason, and as useful ? Then 
why not honor and nurture it as much more 
as its end is more indispensable ? 

A Peerless Passion. 

How infinitely glorious this loving, lovable 
capacity! What sacrifices for its object it 
inspires ! What faults it hides ! What vir¬ 
tues it develops ! What other felicity equals 
it ? What ecstasy as ecstatic ? What a zest 
it imparts to every other life function and 
enjoyment! What joy in being loved ! Girl, 
you little realize the intrinsic worth of that 
tender regard for you existing in your lover’s 
soul, or you would not trifle with it. No 
emotion, not even worship, is any more sacred. 

Ye who have never loved stand aside, for 
novices are counted out; as are ye who have 
loved only indifferently. But all ye who 
have loved heartily , was not that love-season 
your most sacred life-epoch? Were you not 
regenerated by it? To love and be loved 
tamely, passively, is something ; but to love 
and be loved with a whole-souled and a 
powerful affection, is life’s most luxurious 
and delicious feast perpetually served up. 
Have and prize musical gift, poetical talent, 
or any other you may possess ; but to what¬ 
soever other gift I possess let me superadd 
an intense, a dotingly-devoted love-nature , 
and a lovable object. Be rich, yet unloving, 
if you will, but let me be affectionate though 
poor. Give me a clear head along with a 
warm heart, yet if but one, the warm, doting, 
lovine heart first. 







LOVE AMONG THE ROSES 





















































































































































































































































































































































































COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


121 


Love ! How inexpressibly sacred ! Less 
so than divine worship only. What other 
human emotion except divine worship pene¬ 
trates quite as deeply into the very rootlets 
and soul of human existence as does this 
tender sentiment? For what does a man 
“ launch out” so freely as to the devoted, 
affectionate, responsive wife whom he loves 
so tenderly and devotedly? All human 
experience concurs in pronouncing this 
“ man’s grand master-passion.” Say, all ye 
who have ever loved—and who that has 
reached maturity but has—what one senti¬ 
ment ever struck away down into the very 
depths of your innermost consciousness as 
did this holy sentiment. 

Take that dashing, heartless beauty to i 


your home and heart ye who will, but give 
me one brimful of love and devotion, even 
though less handsome, and if I must be 
enraptured, let it be in my devotion to my 
conjugal partner. Let memory decline, 
finance and ambition wane ; but, oh, let 
affection die last, and “live again” first, and 
be forever completely intertwined with one 
who loves with equal devotion. 

Ah, now, in youth, how beautiful, 

Is the enchanted land ! 

What matchless flowers my hand doth cull 
Within its haunted strand ! 

What gorgeous visions spread the wing 
Amid its twilight shades ; 

And oh ! what shapes go, beckoning, 

Along its moonlit glades ! 

The dewy showers and silver gleams 

That sweeten all the land of dreams ! 


Tl). 



N order to prepare the reader 
fully to comprehend and appre¬ 
ciate the important practical 
details which follow, it is neces¬ 
sary to describe the different 
temperaments. When we com¬ 
pare man with the other animals, 
we observe that he is distinguished by char¬ 
acteristic features which do not permit us, 
for a moment, to confound him with any of 
them ; and when we compare man with man, 
we are struck by the no less obvious fact, 
that there exists between individuals differ¬ 
ences analogous to those which mark the 
different species. One is tall and muscular, 
another short and plump, a third small and 
slender. We observe, also, that the func¬ 
tions of life are not performed in all with the 
same degree of force or rapidity, and that 
their likes and dislikes have neither the same 
direction nor the same intensity. 


These differences are the result and indi¬ 
cation of what we call temperament, which 
is defined as the peculiar physical and mental 
character of an individual. 

In their last analysis, the temperaments 
are as numerous and varied as the individuals 
of the race, no two persons being found with 
precisely the same physical constitution. 
Tracing them back to their simpler forms, 
however, we shall find them all to result 
from the almost infinite combinations of a 
few simple elements. 

The human body is composed of three 
grand classes or systems of organs, each of 
which has its special function in the general 
economy. These are: 

1. The Motive or Mechanical System, 

2. The Vital or Nutritive System, and— 

3. The Mental or Nervous System. 

On this basis rests the true doctrine of the 
temperaments, of which there are primarily 












122 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


three, corresponding with the three systems 
of organs just named. We call them: 

1. The Motive Temperament, 

2. The Vital Temperament, and— 

3. The Mental Temperament. 

It is the predominance of the class of organs 
from which it takes its name that determines 
each of these temperaments. Thus the first 
is marked by the superior development of the 
osseous and muscular systems, forming the 



MOTIVE-VITAL TEMPERAMENT. 


Bones, muscles and joints large and strong; 
vitality abundant; the whole structure indicating 
firmness, toughness, energy and activity; percep¬ 
tions clear; sound in judgment and quick in de¬ 
cision ; admirably adapted to all out-door activities 
and pursuits. 

locomotive apparatus; in the second, the vital 
organs, the principal seat of which is in the 
trunk, give the tone to the organization; and 
in the third, the brain and nervous system 
exert the controlling power. 

The simple or primary temperaments are, 
however, practically, little better than ab¬ 
stractions ; but they serve as points of 
departure from which to arrive at their 
■various combinations. 


I.—THE MOTIVE TEMPERAMENT. 

The bony framework of the human body 
determines its general configuration, which 
is modified in its details by the muscular 
fibers and cellular tissues which overlay 
them. In the motive temperament the 
bones are proportionately large, and gener¬ 
ally long rather than broad, and the outlines 
of the form manifest a tendency to angular¬ 
ity. The muscles are well developed, but 
only moderately rounded, and correspond in 
form with the bones. 

The figure is commonly tall, elegant and 
striking; the face oblong; the neck rather 
long; the shoulders broad and definite; the 
chest moderate in size and fulness ; the ab¬ 
domen proportional; and the limbs long and 
tapering. The complexion and eyes are 
generally, but not always, dark, and the hair 
dark, strong and abundant. Firmness of 
texture characterizes all the organs. 

Strong Characters. 

Men of this temperament are naturally 
vigorous, active, energetic and impassioned, 
and possess strongly marked, if not idiosyn¬ 
cratic, characters. They manifest great 
capacity for conception, receiving and com¬ 
bining rapidly many and varied impressions, 
and are constantly carried away, bearing 
others with them, by the torrent of their 
imagination and passions. They are leaders, 
rulers and conquerors in the sphere in 
which they move. This is the temperament 
for rare talents, great works, great errors, 
great faults and great crimes. 

The motive temperament was the prevail¬ 
ing one, apparently, among the ancient 
Romans. An aquiline nose, great ambition 
and an insatiable love of power and con¬ 
quest very frequently accompany it. 

In a woman of this temperament the 
bosom is only moderately developed, the 












123 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


waist remarkable for its fine proportions, the 
haunches not very broad, the limbs ele¬ 
gantly formed and indicative of agility and 
lightness. 

The Diana of Grecian sculpture furnishes 
a fine classic representation of this type of 
feminine beauty. 

Helen of Troy, according to the descrip¬ 
tions we have of her, must have been of this 
temperament; for we are told that she was 
tall, and that she had “a very long and 
white neck, whence she was said to be the 
daughter of a swan.” 

Rounded Plumpness. 

The motive temperament, in its typical 
form, is less proper to woman than to man ; 
but we may note two or three modifications 
of it which constitute the more feminine 
phases : 

The first is that in which the bones, except 
those of the pelvis, are proportionately small, 
which gives the figure additional delicacy and 
grace. This conformation, while it adds to 
the beauty of the female figure, detracts from 
the strength and consequently from the beauty 
of the masculine form. 

The second is that in which the develop¬ 
ment of the ligaments and the articulations 
which they form are proportionately small, 
which adds to the beauty of the female 
figure by correcting the tendency to angu¬ 
larity and abrupt bendings which, as we have 
seen, is characteristic of this temperament, 
and rounding and softening the contour of 
the joints. This will be practically apparent 
in the wrists and ankles. 

The third is that which presents propor¬ 
tionally shorter bones, and, except around 
the pelvis, smaller and more rounded mus¬ 
cles, affording less strongly marked reliefs 
and more of that rounded plumpness essen- 
tial to the highest beauty in woman. 


An abnormal development of the motive 
temperament, in which both the vital and the 
mental systems are sacrificed to mere animal 
strength, forms what the ancients called the 
athletic temperament. It is marked by a 
head proportionately small, especially in 
the coronal region; a thick neck; broad 
shoulders; expanded chest; and strongly 
marked muscles, the tendons of which are 
apparent through the skin. 



Features delicately cut; countenance very expres¬ 
sive ; hair fine and soft; eyes brilliant and pene¬ 
trating; figure graceful, rather than imposing; 
muscles small and compact, adapted to rapid action 
rather than strength ; the whole structure distin¬ 
guished for fineness and delicacy. 

The Farnese Hercules furnishes a model 
of the physical attributes of this abnormal 
constitution, in which brute force usurps the 
energies necessary to the production of 
thought, and leaves its possessor decidedly 
deficient in all the higher mental manifesta¬ 
tions. This temperament does not occur 
so frequently in women. They present a 
marked contrast to the brute force and dull 
sensibilities of the mere animal. 













124 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


II.—THE VITAL TEMPERAMENT. 

As this temperament depends upon the 
predominance of the vital or nutritive organs 
which occupy the great cavities of the trunk, 
it is necessarily marked by a breadth and 
thickness of body proportionately greater, 
and a stature and size of limbs proportion¬ 
ately less than in the motive temperament. 
Its most striking physical characteristic is 



VITAL TEMPERAMENT. 

Stature above the medium ; chest broad ; face full 
and limbs well rounded ; expression lively, frank 
and good-natured; may have complexion either 
light or dark ; fond of good living, play and out¬ 
door life ; social affections strong. 

rotundity or plumpness. The face inclines 
to roundness; the neck is rather short; the 
shoulders broad and round; the chest full ; 
the abdomen well developed; the arms and 
legs plump, but tapering and delicate, and 
terminating in hands and feet relatively 
small. The complexion is generally rather 
florid; the countenance smiling; the eyes 
blue ; and the hair soft, light and abundant. 

In a woman of this temperament (which 


seems peculiarly the temperament of woman y 
the shoulders are softly rounded, and owe 
any breadth they may possess rather to the 
expanded chest containing these organs, than 
to the bony or muscular size of the shoulders, 
themselves; the bosom, a vital organ, in its 
luxuriance seems laterally to protrude on the 
space occupied by the arms; the waist, 
though sufficiently marked, is, as it were, 
encroached on by that plumpness of all the 
contiguous parts which the powerful nutri¬ 
tive system affords; the locomotive organs,, 
the limbs and arms, tapering and becoming 
delicate, terminate in feet and hands which, 
compared with the ample trunk, are pecu¬ 
liarly small; the complexion, depending upon 
nutrition, has the rose and lily so exquisitely 
blended that we are surprised it should defy 
the usual operation of the elements; and 
there is a luxuriant profusion of soft and fine 
flaxen or auburn hair. The whole figure is 
soft and voluptuous in the extreme. • 

Arts of Oriental Women. 

Such forms and faces have had more 
numerous admirers than those of any other 
style, and enter into almost every descrip¬ 
tion of beauty in the works of both Asiatic 
and European writers. Americans are said 
to be the only people who manifest a decided 
passion for slenderness. The arts which 
women have practiced in order to acquire 
the desired plumpness are detailed at length 
by various writers. Camus tells us that the ' 
women of Egypt were wont to bathe them¬ 
selves several days in lukewarm water, eat¬ 
ing and drinking while in the bath. The 
Empress Theodora also “made abundant use 
of the bath, remaining in it long, and leaving 
it only to eat and rest in bed, during the 
greater part of the day and night,” to increase 
her plumpness and heighten her charms. 

Persons of this temperament are charac- 













COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


125 


terized mentally by activity, ardor, impul¬ 
siveness, enthusiasm, versatility, and some¬ 
times by fickleness. They have more elas¬ 
ticity than firmness, more diligence than 
persistence, more brilliancy than depth. 
They are frequently violent and passionate, 
but are as easily calmed as excited; are 
generally cheerful and amiable, and almost 
always very companionable and fond of good 
living. 

An undue and abnormal preponderance of 
the absorbent system and a sluggish action 
of the circulatory organs give rise to what 
has been called the lymphatic temperament, 
which presents forms even more rounded 
and softer than those we have been describ¬ 
ing, but lacking their well-defined and grace¬ 
ful outlines. A feeble color of the skin, a 
lack of expression in the countenance, insur¬ 
mountable sloth, and a general weakness 
and apathy, both of body and mind charac¬ 
terize this state of the system, which is so 
evidently the result of disease that we see no 
propriety in setting it down as one of the 
natural temperaments. When perfect health 
shall have become universal, we shall have 
no lymphatic people, and no lazy ones. 

III.—THE MENTAL TEMPERAMENT. 

The mental temperament, depending upon 
the predominance of the brain and nervous 
system, is characterized by a slight frame, 
and a head relatively large and of a pyriform 
appearance. The face is generally oval; 
the forehead high and pale ; the features 
delicate and finely chiseled ; the eye bright 
and expressive ; the hair fine, soft, not 
abundant, and commonly of a light color ; 
the neck slender ; the chest rather narrow ; 
the limbs small ; and the whole figure deli¬ 
cate and graceful rather than striking or 
elegant. In woman, the bosom and pelvis 
are only moderately expanded, and there is 


a decided lack of that rounded fullness 
which characterizes the vital temperament. 

The face of Duse, the famous Italian ac¬ 
tress, is particularly fine, and no ideal can 
express, in general contours, more intellect¬ 
uality. The following brief but graphic 
description of the great Queen of Tragedy, 
as she appeared on the stage in New York 
is a correct picture of her : 

“ Pale, with jet-black hair, a small, regular 
nose, a mouth mobile enough, but rather 
sweet in its expression and tender in its lines 



Well-proportioned form ; eyes large and express 
sive; a happy combination of mental and bodily 
activity; features regular and expressing intelli¬ 
gence, sympathy and sincerity. A fine type of all 
womanly grace and attractiveness. 

for the heroine of tragedy, and a large fore¬ 
head quite protruding itself over the straight, 
black brows that shadow her wondrous eyes, 
she is the very embodiment of feminine in¬ 
tellect. Her figure is slight, and her mental 
entirely dominates her vital system ; but her 
limbs, with all their delicacy, have a firm look, 
and she is rather lithe than fragile. The fall 
of her drapery would make any sculptor 
despair, did he not see that itself is but the 
reproduction in tissue of lines into which the 
Grecian sculptors wrought their marble/’ 




126 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


In some of her plays, however, she 
dresses like a peasant girl, and utterly 
ignores all the graces of drapery. 

In persons of the mental temperament, 
the brain and the nervous system are active, 
the thoughts quick, the senses acute, and the 
imagination lively and brilliant. It is the 
literary and artistic, and especially the poetic, 
temperament, of which Byron, Shelley, 
Keats, and Poe furnished good examples. 

There is at the present day, and in this 



MOTIVE-MENTAL TEMPERAMENT. 

Thinker and worker; practical, pushing, ambi¬ 
tious, thorough, forcible ; physique tough and wiry, 
rather than stout and commanding; in many respects 
the typical American. Men distinguished in every 
pursuit possess this temperament to a greater or less 
degree. 

country, an excessive and morbid develop¬ 
ment of this temperament, especially among 
women (to whom, even in its normal pre¬ 
dominance, it is less proper than the preced¬ 
ing), which is most inimical to health, lon¬ 
gevity, and happiness. It answers to the 
nervous temperament of the old classifica¬ 
tion, and is characterized by the smallness 
and emaciation of the muscles, the quickness 
and intensity of the sensations, the sudden¬ 
ness and fickleness of the determinations, 
and a morbid impressibility. 


It is caused by sedentary habits ; lack of 
exercise; a false system of education, induc¬ 
ing a premature and disproprionate develop¬ 
ment of the brain ; the immoderate use of 
tea, coffee and tobacco ; and habits of sensual 
indulgence. 

The three primary temperaments combin¬ 
ing with each other in different proportions, 
and being modified by various causes, form 
sub-temperaments innumerable, presenting 
differences and resemblances depending upon 
the relative proportions of the primitive ele¬ 
ments. The simplest combinations of which 
the three primary temperaments are suscep¬ 
tible, give us six sub-temperaments, which 
may be designated as— 

1. The Motive-Vital Temperament, 

2. The Motive-Mental Temperament, 

3. The Vital-Motive Temperament, 

4. The Vital-Mental Temperament, 

5. The Mental-Motive Temperament, and 

6. The Mental-Vital Temperament. 

The Proper Balance. 

The names of these compound tempera¬ 
ments sufficiently indicate their character. 
The motive-vital and the vital-motive differ 
but slightly, the name placed first in either 
case indicating the element which exists in 
the larger proportion. The same remark 
applies to the motive-mental and the mental- 
motive, and to the vital-mental and the 
mental-vital. 

It is evident that perfection of constitu¬ 
tion must consist in a proper balance of tem¬ 
peraments. If any one of them exists in 
great excess, the result is necessarily a 
departure from symmetry and harmony 
both of form and character. Whatever, 
therefore, has a tendency to promote the dis¬ 
proportionate development of either of them 
should be carefully avoided. 

Each person is born with a particular tern- 






COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


12? 


perament, in which there is an inherent ten¬ 
dency to maintain and increase itself, since it 
gives rise to habits which exercise and 
develop it; but this tendency may be coun¬ 
teracted and changed entirely by external 
circumstances—by education, occupation, 
superinduced habits, climate, etc., and more 
particularly by special training instituted for 
that purpose. 

Dr. George Combe, in one of his valuable 
works, points out the important changes 
produced in the temperament by a continued 
course of training. “It is common,” he 
says, “for the motive to be changed into the 
mental temperament by habits of mental 


activity and close study; and, on the other 
hand, we often see the nervous or bilious 
changed into the lymphatic or vital about 
the age of forty, when the nutritive system 
seems to acquire the preponderance.” 

Spurzheim was accustomed to say that he 
had originally a large portion of the lym¬ 
phatic temperament, as had all his family; 
but that in himself the lymphatic had gradu¬ 
ally diminished, and the nervous increased ; 
whereas, in his sisters, owing to mental inac¬ 
tivity, the reverse had happened, and when 
he visited them, after being absent many 
years, he found them, to use his own expres¬ 
sion, “as large as tuns.” 


iCI)ab Teiyperan^eqts Should apd Should 

Hot Nlarry 



INCE few have well-balanced 
heads or bodies, most require 
marry their opposites in one 
or more respects. Almost all 
have too much brain for body, 
or body for brain; or else too 
much or too little respiration, 
or digestion, or circulation, or muscle, for 
their other physical functions. 

Those who are medium in complexion, 
stature, etc., who are neither extra dark nor 
light, large nor small, tall nor short, lean nor 
fat, may marry those who are medium, or 
nearly like themselves in these respects, or 
in either extreme, or a little more or less so 
than themselves. Thus, those whose hair is 
neither dark nor light, but about midway 
between both, may marry those who are a 
shade darker, or lighter, than themselves, or 
a good deal darker or lighter, or even jet 


black or bright red, as they may fancy, or aa 
other circumstances may favor most, the 
complexion being not especially material; 
yet the darker one is, the lighter his or her 
companion should be. 

Bright red hair should marry jet black, and 
jet black auburn, or bright red. And the more 
red-faced and bearded or impulsive a man, the 
more dark, calm, cool, and quiet should his 
wife be ; and vice versa. The florid should 
not marry the florid, but those who are dark 
in proportion as they themselves are light. 

Red-whiskered men should many bru¬ 
nettes but not blondes ; the color of the 
whiskers being more determinate of the 
temperament than that of the hair. 

The color of the eyes is still more impor¬ 
tant. Gray eyes must marry some other 
color, almost any other, except gray; and 
so of blue, dark, hazel, etc. 











128 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


Those very fleshy should not marry those 
equally so, and this remember, is doubly true 
of females. A spare man is much better 
adapted to a fleshy woman than a round- 
favored man. Two who are short, thick¬ 
set and stocky should not unite in marriage, 
but should choose those differently consti¬ 
tuted ; but on no account one of their own 
make. And, in general, those predisposed 
to corpulence are therefore less inclined to 
marriage. 

Whom Nervous People Should Marry. 

Those with little hair or beard should 
marry those whose hair is naturally abun¬ 
dant ; still, those who once had plenty, but 
who have lost it, may marry those who are 
either bald or have but little ; for in this, as in 
all other cases, all depends on what one is by 
nature, little on present states. 

Those whose motive-temperament decidedly 
predominates, who are bony, only moderately 
fleshy, quite prominent-featured, Roman¬ 
nosed, and muscular, should not marry those 
similarly formed, but those either sanguine 
or nervous, or a compound of both ; for 
being more strong than susceptible or emo¬ 
tional, they both require that their own emo¬ 
tions should be perpetually prompted by an 
emotional companion, and that their children 
also be endowed with the emotional from 
the other parent. That is, those who are 
cool should marry those who are impulsive 
and susceptible. 

Small, nervous men must not marry little 
nervous or sanguine women, lest both they 
and their children have quite too much of 
the hot-headed and impulsive, and die sud¬ 
denly. Generally, ladies who are small arc 
therefore more eagerly sought than large. 
Of course this general fact has its except¬ 
ions. Some are small hereditarily, others 
rendered so by extra action in some form, 


over-study, over-work, or passional excite¬ 
ment ; because during growth, their intense 
nervous systems consumed energy faster 
than their weak vital could manufacture it; 
which dwarfed their stature. 

A woman who is small-boned and extra 
fine-grained, must marry one extra promi¬ 
nent-featured and large ; while two who are 
prominent-featured, long-faced, and formed 
upon the same general model of potentiality 
should not affiliate. A woman evenly bal¬ 
anced is adapted to any large, tall, prominent¬ 
nosed man, but not to one small and sharp¬ 
nosed, or thin-lipped. 

Webster preferred little women; he coarse, 
they fine; he powerful, they susceptible; his 
love animal, theirs more sentimental; he for¬ 
cible, they pliant. Short, rotund, small-boned 
women attract and are attracted to tall and 
spare men ; while those who are slim, abso¬ 
lutely must wed stocky, wide-jowled. broad- 
shouldered men. 

A Singular Fact. 

Two very beautiful persons rarely do or 
should many ; nor two extra homely. The 
fact is a little singular that very handsome 
women, who, of course, can have their pick, 
rarely marry good-looking men, but gener¬ 
ally give preference to those who are 
homely; because that exquisiteness in which 
beauty originates naturally blends with that 
power which accompanies huge noses and 
disproportionate features. 

Psyche loved Apollo desperately, says 
Mythology, on account of his beauty. Now, 
this must have been purely imaginary. No 
v oman thus beautiful ever loved a handsome 
man, if she could find any other. The 
Greek Slave, who was chiselled by the 
sculptoi as medium in form, would choose 
not a tall, slim, but a thick-set, broad-shoul¬ 
dered man, though perhaps tall if capacious- 



COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


129 


chested and prominently-featured. Psyche 
would naturally choose a man of talents 
rather than of a good physique ; and a right 
homely and even awkward man need not 
fear a refusal, if he is only powerful, original, 
logical and smart. 

All bony, muscular temperaments, and 
strongly-marked outlines, should marry a 
.smooth, round, plump form. 

Rapid movers, speakers, laughers, should 
marry those who are calm and deliberate, 
and impulsives, those who are stoical; while 
those who are medium, may marry those 
who are either or neither, as they prefer. 

Masculine Women. 

Masculine women, who inherit their 
father's looks, stature, appearance and 
physique mainly, should give preference to 
men who take most after the mother, physi¬ 
cally ; whilst women cast strongly after their 
mother should marry those men in whom 
the masculine form and physiology super- 
abound. 

Noses indicate characters by indicating the 
organisms and temperaments. Accordingly, 
those noses especially marked either way, 
should marry those having opposite nasal 
characteristics. Roman noses are adapted 
to those which turn up, and pug noses to 
those turning down; while straight noses 
may marry either. 

Narrow nostrils indicate small lungs. Such 
are adapted to those with broad nostrils, 
which accompany large lungs and vital 
organs. 

President John Adams lived in the most 
poetic affection with his wife over half a 
century. He had all the signs of a vigorous 
sexuality, along with that harmonious even¬ 
ness which would neither give nor take 
offence. He was so splendidly sexed that 
any and all women would love him ; besides 


being talented, moral and most appieciative 
of the sex. He was best adapted to a woman 
rather tall, certainly not oval, but especially 
refined. A little irritability was his only 
fault. 

Heavy lower jaws, which signify animal 
vigor, are adapted to light; but two with 
heavy jowls would create too animal off¬ 
spring ; and two thin ones, those too feeble 
physically to become, accomplish or enjoy 
much. Thus Miss Slim may marry a robust, 
well-rounded figure, but not Lincoln, who 
w^as well adapted to his wife; he lantern- 
jawed, she rotund. 

Large mouths and lips signify hearty sex¬ 
ualities. Small mouths in females are poorly 
adapted to large-featured, bony, broad-built, 
robust men. 

No two with narrow, retreating chins 
should marry; but such should pair off with 
those which are broad, prominent and pro¬ 
jecting downward. 

Unfortunate Marriages. 

Miss Exquisite must on no account marry 
“a young man of the period,” slim, slight 
built, sprightly, all nerve, the lower part of 
his face thin, neck small, brilliant, and fore¬ 
head high and prominent; for their nervous¬ 
ness would engender mutual antagonisms in 
a week; and their children would not sur¬ 
vive a scarlet fever attack a day. Only a 
large-featured, cool, strong man is at all 
adapted to her. 

No fat, short husband would do for Miss 
Plump. Oval and short herself, only a long¬ 
faced, tall, spare man would draw her love. 

A woman who is “all soul” must marry 
a man who is somewhat of an animal, strong, 
practical, energetic, for if she chooses an ex¬ 
quisite, ornate, nice, finished, bright, senti¬ 
mental man, their children, if they produced 
any, would be too angelic for this coarse 


9 




130 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


world, and leave it early. Nor could she 
endure such a husband. 

A long-faced, thin-visaged, long-nosed, 
long-necked person, built on the crane prin¬ 
ciple, should not marry one of similar 
physique, but one who might be called Miss 
Square, or Miss Gay, or Miss Plump, for 
their form indicates impulsiveness ; his, cool¬ 
ness ; theirs, flash ; his, power. 

The Tall and the Short. 

A tall pair is rare; but a tall, elegant 
woman is often found mated with a short, 
stocky man, and vice versa. 

Two having fine soft hair and skin are not 
as well adapted in marriage as those having 
one the coarser, the other the finer; lest 
their offspring should be too exquisitely 
organized for their strength ; nor should 
two very coarse-haired, lest their children 
prove too coarse and animal; yet those 
whose hair and skin are average, may marry 
fine, or coarse, or medium. 

Curls should not marry curls!—except 
those easily taken off—but should select 
those whose hair lies so close and smooth as 
to fairly shine ; while wavy hair is adapted to 
either or neither. 

These cases are instanced, less on their 
own account, than as illustrations of the law 
involved ; which, once understood, becomes 
a guide in all other cases. Still, none should 
be rejected because of some minor condi¬ 
tions, provided the great outline character¬ 
istics are all right. 

A right mental adaptation is, however, as 
much more important than a right physical, 
as the transmission of the mind is than that 
of the body. Gender, too, inheres mainly 
in the mind. Then what laws govern men¬ 
tal affiliations ? 

Those which govern physical. Is# their 
great outline they must be substantially 


alike. Thus, a savage and a civilized do- 
not harmonize as well as two savages, or 
two who are civilized. No instances of 
genuine affection obtain among all the mar¬ 
riages of white men with squaws, or African, 
or Malay women, except where the latter 
have been first civilized. Could a bigoted 
heathen love a bigoted Christian ? The 
more either sets by their religion, the less 
they would set by each other. Not only 
must a Chinese marry a Chinese, a Turk a 
Turk, and a Christian a Christian, but those 
of the same Christian faith must marry those 
of like tenets. Catholics naturally blend 
with Catholics, and Protestants with Protest¬ 
ants, never with those of opposite faith. 

Different Religious Beliefs. 

Conflicting beliefs can love each other 
when their sexual attraction is sufficient to 
overcome religious differences; yet religious 
harmony increases, and differences diminish, 
their natural assimilation. So great is this 
sexual attraction, that a savage man and 
civilized woman can live happily together; 
yet how much more cordially could savage 
live with savage, and one of his own tribe, 
and civilized with civilized, and one of their 
own or like mode of civilization. Even 
those of different nationalities will find their 
national differences a source of many more 
discords than concords, and should marry 
only when love is sufficiently strong to over¬ 
rule this national antagonism. 

Political views are governed by this prin¬ 
ciple, yet if two persons will subject politics 
to love, they can live affectionately. “ You 
have a right to your opinion, and I have to 
mine; I 'will not trouble you about your 
political views, and you shall not pick a 
quarrel with me.” This is a good rule, and, 
if followed, would save many a tempest in 
the household. The opposite rule is: “You 




131 


GALLANTRY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY* 





































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































132 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


have a right to believe as I do, and I insist 
that you shall.” This is the jug-handle, all 
on one side. 

Lack of affection in both will render their 
marriage and offspring tame, even though 
both are talented and moral. At least one 
.should be affectionate, better if both are; yet 
her lot is hard, who, with warm, gushing 
affection, is repulsed when she expresses it. 
She who dearly loves to be caressed and 
fondled, should be; and if she marries a cold, 
distant man, whose love is merely personal, 
she must expect to pine and starve, and dis¬ 
pense, during maternity, with that sympathy 
.and tenderness she then so much needs and 
craves. 

The True Gentleman. 

A true lover is always attentive, kind, con¬ 
siderate, and prides himself on being courtly 
and gallant. A real gentleman can be picked 
out from a thousand by his polite treatment 
of ladies, such as is pictured to the eye in the 
accompanying engraving, which represents 
the courtly gallantly of the 18 th century. 
Ladies, such a gentleman for a husband is 
worth more than the dollars of a hundred¬ 
fold millionaire, yet he may have the millions 
and be a gentleman into the bargain. 

Few are perfect, mentally and sentiment¬ 
ally; therefore most require to offset their 
excesses and defects by marrying those unlike 
themselves. They must be sufficiently alike 
in the majority of their great outline charac¬ 
teristics to fuse their differences ; but since 
almost all have too much or too little cau¬ 
tion, kindness, selfishness, taste, justice, most 
persons need to marry those unlike them¬ 
selves, in one or more respects. 

Evenly balanced heads may marry either 
those well or poorly balanced, yet prefer 
those well balanced. Those who marry even, 
may expect their children to be good, yet not 


remarkable; those who marry contrasts, may 
look for those of bolder outlines, who will be 
noted for something special. Yet if these 
differences are considerable, they produce 
miserably balanced children, usually unfor¬ 
tunate and unhappy. 

Strongly feminized men, who inherit after 
the mother or grandmother, should marry 
strongly masculinized women, who take 
chiefly after their fathers, so as to secure both 
male and female characteristics. Dependent 
and vine-like women are always drawn most 
to positive, firm, wilful, authoritative men, 
who love to command, and take the respon¬ 
sibility ; while strongly feminized men need 
“ strong-minded,” forcible women—those re¬ 
lated. to the Amazons—to assume the respon¬ 
sibility and spur on to effort; yet some of 
this class require to marry men who are still 
firmer than themselves, and forcible enough 
to create deference. 

Weak Characters Despised. 

A woman, to love a man well, must look 
up to him with awe and respect ; yet all 
women despise weak, vacillating men. No 
woman who has much feminine intuition can 
possibly love a putty man. 

Men who love to command must be 
especially careful not to marry imperious, 
women’s-rights women ; while those who 
willingly “obey orders,” need just such. 
Some men require a wife who shall take their 
part; yet all who do not need strong-willed 
women, should be careful how they marry 
them. Unless you love to be opposed, be 
careful not to marry one who often argues 
and talks back ; for discussion before mar¬ 
riage becomes obstinacy after. 

A sensible woman should ^ot marry an 
obstinate but injudicious, unintelligent man ; 
because she cannot long endure to see and 
help him blindly follow his poor, but spurn 




COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


133 


her good plans. Though such men need 
just such women to help lay out their life- 
course, while such women could get on pass¬ 
ably with such husbands who heeded their 
suggestions; yet such men plan poorly, 
blindly follow their own wills, and authori¬ 
tatively compel their wives to help carry 
them out. 

How Good Wives are Spoiled. 

Obstinate men must be sensible, or else 
content with wives and children who are 
not. If they could only realize that such 
women are just the very ones they require, 
. yet that they should always ask and heed 
their advice, they would render their wives’ 
position most agreeable instead of painful, 
and every way most promotive of their 
mutual happiness and success. How impor¬ 
tant a change would be effected by this 
apparently trifling condition ! Yet in most 
like cases such men spoil such women. 
They are drawn together at first because 
naturally adapted to each other; yet their 
adaptation is spoiled by denying her her 
natural place in their copartnership. 

A submissive but intellectual woman may 
marry a man whose will is stronger, even 
though his intellect is smaller, than hers ; 
yet it is better for both if his intellect is still 
larger than hers, so that she may repose in 
his superior judgment. Such a woman feels 
inadequate to assume responsibilities or set 
herself at work, and must have some guide. 
Naturally dependent, she must lean, though 
even on a crooked stick. Fortunately, how¬ 
ever, she can adapt herself to almost any man. 

Hence, if her second husband should be 
totally different from her first, and third from 
either, she could yet conform to each with 
equal ease ; and if force is large, will work 
most effectually and willingly with and for 
him, however opposite their specialties; 


besides quietly adapting herself to extreme 
vicissitudes, by making the best of what is. 
Such, especially if love is large, make the 
very best wives, because efficient and sen¬ 
sible, yet affectionate and comformable. 
And there are many such. 

The reserved or secretive should marry 
the frank. A cunning man cannot endure 
the least artifice in a wife. Those who are 
non-committal must marry those who are 
demonstrative; else however much they may 
love, neither will feel sure as to the other’s 



affections, and each will distrust the other, 
while their children will be deceitful. Those 
who are frank and confiding also need to be 
constantly forewarned by those who are sus¬ 
picious. 

A timid woman should never marry a 
hesitating man, lest, like frightened children, 
each keep perpetually re-alarming the other 
by imaginary fears ; nor yet a careless man, 
for he would commit just indiscretions 
enough to keep her in perpetual “ fear and 
trembling; ” but should marry one who is 
bold, yet judicious, so that her intellect, by 
















134 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


reposing in his tried judgment, can feel safe, 
and let her trust in him quiet her natural 
fearfulness. 

A hopeless man should marry a resolute, 
hopeful woman, who is always telling how 
well things are going to turn out, and en¬ 
couraging, and who has sufficient judgment 
to be allowed the reins, lest the fears of both 
render him pusillanimous, and their children 
cowards. Many men live tame lives, though 
abundantly capable of accomplishing almost 
anything, because too irresolute to once 
begin ; whereas, with a judicious yet expec¬ 
tant wife to prompt them to take initiatory 
steps, they would fill responsible positions. 

The Curse of Extravagance. 

An industrious, thrifty, hard-working man 
should marry a woman tolerably saving and 
industrious. As the “almighty dollar” is 
now the great motor-wheel of humanity, and 
that to which most husbands devote their 
entire lives, to delve alone is uphill work. 
Much more if she indulges in extravagance. 
It is doubly important, therefore, that both 
work together pecuniarily. But if either has 
property enough to create in both a feeling 
of contentment, large acquisition in the other 
is less important; yet a difference here often 
engenders opposition elsewhere. 

Good livers should marry—he to provide 
table luxuries, she to serve them up, and 
both to enjoy them together. Indeed, a 
good appetite in both can often be made to 
harmonize other discordant points, and 
promote concord. 

Men large in beauty should by no means 
marry women deficient in it ; yet women in 
whom it is large may marry men in whom it 
is only fair, provided other traits are favor¬ 
able ; for a man of taste can never endure 
a slattern, while a woman of taste can bear 
with a man who is careless of appearances, 


and love him, provided he has sufficient 
power and stamina of character to eclipse 
this defect by his sterling characteristics ; yet 
he must let her “fix him up nicely.” 

A clergyman of commanding talents, 
superior eloquence, and the highest moral 
worth, was publicly described as likely to 
marry a woman of superior taste, refinement, 
personal neatness, beauty, elegance of man¬ 
ners, poetry, and many other like expressions 
denoting large beauty ; whereas she was the 
reverse ; but he lived unhappily, and spent 
much of his time from home, because he 
could not endure her coarseness and slat¬ 
ternly habits, and never took her out. He 
had married her money, and was anything 
but conjugally mated or happy; so that the 
prediction was right in principle. The rule 
was proved by the evils consequent on its 
violation. 

Animal Propensities. 

Animal love, excessive in both, prompts 
to that over-indulgence which breaks down 
the nervous systems of both, and renders 
their children too impulsive, fiery, and ani¬ 
mal ; whereas, when one is passionate and 
the other passive, the former will inspire 
passion in the latter, yet be toned down by 
the passive one; while their children will 
unite the Platonic love of the latter with the 
impassioned of the former, and be better 
than either ; whereas, its deficiency in both 
renders progeny too tamely constituted ever 
to enjoy or accomplish much. And yet 
such absolutely must adapt themselves to 
each other. 

The irritable, yet approbailvc, must by no 
means marry those like themselves, lest the 
irritability of each, by blaming the other, 
rouse mutual resentment. Yet if such are 
married, both must be especially careful 
how they cast any reflections ; because the 






COURTSHIP AND MARRiAGE. 


135 


other party construes them to mean much 
more than was intended. Probably more con¬ 
jugal animosities originate in this wounded 
ambition than in any other faculty. Nothing 
as effectually rouses and intensifies every 
existing antagonism. Pride is a good thing, 
but must be respected and humored, at least 
not upbraided or mortified. Even if a man 
can gratify a woman’s love of style and dis¬ 
play, he must not censure her in private, 
unless he is willing to kindle her hate, and 
spoil their children. 

Fault-finding beaux and girls, during court¬ 
ship, are sure to scold intolerably after mar¬ 
riage. If your moderate ambition can endure 
censure, marry; but if not, take timely 
warning from “straws.” One who is hard 
to please before marriage, will be much 
harder after; while one who patiently en¬ 


dures and forbears during courtship, will be 
more so after marriage, if kept in a love 
mood; and a beau who insists on having 
his way before, will be dogmatical if not 
domineering after ; and must marry a meek, 
patient, accommodating woman. 

This counterbalancing law also governs 
the intellectual faculties. If a man who has 
large perceptives with small reflectives, mar¬ 
ries a woman having large reflectives with 
small perceptives, since both transmit what 
is strongest in themselves, their children will 
inherit his large perceptives along with het 
large reflectives ; thus possessing the perfec¬ 
tions of both, unmarred by the imperfections 
of either. He can remember, but not think; 
while she can think, but not remember; 
yet their children can both think and re¬ 
member. 


- - | - - 

How Love-iVlakii)o Should be Conducted 


E have now stated the plain 
rules which should be 
observed in making selec¬ 
tions for marriage. Both 
the physical and mental 
traits ought to be carefully 
considered; health and 
physique should be taken into account; also 
the disposition and mental peculiarities. We 
come now to those plain and sensible sug¬ 
gestions that should be considered in con¬ 
ducting every courtship. Here it is possible 
to commit grave errors ; thoughtless, care¬ 
less, impulsive, passionate, giddy young 
people often spoil the beauty and bloom of 
love-making. 

Excessive coyness and distance sometimes 
repel. Love must be mutual; hence bash¬ 


ful suitors often fear lest they obtrude them¬ 
selves on a reserved woman. Many a courted 
girl represses all advancements, even mani¬ 
fests aversion, though bursting with affection ; 
whereas showing him that she is approach¬ 
able instead of repellant, would encourage 
his attentions. Broken-hearted women by 
thousands have lost their lovers by extra 
reserve and apparent stoicism, whom a more 
reciprocal course would have retained. One 
alone cannot do all the courting. There 
must be a response, and unless it is prompt 
and emphatic the fires are liable to die in 
ashes. 

Young man, the lady you are courting is 
above any other, more sacred, lovelier, 
sweeter, more angelic, if you please. Open 
all the treasures of your heart to her; idolize 













136 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


her, fondle her, feed her craving for affection, 
treat her with all the delicacy and considera¬ 
tion of which you are capable. Young 
woman, these same rules are for your side 
of the house, and you must observe them, 
in so far as they apply to your sex. 

Bungle whatever else you will, but do 
not dare bungle courtship ; because its right 
management will conduct all to that happiest 
issue of life, a happy marriage; whilst its 
wrong is commensurately disastrous. Its 
august mission is to establish between two 
that eternal affiliation which will ever con¬ 
stitute them “one flesh,” cement each other’s 
affections past all possibility of future rup¬ 
ture, and render them one in object, doctrine, 
feeling, spirit, everything. 

Beginning Right. 

Its beginning is equally regulated by these 
laws ; so that all the power wielded by love 
over man barely measures the blessings con¬ 
ferred by its right initiation, and the miseries 
inflicted by its wrong. Indeed, its first stage 
is by far its most eventful, for good and evil. 
When begun and conducted just right, it 
waxes better and better; but worse and 
worse when started wrongly. 

Young folks, this subject concerns you as 
much as does a happy marriage. Parents, 
you have a stake in this matter equal to all 
your interests in your dear children’s marital 
well-being. 

Some fundamental errors alone could 
blight the great majority of marriages as 
now. No minor superficial causes could 
effect results thus terribly fatal. Only a 
very wrong beginning, very wrongly con¬ 
tinued, could even prevent all marriages 
from being superlatively happy, much less 
mar most of them, and render even the 
majority of them wretched. So great is the 
power of love to unite two of even opposite 


temperaments, fuse those naturally uncon¬ 
genial, amalgamate those actually repellant,. 
and harmonize even civilized with savage, 
that only some monster wrong in its very 
beginning could eventuate thus disastrously 
to the great proportion of matches. 

Great Number of Divorces. 

That a wrong selection is not this cause, 
is proved by the law that love is both self- 
perpetuating and self-augmenting; that all 
who once begin, naturally love more and 
better the longer they live in love. The 
number of divorces applied for by Anglo- 
Saxons, despite their great unpopularity,, 
even disgrace, children, and all other ties 
and obstacles, proves that our marriages are 
far more unhappy than those of the bulk 
of mankind; whereas they should be as 
much the happiest as w r e are the most 
enlightened. 

Love miseries outside of marriage at least 
equal, probably surpass, those within it. Ye 
celibates attest how inexpressibly you have 
suffered in your affections. What miserable 
days ! How many agonizing nights ! be¬ 
cause made thus wretched through love 
disappointed, and this through errors in 
love-making; but for which you would have 
kept your sweetheart, and been as happy as 
you have now been miserable. 

Commensurate causes have effected all 
these losses of enjoyment, and inflicted all 
these penalties. Then, what are our marital 
canker-worms? What wolves and tigers 
perpetrate all this dreadful havoc? What 
love-making ordinances, violated, inflict all 
these untold yet ever variegated pangs on 
wretched millions, in wedlock and out ? 
What misery is to be compared with that 
jealousy which is often justly excited by 
thoughtless conduct? Why must queenly 
women be tortured and sent, pining, to an 





COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


13T 


early grave r W nat is the secret of all these 
untold evils and sorrows ? What ruthless 
hand is it that works all this evil ? 

All civilization is concerned in the answer, 
as much more than in “the laws of trade,” 
as a fortunate marriage makes happier than 
fortunate speculations. First and foremost, 

Flirting, Courting “Just for Fun.” 

They are universal, almost. Who can 
say, “ I never made love, and had none 
made to me, except to and by the one I 
married ? ’ ’ What means all this street 
gadding after dark, so common in factory 
and other towns, but to see, be seen by, and 
flirt with the “ fellars ” and “ gals.” “ Big 
school boys and girls,” answer: “Don’t you 
cast sheep’s eyes back and forth, and spend 
more time in enamoring each other than in 
study ? in loving than mental culture ? and 
give more soul to cultivating the mere sen¬ 
suous aspect of amativeness than to mental 
discipline? Even Sabbath-school and Bible- 
class scholars, don’t you coquette back and 
forth with much more thrilling interest than 
you study ‘ the Word of God ’ and your 
own soul’s salvation ? Teachers, confess 
whether you do not reciprocate much more 
love with scholars and each other than 
you would acknowledge, perhaps your¬ 
selves realize? Or if not, our eyes badly 
deceive us. 

“ Church attendants, go ye not ‘ to meet¬ 
ing ’ sometimes more to oggle than pray, 
flirt than adore, worship Venus than Christ, 
go home with a girl, or go home with ‘ a 
fellar,’ than to ‘ love the Lord ? ’ Ladies, 
what induces you to dress thus voluptuously, 
behave so fascinatingly, and comport your¬ 
selves thus stylishly ? ‘ To win the beaux, 

admire and be admired by them,” is your 
practical answer in most that you say and do 
there. You do not ‘primp up’ and ‘pretty 


off ’ thus for naught. Only some great 
motive could inspire and prompt all this; 
and that this is love, is attested in all your 
ways and actions. Come, ‘ own up,’ at 
least to yourselves.” 

We know that multitudes act from higher 
motives ; this does not affect the statement 
respecting others. 

Parties, balls, suppers, receptions, are 
obviously and avowedly “ got up,” loved, 
and conducted to make conquests, “ cut 
out” each other, enamor and be enamored. 
The writer saw a Kentucky maiden rendered 
just as furious, mad is too tame a word, as 
she could live, because another girl at a 
superb party had drawn off her escort. 
“Society girls” proclaim in all their winning 
actions, their entire spirit and make-up, that 
captivating and being captivated engross their 
whole souls, and inspire them throughout. 

Coquettish Maiden. 

All coquettes equally illustrate our subject 
of “ making love merely for the fun of the 
thing;” as well as all encouragements with¬ 
out a marriage purpose. “ I never am, intend 
never to be, if I can help it, without some 
fellow to keep company with,” said a maiden 
of thirty. 

Coxcombs, what are you after in all your 
compliments and gallantries ? Girls’ hearts 
is the answer returned in all you say and do. 
A dozen maids and widows consulted a 
phrenologist as to their marriage adaptation 
with the same man, a most desirable “catch,” 
who was courting and fooling them all, and 
doubtless other dozens besides, with marital 
encouragements. 

Many kindred illustrations of this almost 
universal flirtation in civilized communities 
exist. It seems to be so inwrought into the 
very frame-work of civic customs as to need 
no more, hardly this much, amplification. 


i 






















































































































































































































































































COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


139 


Inflicting pain is diabolical, except in doing 
good. All mankind have justly cursed 
Nero’s cruelty. All wanton tortures of man 
by man are heinous. 

Trifling with Another’s Affections. 

Yet men who torture women cap the 
climax of human depravity. Worst of all, 
how fiendish for young men to elicit only to 
blight the affections of young women ! 
Attest, all ye who have suffered thus, what 
other life-misery was equally protracted or 
agonizing ? Women suffer more than men ; 
and girls most of all. How fearful the effects 
of affectional blight! Only those who have 
suffered thus can begin to realize how awful. 
And even they barely begin. 

Yet you, flirting culprit, inflict all this on 
a fellow-being, a child of our common Father. 
Men should promote the happiness, not cause 
the misery even of beast, much more of man, 
most of all of females. Let savage Indians 
torture captives to death by slow, agonizing 
inches, but shall civilized men inflict years 
of mental wretchedness on a woman till she 
becomes a mere wreck, in mind and body ? 
Torturing the opposite sex is double-distilled 
barbarity. 

By often escorting her to church, concert, 
picnic, party; by looking so blandly and 
seeming so happy with her, as if you could 
not bask enough in her affections ; by your 
actions, which always “ speak louder than 
words;” and many like means, you solicited 
hers in return ; until, reluctantly, confidingly, 
she took you at your act. By thus inviting 
her affections, you proffered her your own 
far more than any words could proffer: else 
actions are only farces. 

Your gallant attentions on their very face 
assured her, that if she would reciprocate 
your love, you would continue to love her 
alone for life. How outrageous to solicit 


and accept hers without returning your own. 
He is far less a robber who asks a merchant 
his price for specified choice articles, seems 
satisfied, and takes the goods, but sneaks out 
with “ I never promised to pay.” 

“ Your taking the goods implied and ex¬ 
pressed your promise of payment, and holds 
you thereto,” is the only business answer; 
and is that woman’s whose love you solicit 
and accept. Paying equal court to all by 
gentlemanly deportment only, does not com¬ 
mit ; whereas singling out one , proffering her 
your escort, and expressing and reciprocating 
love, constitutes the highest proffer of mar¬ 
riage man can make to woman. 

How Love is Blighted. 

What business have you with any woman’s 
love except as your wife , actual or prospec¬ 
tive ? It is her wifehood. And all of it. 
Its entire rationale is to render her a wife, 
and thereby mother. And the stronger it is 
the better a wife and mother it renders her. 
Your blighting it de facto mars or spoils her 
wifehood. Or if not, no thanks to you ; for 
you did what is precisely adapted to spoil it. 
Loving you unfits her for loving and marry¬ 
ing another. You either spoil both her and 
thereby her future husband if she marries, or 
by sickening her of marriage, render her an 
old maid, and thus rob some man of all the 
happiness she would have enjoyed and con¬ 
ferred with husband and children. 

You injure her relatives. After her doting 
parents have done their best to fit her to 
become a superb wife and mother, you visit 
her as a suitor. They tolerate your visits 
only as such. If they supposed you came 
merely to fritter away your and her affections, 
they should and would bar their doors against 
you. They being her natural protectors 
makes it their bounden duty to see that all 
her lovers come, not as wolves in sheep’s 






140 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


clothing, but only as genuine marriage can¬ 
didates, or otherwise eject you indignantly, 
even violently, just as if you assaulted her 
virtue. 

In this false disguise you win only to 
break her heart, and then turn traitor. Con¬ 
fidence between friends, should never be 
betrayed; much less between the sexes ; 
last of all between lovers. What is breaking - 


faith as to dollars, word of honor, veracity, 
everything else, compared with betraying a 
woman in that holiest relation, her affectional? 

Female flirtation is almost as bad. After 
coquettishly inviting and allowing a man to 
love and caress you, how wicked to agonize 
him by his causeless dismissal ? Be not so 
cruel. Inflict not a wrong thus great on a 
young man who has paid you that greatest 
practical compliment of loving you, after 


you have expressed for him that tender 
fondness and exalted regard inherent in 
loving. Perpetrate almost any other sin, 
inflict any other torture, but spare him this 
agony, yourself this crime. 

Every girl should steel her heart against 
all affectional overtures, unless and until 
accompanied by proposals . Her love is her 

all; so that she should “set her face as a 
flint ” against all forms of courtship, 
unless first certain that her affections can 
and will be reciprocated, and eventuate in 
marriage. 

Allowing Attentions. 

Woman should guard man’s love like- 
wise. Shall she allow him to wait on,, 
and proffer marks of special regard,, 
when she has no intention of marrying 
him ? She may not do him as great a. 
wrong by allowing his attentions as he¬ 
ller by proffering his “just for fun ; ” but 
does she not do him a wrong no true 
woman should ever inflict on any man ?' 
The mere fact of receiving his special 
attentions practically encourages their 
continuance, and promises her own in 
return. Neither sex should allow any 
affectional manifestations till affianced. 
They may allow attentions and civilities, 
but not love-tokens. 

None can choose wisely after begin¬ 
ning to love; for Cupid is, always has 
bv.cn, must be blind to the faults, while mag¬ 
nifying the virtues of the one beloved. 

Women never bestow affection till solicited, 
in word or deed, at least till after twenty-two ; 
nor then without leave , and a virtual promise 
of its return ; foi nature has thrown a wall 
of maidenly modesty around female love, 
which restrains undue forwardness. Let the 
self-consciousness of all testify. But when 
it is once drawn out, she clings as with the 



A RIVAL DISCOVERED. 
































































































































































































































































































































































142 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


grasp of desperation to the man who elicits 
it. To shake off either is wellnigh impossible. 

How do these youthful flirtations and 
conquests, so trifling in themselves, cause all 
these varied and aggravated evils of vitiated 
love and marital miseries ? Because 

Loving Involves Marrying. 

Love and marriage are necessary concomi¬ 
tants. Each consists in the other, and was 
created specifically for the other, as much as 
vallevs and rivers, or the two halves of a 
bivalve ; and cannot possibly be separated. 
Therefore those who reciprocate love to¬ 
gether, thereby proportionally marry each 
other. Whether their marriage is or is not 
mentioned, matters nothing. Loving actions 
and expressions are marriage actions and 
expressions. 

He who makes love to any woman thereby 
makes marriage to her; and she, by allowing 
it, consents to marriage, and by reciprocating 
it marries herself to him. Nature has so 
linked love and marriage together that man 
can never separate them. And he who, after 
having made love to a woman, discards her, 
has divorced himself; as she divorces herself 
who rejects a lover she has allowed to make 
love to her. How monstrous is this sin, yet, 
alas, how common ! Those who perpetrate 
it “ sow to the wind,” and must “ reap the 
whirlwind.” 

As “great oaks from little acorns grow” 
in the world of seeds ; so doubly in that of 
the human passions and emotions. As a 
small crevasse in the levee of the great 
“Father of Waters” very soon widens and 
deepens, till it finally overflows “all the 
country round about,” doing millions of 
damage, from a beginning so small that a 
single spade of earth, rightly applied, would 
have prevented all; so anything during 
courtship which causes pain, endangers an 


irreparable breach between two who other¬ 
wise would have remained perfectly happy 
together. 

And the earlier, the more assiduously it 
should be guarded against, or arrested in its 
very beginning. Till the affections have 
become so confirmed that to sunder them 
is wellnigh impossible, but not till then, let 
both stand sentinel, neither giving nor tak¬ 
ing offence, nor causing pain in this or any 
other way. 

“The Poison of Asps.” 

Love-spats are hate-spats. Though ex¬ 
perienced by most lovers, yet none realize 
how fatal they are to subsequent affection. 
As well let a blighting “sirocco” sweep 
over a fertile plain teeming with life, as any 
of these poisonous love-blights cross your 
flowery pathway. Their effects on future 
affection are almost paralytic, and should on 
no account be allowed. What is settled 
hatred in marriage but prolonged “spats?” 
They are the more fatal the oftener they 
recur; are a hornet’s sting thrust into the 
eye of affection. “The poison of asps is 
under their lips.” 

The first spat is like a deep gash cut into 
a beautiful face, rendering it ghastly, and 
leaving a frightful scar, which neither time 
nor cosmetics can ever efface ; inducing that 
pain so fatal to love, and blotting that sacred 
love-page with memory’s most hideous and 
imperishable visages. Cannot many now 
unhappy remember them as the beginning of 
that alienation which embittered your sub¬ 
sequent affectional cup, and spoiled your 
lives? With what inherent repulsion do you 
look back upon them ? Their memory is. 
horrid, and effect on love most destructive. 

Their analysis reveals their inherent de¬ 
formity. They consist wholly in mutual ani¬ 
mosities and reproaches; and imply or ex* ‘ 




COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


143 


press that each has done or is doing the 
other a wrong so deep and wilful that justice, 
self-respect, and all the faculties require the 
positive resentment of even lovers. For 
acquaintances to “fall out,” is bad; but for 
those who have lavished their mutual affec¬ 
tions upon each other, is perfectly abhorrent 
to all the higher, finer feelings of human 
nature. Those who thus resent supposed 
grievances thereby charge the accused with 
conduct too outrageous to be borne, and 
condemn in language and manner; while 
those who sulk, imply that their “ grief is too 
deep for utterance,” and anger too strong -or 
speech. 

Love Killed by Quarrels. 

What condemnation could be more con¬ 
demnatory? What is this but the utmost 
disdain? How contrary to the spirit of true 
love! It is to love what a black frost is to 
vegetation, always, necessarily, and ipso facto. 
Blaming acquaintances is wrong, unless their 
guilt is palpable; those of opposite sexes 
worse; lovers by far the worst. “If mine 
enemy had done this, I could have borne it, 
but it is my friend , with whom I have taken 
sweet counsel.” What are all lovers’ 
“spats” but disappointment in its very worst 
form ? They necessarily and always produce 
all its terrible consequences. 

“Thunder-storms clear the atmosphere,” 
say some, “and promote vegetation; then 
why not love-spats promote love?” 

Their very nature blights it. They always 
might promote it, because nature extorts 
good from evil; yet “ shall we therefore do 
;vil that good may come ? ” Is that “ wrath ” 
less evil which is made to “praise God?” 
But as sickness, rightly managed, clears the 
system of disease, and promotes subsequent 
health ; so these “ hate-spats ” can be made 
to strengthen love, provided the wronging 


| party confesses, begs pardon, and promises 
never to sin thus again ; and both mutually 
do forgive, revow, and re-resolve to do better 
ever afterwards ; thus virtually remating. 
But re-cherishing love is what both staves off 
this dire alienating consequence, and substi¬ 
tutes re-increased affection. When “ spats ” 
work out their own legitimate effects, they 
always reverse and destroy affection ; and 
mere snarls redouble them in proportion to 
their frequency and intensity. 

“Would Have Given the World. 

How do they make you feel afterwards ? 
As though a terrible storm had chilled and 
drenched you, and a lightning flash came 
near destroying roots and top ; as though 
snatched from the very edge of a precipice, 
and saved from a yawning gulf; ashamed, 
humbled, and “extremely sorry this difficulty 
ever happened;” “would have given the 
world if it had not; ” as if renewed efforts 
are required to repair its breach ; and “ this 
never ought to recur.” It is a most dan¬ 
gerous experiment; and every new one only 
re-increases their fatality. Even the strongest 
love will endure but few, nor any survive 
many. Their final impression is, “ I will 
overlook this one, but don’t provoke me 
again.” They leave it on a plane far below 
that on which they find it; not on a familiar, 
but on a suspecting or hating one ; substitute 
distrust for confidence ; and induce a feeling 
of commonness or else contempt, in place of 
exalted admiration ; and totally change all 
your looks and actions. 

Both now eye each other like two curs, 
each watching lest the other should gain 
some new vantage-ground of assault. Before 
so tender, now so cold and hardened! 
Before so coy and familiar, after, how re¬ 
served, distant, hard and austere! How 
talkative before, demure after, as if attending 






144 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


to something else, and trying to forget that 
each other is present! Your mutual plat¬ 
forms and standpoints respecting each other 
how strangely altered, but only for the worse! 

If you make up by confession, the confes¬ 
sor feels mean and disgraced; or if both 
confess and forgive, both feel humbled; 
since forgiveness implies inferiority and pity; 
from which whatever is manly and womanly 
shrinks. Still, even this is better than con¬ 
tinued “ spats.” 

Patient Endurance. 

“They are almost universal, and in the 
nature of our differences cannot be helped. 
The more two love, the more they are ag¬ 
grieved by each other’s faults: of which 
these spats are but the correction.” Thus 
people agree. 

False, every sentence. Instead of being 
universal, they are consequent on imperfect 
love, and only aggravate, never correct er¬ 
rors. Sexual storms never improve, whereas, 
love obviates faults by praising the opposite 
virtues. Every view of them, practical and 
philosophical, condemns them as being to 
love what poison is to health, both before 
and after marriage: they are nothing but 
marriage discords. Every law of mind and 
love condemns them. Shun them as you 
would deadly vipers. 

Prevent them by forestallmem. Begin by 
vowing to each other that neither will give 
nor take offence; because each knows the 
other intends no wrong. Those who start 
their love-career on this platform will make 
the most of all palliating circumstances, and 
patiently endure the balance. 

Instead, many lovers assign the blackest 
motives to ordinary actions, and take offence 
where disinterested beholders see no wrong; 
because imperfect love is exacting and cen¬ 
sorious, while genuine is forbearing, forgiv¬ 


ing, and indulgent. Love partly reversed by 
fear, or any other faculty, produces that sus¬ 
picious state which is to genuine what jeal¬ 
ousy is to conjugality, and tears the core out 
of its pitiable victims. 

Establishing a perfect love in the begin¬ 
ning constitutes a preventive. Fear that the} 7 
are not duly loved, and mortified pride, usu¬ 
ally pave the way for these “spats,” by re¬ 
versing love. Then let all who make any 
pretension guard against all beginnings of 
this reversal, and strangle these “hate-spats” 
the moment they arise. “ Let not the sun 
go down upon thy wrath,” not even an hour, 
but let the next sentence after they begin 
quench them forever. And let those who 
cannot court without “spats,” stop; for those 
vvho spat before marriage, must quarrel after 

No Concealments. 

Truth will out, surely after marriage. 
Both should, will, must know each other. 
To decide wisely whether they can love and 
will marry, each must ascertain the other’s 
tastes, likes, dislikes and specialties, faults 
included. Love can fasten only on excel¬ 
lences, known or supposed; and is propor¬ 
tionate thereto. 

Frankness thus becomes indispensable, 
and the only paying policy. All conceal¬ 
ments before marriage are fatal ever after; 
for it reveals faults sometimes. If known 
before, each naturally expects to tolerate 
them, yet love for all; which half obviates 
them, by almost compelling allowances; 
whereas the one deceived feels “sold.” 

Making your beau think by millinery ap¬ 
pearances that you have a splendid form, 
when marriage reveals only padded shams, 
throws a “wet blanket” over his love, the 
more fatal the more lie is thus enamored. 
So equally of false teeth, making believe 
younger by dyeing hair or whiskers, etc* • 






THE LOVERS’ RECONCILIATION. 


10 


145 










































































































































146 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


The age should never be concealed. Even 
reluctance to tell it virtually says, “I’m 
ashamed to tell how old I really am.” Yet 
nature’s infallible age-marks unmask all. 

A splendid young man, whose love was 
quite personal, on marrying a supposed 
beauty, found she had a slight blemish; 
which so disgusted him with her that he 
abandoned her, though enamored of her 
otherwise ; which agonized both beyond 
description, yet would have been prevented 
by its mere mention. 

Lies Never Pay. 

All deceptions react against their authors, 
and lay and fire trains for nuptial explosions 
fatal to the marital enjoyments of both, by 
putting the wronged, and thereby both, into 
a hating, hateful mood. Lies never pay , but 
always punish, all liars. Throughout all 
God’s domains “honesty is policy .” Truth 
triumphs. Nature punishes all who “bear 
false witness” in any form. “Thou shalt 
not lie ” is doubly imperative in marriage. 

Both should make clean breasts of all 
their traits, good, bad and indifferent, before 
loving or engaging, and in order thereto. 

“ But this would prevent or break off most 
marriages.” 

Whenever it would, it should. When 
knowing faults before would turn love, learn¬ 
ing them after will kill it ; and that after 
marriage prevents placing it elsewhere. Yet 
candor only promotes them ; because both 
are in a loving, overlooking mood , which is 
everything. The parents, at least, of the 
girl should tell him her virtues and failings. 
All should know all about each other in 
some way ; and those to whom reference is 
made, should conscientiously tell the whole 
truth. 

Court in every-day clothes. Having 
stated times when both see each other ar¬ 


rayed only in their best habiliments of charac¬ 
ter and attire, is not adapted to reveal their 
genuine traits. After engagement both 
should “put their best foot foremost,” 
which is natural to love; but before it, they 
should see each other in their every-day 
apparel, about their daily avocations, and as 
they are likely to appear after marriage; 
each occasionally “popping in” upon the 
other informally, familiarly, and as an every¬ 
day acquaintance, that each may see the 
other’s habitual natural appearance and 
actions. 

Men often court to get money. Any 
woman who has saved up a few dollars by 
whatever of labor and self-denial is in danger 
of being courted out of it, on the obvious 
principle that the shortest way to her pocket 
is through her heart. Women, turn all men 
right out the moment they suggest your 
letting them have one dollar, no matter how 
plausible their pretence. Only the worst, 
meanest of villains will ever play that card. 
In comparison, robbery is a virtue. 

A Broken Match. 

Parents, beware how you encourage a 
false courtship. An indulgent mother, 
wealthy, fashionable, and occupying a high 
social position, took summer board for her¬ 
self, beautiful daughter of eighteen, and 
daughter’s lover of twenty, choosing con¬ 
tiguous dormitories for them, and allowing 
them the most perfect intimacy; to which, 
since they were “engaged,” none objected. 
She even encouraged their familiarity by 
urging that “courtship” is the only genuine 
love-season of life; that marriage is fatal to 
love; that, therefore, lovers should make 
the most possible out of this sunny gala* day 
of life ; and that, as she would indulge her 
daughter in dress, jewelry, everything else 
to please her, so she would treat her to one 




COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


147 


good, long, bright, balmy, luxurious court¬ 
ship, which she prolonged by postponing 
their marriage. 

But a more “advantageous” offer made 
her break off this match ; which spoiled that 
superior young man whom she had encour¬ 
aged to caress her daughter till his whole 
being was bound up in love for her, inflicting 
on him God only knows how much misery, 
and vitiating his love by interrupting it, a 
wrong she had no right to inflict; besides 
most effectually demoralizing her daughter. 

What if she did make other conquests, 
and flirt on, which she did, was she therefore 
happy? Or does she make a good wife and 
mother ? A sweet, innocent girl then ; what 
is she now ? What are her ideas of virtue ? 
Should she not curse such a maternal educa¬ 
tion ? Let her example warn other mothers 
not to tempt their daughters in like manner. 

Sudden Loves and Chance Marriages. 

“ Marry in haste and repent at leisure,” is 
an experimental truism worthy of respect. 
Gourd love may be pure, but is quite likely 
to be animal; because inspired by personal 
oualities. Those denied all association witli 

X 

the opposite sex till this element is almost 
starved, may possibly conceive a pure mutual 
affection “at first sight;” yet spiritual love is 
inspired mainly by mental excellences, to 
appreciate which requires time. Suddenness 
is no objection to one prompted by mutual 
fitness ; yet it requires watching till its purity 
is undoubted. The more sudden it is, the 
more deliberate should be the marriage. 
Genuine is content with being reciprocated, 
without hastening marriage. That is the best 
which grows gradually. “ Early ripe, early 
rotten,” applies to it equally with fruits. Yet 
its purity is the main thing. 

Women, you must sometimes decline 
proffers. This must wound a sensitive 


suitor’s feelings keenly, blight his hopes, 
and impair his future chances. So sugar- 
coat this bitter pill by dismissing him as 
pleasantly and affably as possible, with thanks 
for that greatest practical compliment inhe¬ 
rent in proffers. Your negative itself is 
almost cruel ; so soften it all you can ; for 
his bad feelings injure him proportionally. 
Only a giddy, vanity-struck girl not worth 
having, will dismiss in a proud, haughty, 
disdainful manner, as if he were inferior. 
His very proffer may have prompted her 
dismissal that she might boast of having 
“ given him the mitten.” 

A Happy Escape. 

Console yourself, discarded swain, for 
having escaped a life of married misery with 
one thus unladylike and unfeeling. Yet it 
may be fun for her. Ample reasons are 
certainly due him. Showing why your pro¬ 
posed match must needs injure both, will 
most effectually reconcile him to his fate. 
By all means part friends. Mutual respect 
marvellously softens the blow, and may even 
turn it to the good account of both. 

A man must dismiss. He should have 
less occasion, because he had his pick, while 
woman is allowed only to say yes, or no ! 
This, with her far greater sensitiveness, 
requires him to be extra careful to give her 
the least pain possible ; continue friendly ; 
and introduce others as substitutes if you 
can. Yet reluctance to dismiss should never 
be allowed to incur a life of marital misery, 
nor postpone the dismissal; for her love- 
making heyday is short and precious. 

Subsequent changes may make it best to 
renew their courtship. If so, the dismissing 
party is the one to reopen it. Either may at 
any time properly inquire whether the other 
has changed ; yet if the woman has dismissed, 
she is the proper one to recommence. 







J 48 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


Causelessly rupturing a love elicited under 
promises of marriage deserves legal penalties 
as much more severe than breaches of other 
contracts as it surpasses them. Dollars 
poorly express the amount of “damages” 
due. Yet discovering some marked flaw, 
some repellent trait, some heart-sickening 
conduct which has killed love, throws the 
damages on the one discarded. As a mis¬ 
informing seller cannot compel a cheated 
purchaser to fulfil a contract made under 
false representations, so those causes which 
reverse love should be allowed full weight, 
and might even throw the damages on the 
complainant. 

Breaking Engagements. 

Fancy-smitten girls and love-struck boys 
artfully captivated, brought to their senses 
by “ sober second thought,” deserve allow¬ 
ances, release, perhaps even pity. Minority 
releases from other contracts: then why not 
from marital? No girl who “goes back” 
on an “ engagement ” made before nineteen, 
should be compelled to fulfil it. Whoever 
takes it should hold it subject to after rever¬ 
sal. Yet a man whose broken engagement 
has prevented his affianced from having or 
accepting other offers, doomed her to celibacy 
and broken her heart besides, should at least 
make her the poor compensation of dollars 
enough to support her. 

When either finds love reversed by in¬ 
stinctive repugnance, more mature reflection, 
one liked better, discovering repellent traits, 
or any like cause, the disliked party should 
cheerfully release the disliking, if not from 
magnanimity, at least from self-interest and 
respect; for all marriages repugnant to either 
must prove fatal to the life-long happiness 
of both. Mutuality is indispensable in love. 
Reluctance in either must needs spoil the 
happiness of both. Those refused can do 


themselves no greater damage than to com. 
pel one dissatisfied to fulfil a loathed engage¬ 
ment. Their true policy lies in releasing the 
other, and looking elsewhere ; for the tem¬ 
porary pain of changing affectional objects 
is far less than the life-long wretchedness of 
living with a dissatisfied, or repellent, or 
merely tolerating, or passive companion, or 
one simply duty bound by an “ engagement.” 

Blind Errors of Courtship. 

Either of these errors will prove fatal to 
any love and marriage, unless counteracted 
by some powerful antidote. Yet most who 
court perpetrate nearly or quite all of them, 
and often others besides. They are in- 
wrought into the very customs and habits 
of Anglo-Saxon descendants. Of all the 
customary errors of Young America, none 
are as fatally destructive or as blindly sense¬ 
less as those of courtship. But that they 
are habitual, their perpetrator would be 
“ drummed and hooted out of town,” or 
“tarred and feathered.” Unperverted hu¬ 
manity would not let them go “ unwhipped 
of justice,” nor will nature. These are some 
of the breaches of her laws which she pun¬ 
ishes with terrible severity, in and by their 
eventuating .in unhappy marriages. 

Are these directions true guiding land¬ 
marks for all who court, and inherently 
adapted to promote the conjugal happiness 
of all who follow them? Are no readers 
suffering from the evil effects of their igno¬ 
rant violation? Are they not eminently re¬ 
liable, because scientific ? 

We need not extend their list, because 
pointing out a more excellent zvay obviates all 
wrongs much more effectually than exposing 
their enormity; and we have dwelt thus 
long chiefly to expound the underlying prin¬ 
ciples of this whole subject of love, by show¬ 
ing the miseries entailed by their violation. 




COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


149 


Parents who teach their children to court 
right, need have no fear for their virtue. 
Forestalling that monster vice, sexual de¬ 
pravity, throughout all its forms, is just as 
easy as courting right; which is just as easy 
as breathing. Knowing what is due between 


lovers is its chief means. Young folks in¬ 
tend no wrong, but by following current cus¬ 
toms embitter and rupture each other’s love; 
which drives them into sensualities, if it does 
not crucify their gender. We beg special 
attention to this declaration, and its vouchers. 



Loy^ Be6et^ Loy^ 


NY man who begins to elicit 
any woman’s love, can per¬ 
fectly infatuate her more 
and more, solely by court¬ 
ing her right; and all wo¬ 
men who once start a man’s love 
—no very difficult achievement— 
can get out of him, and do with 
him, anything possible she pleases. 
The charming and fascinating 
power of serpents over birds is as nothing 
compared with that a well-sexed woman can 
wield over a man, and he over her. 

Ladies, recall your love heyday. You 
had your lover perfectly spellbound. He 
literally knew not what he did or would do. 
With what alacrity he sprang to indulge 
your every wish, at whatever cost, and do 
exactly as you desired? If you had only 
courted him just right, he would have con¬ 
tinued to grow still more so till now. This 
is equally true of a man’s power over every 
woman who once begins to love him. What 
would you give to again wield that same be¬ 
witching wand? 

Cultivate and manifest whatever qualities 
you would awaken. You inspire in the one 
you court the precise feelings and traits you 
yourself experience. This law affects this 
result. Every faculty in either awakens 
itself in the other. This is just as sure as 
gravity itself. Hence your success must 


come from within, depends upon yourself, 
not the one courted. 

Be extra careful not to prejudice him or 
her against you by awakening any faculty in 
reverse. Thus whatever rouses the other’s re¬ 
sistance against you, antagonizes all the other 
faculties, and proportionally turns love for 
you into hatred. Whatever wounds ambition 
reverses all the other feelings, to your in¬ 
jury; what delights it, turns them in your 
favor. All the faculties create, and their 
action constitutes human nature. 

Genuine Admiration. 

Tne almost worshipful admiration by each 
sex of the other is just as spontaneous as 
breathing, swelling up in all who are well 
sexed as their strongest sentiment. In all 
genuine men’s eyes all true women are per¬ 
fect; as are all men in women’s. This is 
doubly true during youth, and is reaug¬ 
mented by love, which sees only the good, 
magnifies it tenfold, and admires in propor¬ 
tion. And the higher and truer one’s own 
sexual nature, the more exalted this estimate. 

Say, ye who have passed this poetic 
period, did you not fairly idolize the opposite 
sex till your own love-nature became de¬ 
moralized ? And each sex is even better 
than the most poetic imagination of the other 
can estimate it. All comparisons utterly 
fail to measure the intrinsic worth of each to 














150 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


the other; because of the happiness each can 
confer on and receive from the other. 

The one who chooses should think the 
one chosen the most perfect and best for 
them obtainable, and “thank God for having 
created one thus perfectly adapted to their 
precise need.” 

This worshipful appreciation never can or 
will give or take offence till annulled; re¬ 
enamors and is re-enamored more and more 
perpetually; inspires just those sayings and 
doings which enamor the- other; and renders 
all they say and do just right, because their 
heart’s-core promptings are so, like sweet 
water bubbling up from a sweet fountain. 

The Young Rivals Failed. 

Esteem inspires esteem. Enamor your¬ 
self of the one you would enamor. Admire , 
all ye who would be admired. 

An elderly man, with points in his favor, 
having selected a woman eighteen years 
younger, but most intelligent and feminine, 
had two young rivals, each having more 
points in theirs, and came to his final test. 
She thought much of having plenty of 
money. They saw they could “cut him 
out,” by showing her that he was poor ; she 
till then thinking his means ample. All four 
met around her table and proved his poverty. 
His rivals retired, sure that they had made 
“his cake dough,” leaving him with her. 

It was his turning-point. He addressed 
himself right to her affections, saying little 
about money matters, but protesting an 
amount of devotion for her to which she 
knew they were strangers; and left his suit 
right on this one point, adding : “You know 
I can make money; know how intensely I 
esteem, admire, idolize and love you. Will 
not my admitted greater affection, with my 
earnings, do more for you than they w ;f h 
more money but less love ? ” 


Her clear head saw the point. H^ir heart 
melted into his. She said “yes.” He 
triumphed by this affectional card alone over 
their much greater availability. 

Manifesting the domestic affections and 
virtues, a warm, gushing, friendly nature, 
fondness for children and home, inspires a 
man’s love most of all, while evincing talents 
by a man peculiarly enamors woman. In 
short, the love-inspiring act consists in 
manifesting lovable qiiahties , particularly the 
domestic, those which promote love’s great 
end, perfect children. 

Consent of Parents. 

Securing the benediction of all four parents 
is certainly most desirable. Assenting to 
their courting implies acquiescence in their 
marriage; yet a formal one is desirable, and 
by letter its best form. If either parent 
objects, both lovers should try all possible 
means to win them over; for their blessing 
and aid are most desirable, and antagonism 
injurious. You cannot afford to array your 
proposed family against their established one, 
if this can be avoided. Indeed, getting the 
mother in love may be a first step for obtain¬ 
ing her daughter ; which her good will 
greatly promotes, but ill, retards. At least, 
asking is much more polite than demanding. 
Establishing friendly relations all around is 
worth much patient assiduity and persever¬ 
ance. Both should be loath to defy or pro¬ 
voke the antagonism of either. 

Eloping for notoriety is despicable. That 
girl was silly who was sorry her father gave 
consent, “ because she could not then p-et 

o 

into the papers by a romantic elopement.” 

A gifted law student became thoroughly 
enamored with an excellent young lady 
attending the same school, who reciprocated 
his affection ; each more than satisfied with, 
and both intending to many each other. 





COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


151 


Ye L :icr proud mother objected that “ he 
was not good enough for her daughter.” 
Though the girl thought differently, and had 
done nothing to lessen his love, yet his pride 
made him ignore her altogether. He met 
and passed her daily without recognition, till 
years afterward his love conquered pride, and 
he reproffered his hand ; but she had just 
engaged herself to another, while her heart 
still remained true to him. 

He Was Enraged. 

A man pre-eminently talented and moral, 
a woman most lovely and devoted,' and both 
perfectly adapted to each other, were spoiled 
because her mother’s prizing her daughter 
highest maddened him. For shame ! He did 
not take a lawyer’s view of that question. He 
should have cherished her love, snapped his 
finger at others, and let nothing in the 
heavens above or earth beneath interrupt it. 

Relations, you shall not interfere, where 
even parents may not. Make your own 
matches, and let others make theirs ; espe¬ 
cially if you have bungled your own. One 
such bungle is one too many. Learn just 
how far you may go and stop there. The 
parties are betrothed. Their marriage is 
“fore-ordained” by themselves, its only 
rightful umpires, which all right-minded out¬ 
siders will try to promote, not prevent. 

How despicable to separate husbands and 
wives ! Yet is not parting those married by 
a lo ve-spirit, equally so ? Its mere legal 
form cannot increase its validity. Marriage 
is a divine institution, and consists in their 
own personal betrothal. Hence breaking up 
a true love-union before its legal consumma¬ 
tion, is just as bad as parting loving husband 
and wife ; which is monstrous. 

Important business or other requirements 
might hasten or postpone marriage; yet 
waiting till all is ready would cause undue 


delay. Other things should yield to it, not 
it to them. If anything specially requires its 
early consummation, hasten it; yet cement¬ 
ing the affections is the great work in hand, 
which too close intimacy at first rather hin¬ 
ders than helps. As whatever grows has its 
natural period for maturing, so has love. 

As sun changes from midnight darkness 
into noonday brilliancy, and heats, lights up, 
and warms gradually , and as summer “lingers 
in the lap of spring,” so marriage should 
dally in the lap of courtship. Nature’s ado¬ 
lescence of love should never be crowded 
into a premature marriage. The more per¬ 
sonal, the more impatient it is; yet to estab¬ 
lish its Platonic aspect takes more time than 
is usually given it, so that undue haste puts 
it upon the carnal plane, which soon cloys, 
then disgusts. 

Why curtail the luxuries of courtship ? 
Should haste to enjoy the lusciousness of 
summer engulf the delights of spring? 
The pleasures of courtship are unsurpassed 
throughout life, and quite too great to be 
curtailed by hurrying marriage. And en¬ 
hancing or diminishing them redoubles or 
curtails those of marriage a hundredfold 
more. A happy courtship promotes conju¬ 
gal felicity more than anything else whatever. 

The Proposal, Acceptance and Vow. 

A formal proffer of marriage naturally fol¬ 
lows a man’s selection and decision as to 
whom he will marry. Consent to canvass 
their mutual adaptations implies consent to 
marry, if all is found satisfactory ; yet a final 
test and consummation now become neces¬ 
sary, both to bring this whole matter to a 
focus, and allow both to state, and obviate 
or waive, those objections which must needs 
exist on both sides, including any improve¬ 
ments possible in either. The best time to 
state and waive or remove all objections, 





152 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


both seeming and real, not already adjusted, 
is at his proposal and her acceptance. A 
verbal will do, but a written is much better, 
by facilitating future reference. 

A long future awaits their marriage; hence 
committing this its initial point to writing, so 
that both can look back to it, is most de¬ 
sirable. And he can propose, and she ac¬ 
cept, much better when alone, and each has 
all their faculties under full control, than ver¬ 
bally, perhaps when excited. Those same 
primal reasons for reducing all other con¬ 
tracts to writing obtain doubly in reference 
to marriage. 

An Honest Offer. 

You who fear awkwardness on paper, 
remember that true human nature always 
appears well, even when poorly dressed. A 
diamond is no less brilliant because set in 
clay. Mode is nothing, reality everything. 
All needed to appear well is to feel right, 
and express naturally what is felt. Saying 
plainly what you have to say, is all required. 
An unreserved tender, or dependant condi¬ 
tions plainly stated, is sufficient. 

The acceptance or rejection should also be 
unequivocal, or any contingencies stated, and 
waved if minor, but if they can neither be 
obviated nor compromised, should terminate 
their relations, that both may look elsewhere. 
If any bones of contention exist, now is the 
time to inter them finally, and to take the 
initiatory steps for perfecting both in each 
other’s eyes. 

Getting ready to start out together on 
your life journey, should now engross both. 

Your mode of conducting your future af¬ 
fairs, should now be arranged. Though 
implied in selection, yet it must be specified 
in detail. Both should arrange your mar¬ 
riage relations ; say what each desires to do, 
and have done; and draw out a definite out¬ 


line plan of the various positions you desire 
to maintain towards each other. 

Your future home must be discussed: 
whether you will board, or live in your own 
house, rented or owned, or built, and after 
what pattern; or with either or which of 
your parents, etc. And it is vastly impor¬ 
tant that wives determine most as to their 
domiciles ; their internal arrangements, rooms, 
furniture, management; respecting which they 
are consulted quite too little, yet cannot well 
be too much. 

Family rules, as well as national, state, 
corporate, financial, must be established. 
They are most needed, yet least practiced 
in marriage. Without them, all must be 
chaotic. Ignoring them is a great but 
common marital error. The Friends wisely 
make family method cardinal. 

A Perfect Understanding. 

Your general treatment of each other now 
especially requires to be mutually agreed 
upon. Each should say, “ I should like to 
treat, and be treated by you, thus, but not 
so ; and let you do this, but not that and 
both mutually agree on a thousand like 
minor points, better definitely arranged at 
first than left for future contention, each 
making requisitions, conceding privileges, 
and stipulating for any fancies, idols, “re¬ 
served rights.” 

Differences must needs arise, which can¬ 
not be adjusted too soon. Those constitu¬ 
tionally inherent in each should be adjusted 
in love’s early stages ; it matters less how, 
than whether to your mutual satisfaction. 
Or, if this is impossible, “agree to disagree;” 
but settle on something. 

o 

A concessionary spirit is indispensable, and 
inheres in love. Neither should insist, but 
both concede, in all things; each making, 
not demanding, sacrifices. 





COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


15 a 


What course will make both happiest 
should overrule all your mutual relations. 
Write down and file all. Your present 
decisions, subject to mutual changes and 
amendments, will become more and more 
important for future reference, as time rolls 
on, by enabling each to correct both—for 
our own changes make us think others have 
changed. A mutual diary is desirable, for 
incidents now seemingly trivial may yet be- 
'ome important. 

First or Nothing. 

bee or correspond with each other often. 
Love will not bear neglect. Nothing kills 
it equally. In this it is most exacting. It 
will not, should not, be second in anything. 
“ First or nothing,” is its motto. Meet as 
often as possible. After its fires have once 
been lit, they must be perpetually resupplied 
with their natural fuel; else they die down, 
go out, or go elsewhere, and are harder to 
rekindle than to light at first. 

A splendid young man, son of one of 
New England’s most talented and pious 
divines, endowed with one of the very best 
of organisms, having selected his mate, and 
plighted their mutual vows, being the busi¬ 
ness manager of a large manufactory, and 
obliged to defend several consecutive law¬ 
suits for patent-right infringements, neglected 
for weeks to write to his betrothed, presup¬ 
posing, of course, that all was right. This 
offended her ladyship, and allowed evil- 
minded meddlers to sow seeds of alienation 
in her mind ; persuade her to send his dis¬ 
missal, and accept and consummate a mar¬ 
riage proposal from another. 

As he told his mournful story, he seemed 
like a sturdy oak riven by lightning and torn 
by whirlwinds ; its foliage scorched, bark 
stripped, limbs tattered, even its very root¬ 
lets scathed ; yet standing, a stern, proud, 


defiant, resolute wreck. A gushing tear he 
manfully tried but failed to suppress. His 
lips quivered and voice faltered. Perceiving 
his impending fate, he seemed to dread his 
future more than present ; and hesitated be¬ 
tween self-abandonment, and a merely me¬ 
chanical, objectless, business life. In attempt¬ 
ing his salvation, by proffering advice to the 
“ broken-hearted,” he respectfully but firmly 
declined ; deliberately preferring old-bach¬ 
elorship, with all its dearths, of which he 
seemed fully conscious. He felt as if he had 
been deeply wronged, though more hurt 
than provoked. 

It Was His Own Fault. 

Yet was not he the first practically to re¬ 
pudiate ? He suffered terribly, because he 
had sinned grievously, not by commission, 
but omission. He felt the deepest, fullest, 
manliest love, and revelled in anticipations of 
their future union, but did not express it; 
which was to her as if he had not felt it; 
whereas, had he saved but one minute per 
week to write lovingly, “ I long to be with 
you, and love you still,” or, “Business does 
not, cannot diminish my fondness,” he would 
have saved her broken vows, and his broken 
heart. 

Love-letters, or writing love naturally puts 
and keeps it in its Platonic mood, more than 
talking it; besides enabling you to discuss sub¬ 
jects like those just named in the best manner. 

Mingling other enjoyments with love, by 
going together to picnics and parties, sleigh- 
rides and mayings, concerts, and lectures, 
marvellously cements the affections. 

Meet now in your most attractive habili¬ 
ments of mind and person. French ladies 
will see their affianced only when arrayed in 
their best toilet. Yet mental charms vastly 
surpass millinery. Neither can render your¬ 
selves too lovely. 






154 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


Express affectionate fondness in your visits 
and letters; the more the better, so that you 
keep it a sentiment, not debase it by animal 
passion. It is still establishing its rootlets, 
like young corn, instead of growing. Allow 
no amatory excitement, no frenzied, delirious 
intoxication with it; for its violence, like 
every other, must react only to exhaust and 
paralyze itself by its own excesses. 

Take a New Departure. 

Affianced young man, life has its epochs, 
which revolutionize it for good or bad. You 
are now in one. You have heretofore affili¬ 
ated much with men; formed habits of 
smoking or chewing tobacco ; indulged in 
late suppers ; abused yourself in various 
ways ; perhaps been on sprees. Now is 
your time to take a new departure from 
whatever is evil to all that is good and pure. 
Break up most of your masculine associations, 
and affiliate chiefly with your affianced. Be 
out no more nights. Do quit the use of 
tobacco and spiritous and malt liquors, if 
you have ever begun their use. They are 
vulgar and injurious ; will disgust your wife 
and injure your issue ; and are unworthy of 
yourself. Let your new responsibilities and 
relations brace you up against their tempta¬ 
tions ; and if these are not sufficient, your 
prospective spouse will help. No other aid 
equals that of a loving, loved woman. 

Break off from your cronyisms, clubs, 
societies, except such as duty calls you to 
attend. Your new ties furnish an excellent 
excuse. All your spare time and small 
change are wanted for her. To give to them 
the time and money due to her and setting 
up in life, is outrageous. Bend everything 
to your new relations, them to nothing. 
Now’s your time to turn over a new leaf, 
and turn all the angles corners and right¬ 
about faces needed. 


Affianced maiden, you have some depar¬ 
tures to take and corners to turn. Your life 
has till now been frivolous, but has now 
become serious. You have no more need 
of toilet fineries, for “y our market is made,” 
and you have work on hand far more im¬ 
portant, namely, fitting yourself for your 
new duties. Find out what they demand of 
you, and set right about making a premium 
wife and mother. 

Both begin life anew. Forgetting the 
past, plant and sozu nozv what yon would 7 
gather and become always. 

The Right and Wrong Way. 

Man is naturally tyrannical, and having no 
other victims, often lords it over his wife and 
children; while she, excedingly rigid, insists 
that he shall conform to her standard ; and 
cuts off his legs when too long, or stretches 
them if too short, being perfectly conscien¬ 
tious ; yet wrong because so scrupulous. 
Saul was both. All who hang witches are 
not dead yet. Each should let the other 
stand or fall to his or her “own master.” 
Personality is as inalienable a birthright as 
life; and no more to be abridged. Each 
should live and let live. 

To interfere is tyranny; to be interfered 
with, slavery. All each may say is, “ I 
should love you the better if you were or did 
thus.” Each should conform to the other’s 
standard as far as possible and require no 
more. Both a henpecked husband and a 
crushed wife are worthless. What govern¬ 
ment is as tyrannical as domestic tyranny ? 
Many wives are completely crushed by a 
domineering husband, and husband by wife. 
Both victimized, yet victimizing. 

Beginning and conducting courtship as 
these pages direct, avoiding the errors and 
following the directions they specify, will just 
as surely render all superlatively happy a.® 







COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


155 


sun will rise to-morrow. Scan their sense. 
Are they not scientific ? Do they not ex¬ 
pound nature’s love-initiating and consum¬ 
mating ordinances ? Are they not worthy 
of being put into practice? 

Discordants, can you not trace many of 
your antagonisms and miseries to their 
ignorant violation ? Parents, what are they 
worth to put into your children’s hands, to 


forewarn them against carelessly, ignorantly 
spoiling their marriage ? Young ladies, 
what are they worth to you, as showing you 
how to so treat your admirers as to gain and 
redouble their heart’s devotion? Young 
men, what are these warnings and teachings 
worth to you ? God in his natural laws will 
bless all who practice, curse all who violate 
them. 



TTvrmTr: 


HOW TO MAKE 

Married I,iic H 




OME ceremony, everywhere, ac¬ 
companies marriage, usually a 
religious observance. This cus¬ 
tom is, must ever be, coextensive 
with the race; because inherent 
in human nature. Marriage is 
a great affair. Make the most 
of it, by rendering it the most impressive, 
pleasurable, and sacred possible. All man¬ 
kind always have done this ; and each mating 
pair should follow this excellent u^age. “ Cus¬ 
tom is law,” and should be obeyed except 
when it contravenes nature’s “ higher law.” 

“A poor wedding for poor folks ” must 
suffice ; yet it can be made impressive and 
delightful with little expense. Those most 
stylish and costly are usually therefore the 
less sacred. They eclipse themselves. Ex¬ 
travagance in dress, refreshments, show, 
numbers, etc., make them poor commemora¬ 
tions of a true conjugal union. Some waste 
on them money needed for setting out in 


life. Simplicity is far more appropriate than 
ostentation. Yet each should accord with 
the tastes and means of its lord and lady, 
under whose general directions its managers 
should conduct its details. 

A Home Wedding. 

A parental abode, and if convenient, hers 
is its most suitable place. Only those who 
hate their parents should marry “ on the 
sly.” The “old folks” on both sides, are 
entitled to its joys ; should enter into it right 
heartily, as if repeating their own ; and regu¬ 
late and defray its expenses. Its subjects 
should have nothing to do but to enjoy it in 
full. Make it a season ever to be remem¬ 
bered, and one on which both can look, from 
every subsequent point of life, down to its 
very furthest verge, even from “the life to 
come,” with unalloyed pleasure. Not one 
discordant note should mar its perfect han 
mony. 



















156 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


Witnesses and guests are indispensable, 
but a crowd is not desirable. As general an 
invitation as allotted apartments will accom¬ 
modate, is best; while a marriage in church 
is quite too showy and unsocial. The 
parties may say how few or many, and 
whom, if they prefer, yet better, by throw¬ 
ing off all responsibility upon parents or 
others, avoid giving personal offence to any 
not invited. 

And all past and future heart-burnings of j 
all its participants should be scrupulously I 


pinge mainly on your right or wrong fulfilment of 
its relations. Let them not oppress you, yet duly 
consider their momentous importance ; and devote 
your entire beings to their fulfilment. Having now 
become an integral part of your very life, they should 
be vour paramount life-work. Thank God that you 
are married, and pray Him to enable you to live a 
perfect conjugal life, each day bringing new enjoy¬ 
ment, even as it brings increased affection.” 

A wedding feast is indispensable ; for 
appetite affiliates with all our functions, and 
most with the social. Its edibles need not 
be rich nor expensive ; nor composed of 
many indigestible compounds. Guests need 



THE WEDDING CEREMONY. 


concealed or conciliated. Those who hold 
grudges against either should have “ no part 
nor lot ” in them, or bury all animosities for 
the present, and help, not hinder its delight¬ 
ful harmony. This is a good time and way 
to bury old bones, and restore peace. After 
the marriage ceremony is over, its adminis¬ 
trator might appropriately say to them : 

You have now entered together upon relations 
as sacred and momentous as mortals can assume. 
Having pondered before taking this eventful life- 
step, it has now become irretrievable. You have 
‘put your hands to the plough:’ ‘go forward ,’ 
and make the most of it. Your life destinies im- 


not gormandize or get intoxicated ; but 
should drink something delicious, yet not 
exhilarating ; for the natural hilarity of the 
occasion is sufficiently intoxicating. 

The wedding apparel should correspond 
with the tastes and means of the parties ; and 
be worthy of being consecrated by the occa¬ 
sion ; and kept as a memento forever, to be 
worn only on special occasions, yet need not 
be gaudy. That of the bride should set off 
her person to the best advantage, since no 
more appropriate occasion can occur. 

Behold that charming bride, the central 




























































































COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


figure of the occasion ! All she says, does 
and wears should express female loveliness 
and conjugal affection. A confiding, loving 
expression toward her lover-husband is her 
chief ornament and most brilliant jewel. As 
far as she manifests affection, all is beautiful 
and appropriate ; yet if this is wanting, all is 
a soulless sham. If she is happy in him, all 
else is complete ; if miserable there, all else 
is lost. 

Joyous Greetings. 

Angels might admire as they behold her 
forsaking girlish associations, friends, even 
parents, to assume the duties and responsi¬ 
bilities of a wife and mother; and from 
having been cared for, to care, and become 
a “helpmeet.” A new heart’s-core motive 
is enthroned over the very chit of her being. 
All her dearest interests are embarked in this 
life-voyage. 

Many cry at weddings whose own have 
proved fatal, yet all should rejoice ; because, 
if conducted at all aright, nothing else is as 
joyous as marriage. She has the good 
wishes of all friends. Would that she knew 
what is requisite for rendering their wishes 
prophetic. 

The marital rites of different nations in 
various ages are appropriate here, and might 
please girls, but, teaching few practical les¬ 
sons, are left to others* 

All four parents should embrace the mar¬ 
ried pair with open arms in genuine parental 
affection, warmly expressed ; neither sorrow- 
ins’ over the loss of their child, but all 

o 

rejoicing in having gained another ; taking 
their newly acquired sons and daughters-in- 
law rieht home to their heart, and talking or 
writing somewhat thus : 

“ DEAR Children : Your marriage renders you 
both equally our own son and daughter; and we 
shall feel and act towards you as if both were ‘bone 


157 

of our bone, and flesh of our flesh.’ Call us father 
and mother, as we shall you son and daughter, and 
make our house, your home, our table and fireside 
yours, for a time at least; and always consider us in 
spirit, as we are now in law and fact, your fond 
parents. 

“Tell us frankly when you may think we wrong 
you, and we will tell you ; that we may nip all hard 
feelings in their bud, adjust all differences as they 
rise, and all live together cordially. Nor need you 
fear to ask our aid. 

“Be our daughter’s protector, friend, and true 
husband, overlooking her faults, or correcting them 
through her affections. That life we have originated 
and thus far nurtured, and you selected for your 
wife, we now resign to you. Make the most of her; 
and dear daughter, having chosen one for life-com¬ 
panionship, make yourself the very best wife you 
are capable of becoming. 

“Let us all bear in mind that pure affection is 
alike our pleasing duty, our glorious privilege, and 
the heart’s-core of all our relations; cherishing 
which will make all happy. Begging that neither 
may wound the other’s feelings, nor allow their own 
to be wounded, and bestowing on both our parental 
benediction, we remain 

Your ever doting parents, A. B.” 

• 

“ Dear Parents : With your request, that I will 
consider myself your son, and call you father and 
mother, I comply with all my heart, and will do 
my utmost to fulfil these filial relations; besides 
doing all I can to promote my wife’s happiness, and 
gratefully loving you who have provided me with so 
choice an idol to love. 

. Your affectionate son, C. D.” 

Mr. and Mrs. E. F. to Mr. and Mrs. A. B. 

“ Dear Sir and Madam : Our children’s mar¬ 
riage imposes on us, heretofore related only by ties 
merely human, the additional duties and feelings 
due to and from relatives; and we hereby proffer 
the right hand of friendship due to our new family 
relationship. Let us bury all past differences, cherish 
only a spirit of mutual affiliation, frequently inter¬ 
change visits, frankly avow and speedily adjust dis¬ 
satisfactions, and establish and keep up genuine good 
feelings. Our latchstring is always out. Our family 
joins in this tender of cordial sentiments, and prom¬ 
issory endeavors. Hoping this new relationship may 
become more and more agreeable with time, to all 
concerned, we remain yours in the spirit of true 
relatives. Mr. and Mrs. E. F.’’ 

Mr. and Mrs. A. B. to Mr. and Mrs. E. F. 

“ Dear Relatives and Friends : To every sen¬ 
tence of your grateful tender of family friendship. 

















































































































































































































































































COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


159 


we and our family respond in a right hearty amen. 
We will do our best to meet you half-way in cherish¬ 
ing both true hospitality, and genuine cordiality ; 
open wide our doors and hearts to welcome you and 
yours ; and will vie with you in manifesting those 
family ties of which the marriage of our children is 
the heart’s-core, and we the corresponding members. 

Your cordial family relations, 

Mr. and Mrs. A. B.” 

Well-mated couples who begin married 
life under auspices like these, could hardly 
wrangle if they tried. 

Conjugal dissensions frequently commence 
about relations. Hers have opposed their 
union, and said hard things against him, 
which, magnified before reaching his ear, 
rouse his anger ; and her natural sympathy 
with them initiates a difference. Doubtless 
he was more indignant, and she more defen¬ 
sive, than either side required. 

Interference from Outside. 

Discord thus begun, the crevice now open, 
out rush the waters of love, only to drown 
the happiness of both ; besides creating a 
loathsome pestilence, which poisons, mad¬ 
dens, tortures both all their lives : whereas 
concord between their families would fore¬ 
stall or at once obviate all causes of differ¬ 
ence, and redouble their love. How many 
conjugal animosities originate with outsiders? 
Their parents should be a self-constituted 
“ committee on the state of the union,” to 
discern incipient differences, obviate them at 
once, and be daysmen to nurture, instead of 
interrupting, their children’s affections. 

But, often, a brother asks his sister to 
help his new wife start housekeeping. Ren¬ 
dered envious by seeing him lavish so much 
attention on his wife, and so little on herself, 
she prejudices him aganist his wife, by point¬ 
ing out now this, then that fault. Such sis¬ 
ters deserve, if not to be pitched headlong 
out at the window, at least to be told, “viper, 
there’s the door.” 


All good sisters will try to heal, not 
begin or aggravate their differences. What 
if he is her superior ? Does his knowing 
her faults unmarry them ? How much 
better that, deceived, he should enjoy her 
shortcomings than suffer inexpressibly from 
their discovery ? His “ ignorance is bliss.” 
Her being perfect in his eyes about equals her 
being perfect per se; and is immeasurably 
better for him than her inherent perfection 
without his appreciation. As he thinks she 
is, she is to him . 

Receipt for Domestic Bliss 

If we were to gather up the ingredients 
that would serve to make the happy home, 
we should suggest the following : One cup 
of honesty, one cup of congeniality, two cups 
of plenty, three cups of respect and four por¬ 
tions of love. Stir the honesty and the 
plenty to a smooth mixture; add the four 
portions of love, well beaten ; moisten with 
one cup of congeniality ; sift in slowly the 
three cups of respect. Season with the 
fruits of the Spirit, and add a dash of the 
spice of unselfishness and a pinch of the salt 
of individuality. Lighten with the leaven of 
constancy. Bake in a quick oven. 

Newly-married couples, be careful whom you 
admit into your sacred domicile for a time. If, 
to get the one you desire, you must marry a 
whole family, which may sometimes “pay”— 
yet better give preference to those unmort¬ 
gaged—see that they toe your mark; and 
expel instantly any who try to prejudice you 
or your wife against each other. 

Young husband, if a feud should spring 
up between your mother and wife, choose 
between them ; and either get a divorce 
from her and marry your mother; or else 
get a divorce from your mother and marry 
your wife over again. Yet better “ forsake 
father and mother, and cleave to your wife.” 






















COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


161 


This is far the most eventful epoch of 
married life, and withal, the hardest. Since 
beginning courtship just right is thus impor¬ 
tant, how much more marriage? For what¬ 
ever is begun wrong, waxes worse. 

The Wedding Tour. 

A wedding-tour, begun right from the 
marital altar is more fashionable than sen¬ 
sible ; costly ; far less enjoyable now than if 
postponed, and than home quiet; and espe¬ 
cially fatiguing and injurious to the bride, 
whose commencement of her specific mar¬ 
riage relations must needs exhaust all her 
strength, besides inducing certain physiolo¬ 
gical changes which, superadded to the ex¬ 
posures and fatigues of traveling, must injure 
all not extra robust. But, going or staying, 
give yourselves up wholly to each other. 
Heretofore you have made love at arm’s 
length : make it now in each other’s arms. 
Take it at its ebb, and waft on in conjugal 
felicity. Consecrate your “ honeymoon ” 
wholly to it, and waive whatever interferes 
with it. 

Yet why not make your honeymoon a 
honey-annum ? Why cut it short in thirty 
days ? Love is now your most important 
life business : then shape business to it, not it 
to business. That good old Biblical custom 
which excused every young husband from 
war, public service, etc., the first married 
year, requiring him to “ stay at home,” and 
■“comfort his wife,” should be modernized. 
After your mutual affections are once well 
started, they will grow on without special 
nurture. 

This is your great life-labor. Think how 
great; and how infinitely important that it 
be commenced not about, but just , right ; 
which requires time. No great work can be 
finished up hastily; and the greater, the 
longer its incipiency. Neglect other things, 

11 


but take time enough to make this thorough. 
Surrender yourselves wholly to it. Let it 
imbue and engross your whole beings. 

Young husbands, note. Your doting, 
clinging, dependant young wife has just for¬ 
saken loved home, friends, and parents for 
you ; torn herself from all her girlish asso¬ 
ciations ; thrown her entire being confidingly 
into your arms ; and is pouring out her whole 
soul into yours. Then should you not take 
ample time to reciprocate her love, nestle her 
close to your bosom, and interwine all your 
and her heartstrings together? Forsaking 
all has softened, perhaps melted, her soul: 
then fuse it the more perfectly with your 
own. Be not so cruel as to shake her off 
just now for business, or anything else; 
spend your spare moments with her, instead 
of old cronies ; and give her and yourself 
one long lovers’ holiday. 

True Manhood. 

This law of mind applies to husbands and 
wives. Reading together furnishes its easiest 
and best application. Take long lovers’ 
walks, rides and talks ; pick bouquets and 
press choice flowers as memoranda of these 
and those pleasant seasons; and commune 
with each other as vesper’s departing twi¬ 
light casts her mellow tinges over vales and 
mountains, till “the queen of night” throws 
her silvery rays over your enchanted path¬ 
way, or heaven’s star-spangled dome deepens 
your mutual love by leading you “through 
nature up to nature’s God adoring whom 
together redoubles your love for each other. 

Manifest normal male or female nature 
toward your mate. No man ever did, does 
or can express true manly attributes to his 
wife without proportionally enamoring, or 
unmanly, without alienating her. How much 
she loves him depends chiefly on how much 
true manhood he evinces toward her; though 




COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


1P>2 

also on how much love capacity she has, and 
its state. As it in eating one dish supposed 
delicious you find something bitter and 
nauseating, or another you suppose common, 
an inexpressibly luscious flavor, though you 
know not just what you relish and loathe ; 
so as far as you feel and express true manly 
attributes, you enamor your wife; but as far 
as you depart therefrom, you excite her 
loathing and disgust; even though she has 
no -idea just what she likes and dislikes. 

Being the true man to her, attains two 
most glorious human ends—perfects your 
own manly nature and enamors her. As 
every man who does business should pride 


himself on doing it in the best manner pos¬ 
sible, so every man should pride himself on 
being true to manhood, and attaining its 
end, a wife’s devoted love. 

Being the true woman enamors a husband 
and compels him to love her in proportion ; 
yet just as far as any wife departs from a 
true feminine comportment toward him, she 
obliges him to taste and loathe her unfemi¬ 
nine bitterness. Many wives take great 
pains and pride in being “in fashion,” yet 
none to be or act the genuine woman ; 
whereas, being a mere fashionable in com¬ 
parison with a true woman, is like having 
only a farthing compared with a fortune. 



ALLANTRY, polite attentions 
from gentlemen to ladies, is 
a primal law of love. Thus 
a man and a woman, a per¬ 
fect gentleman and lady, 
meet at table, on steamboat, 
in parlor, anywhere. Their 
sexual natures impose on each toward the 
other a comportment quite unlike that due 
from either sex to its own. They mutually 
like, admire each other ; this prompts still 
more gallant attentions from him to her, with 
their thankful reception. This begets that 
mutual love which inspires more and more of 
this identical reciprocal treatment the more 
they love. They marry ; this requires and 


begets still more of this same comportment,, 
and their becoming parents together more 
yet. 

Think within yourselves just how a per¬ 
fect gentleman should treat a perfect lady, 
and she him; and then be and do more so. 
What is being a gentleman but expressing 
manly characteristics gently? Think out 
just what that signifies. Analyze gallantry, 
a word that has always been used to 
designate that courteous way male birds 
evince towards female, always considerate ; 
or the way in which all males naturally treat 
all females. Note the attentive, kind, gen¬ 
erous, tender, sympathetic attentions ail 
model gentlemen bestow on model ladies. 



























COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


163 


and treat your wife accordingly; and you 
will soon find her “dead in love,” literally 
infatuated with you. 

Do gentlemen behave or speak rudely to 
ladies ? or frown, scowl, sulk, or swear, be¬ 
fore them ? or ever tease, blame, scold, pro¬ 
voke, or satirize them? Are they not re¬ 
fined, polite, attentive to their wants, and 
complimentary ? Would one angry frown 
distort their pleasant countenances, or rude 
act mar their polished bearing ? Would they 
not watchfully discern and commend every 
charm, draw the mantle of charity over all 
iaults, and tear tongues sooner than up- 
oraid? Yet how often do legal husbands 
commit improprieties and perpetrate down¬ 
right vulgarities to and before their wives of 
which they would no more be guilty to¬ 
wards other ladies than forfeit their reputa¬ 
tion as gentlemen ? Or if they did, they 
would be banished from genteel female 
society: and yet wonder why their wives 
do not love them ! 

A Conjugal Insult. 

For a husband to be ever so extra genteel, 
gallant, spruce, talkative, gay, lively, compli¬ 
mentary, and much more besides, to other 
ladies, yet dull, listless, commonplace, un¬ 
appreciative and inattentive to his wife, is a 
conjugal outrage which must forestall further 
love, and kill existing. Yet no matter how 
gallant to others, provided he is more so to 
her. 

Wives are more ladylike, captivating, 
charming, lovely, neat, tasty, fascinating, 
enamoring, at parties than at home, in draw¬ 
ing-room than boudoir, to other gentlemen 
than own husband ; yet wonder why they 
are not loved more by husband, when these 
other gentlemen admire them so much. Yet 
what can as thoroughly disgust any husband 
of his wife as her slatternly habits, common, 


indifferent manners, violent temper, or other 
unladylike deportment to him, with captivat¬ 
ing ways towards other men ? Let the mar¬ 
ried apply this principle to their own home 
and dormitory manners and language towards 
each other. 

Did that last sentence you uttered, and 
act you did, emanate from a true gentle¬ 
manly or ladylike feeling and spirit ? Would 
the perfect lady or gentleman have said or 
done that in that way ? If so, it redoubled, 
if not, it deadened the other’s affections; 
besides prompting the same spirit and cast 



of conduct in the other. Would the most 
perfect husband or wife have said or done 
what you have just said or done? How 
many husbands are ungentlemanly, even 
rude and indecent, to their own wives, and 
wives so ungenteel to their husbands that 
they would cut any lady friend who would 
do the same before any gentleman, and what 
they would not have done before a negro 
hostler ? 

Love can never co-exist with ungentle- 
manly or unladylike treatment. “ This 
seems all right in theory,” you say, “ but 




164 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


imposes on us men a burden too great for 
any to carry. No husbands do or can treat 
their wives thus.” 

Those in love cannot help it. So far from 
this treatment being a task, it is a luxury. 
A deep, abiding affection will prompt all this, 
and much more. This mutual treatment 
actually does and must proportionally obtain 
between all who love ; yet declines as love 
wanes. Indifferent manners accompany in¬ 
different hearts ; while reversed love renders 
behavior perfectly hateful. Though he who 
dislikes his wife may try to and think he 
really does do his whole duty to treat her 
about right, yet all his actions toward her are 
abominable, and a perpetual insult; because 
his feelings are so ; though perhaps neither 
can specify exactly wherein. 

Conceited Simpletons. 

Pride of character is one of man’s best and 
woman’s strongest traits ; and in this country, 
enormous and inflated. All fashions, respec¬ 
tability, society, etc., come from it. Honor, 
ambition to be first, emulation to excel, love 
of display, etc., are its products. Only love 
surpasses it as an incentive to effort. Insults, 
by reversing it, create the fiercest rage. 

In all women it is excessive and inflated 
—this being one of two indices of the female 
head;—while its perpetual stimulation by 
praise from cradle to marriage, usually ren¬ 
ders it a real feminine insanity. 

Praise delights it; and is due for every 
good deed. Blame outrages it, and when 
not deserved, is most unjust. Stealing is no 
worse than falsely accusing; as is most 
scolding. 

Praise kindles, blame kills love; especially 
in woman. Nothing equally. How very 
much she does set by tokens of masculine 
appreciation, and is cut by depreciation ? On 
both she is indeed a little soft. She was 


wisely created thus. This trait is innerent in 
her, and must be respected. 

She deserves commendation for all her 
good, condemnation for few bad deeds. 
Why is not ambition entitled to its pay for 
good services rendered, as much as acquisi¬ 
tion for goods delivered ? Is not neglecting 
to pay its dues as disgraceful and palpably 
wrong as not paying a monetary note ? 
When a wife has done her best to get up a 
good dinner, even though she fails, is she 
not as justly entitled to her pay in praise as 
that grocer in dollars for flour? Bestowing 
it will surprise you that she sets so very 
much by it, in its delighting her so that, un¬ 
less her love is already chilled out by 
neglect, she can hardly contain herself. 

Though so very easy to cancel these love 
dues by appreciation, yet how seldom are 
they “ honored ?” But how cruelly aggra¬ 
vating, how very wicked, to blame her after 
she has done her best to please ? Scolded 
wives do ten times less ; praised, twenty times 
more, than blamed ones. 

A Despicable Grumbler. 

A superb wife, married two years, said : 
“ One whole year I tried my best to suit my 
husband, avoid his blame, and get his praise ; 
but the harder I tried the worse I fared. My 
meat, too rare yesterday, was overdone to¬ 
day. I fretted, cried, prayed over it till I 
found I must give up to die, or else fight it 
off. I chose the latter, and steeled my heart 
against him and his eternal grumblings, even 
scolded back ; and a wretched life we have 
lived. If required to choose between another 
such marriage and death, I certainly prefer 
to die.” 

Such cases abounu, yet are not all on one 
side, as many a henpecked husband, who 
deserves only praise, can attest. 

Finding fault engenders more marital alien- 




COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


105 


ations than most other causes combined; 
stabs love right under its fifth rib ; spills its 
warm life-blood; and must never on any 
account be inflicted by or on either. Blame 
from one’s own sex is most provoking and 
unendurable ; but from the opposite, abso¬ 
lutely outrageous. No concatenation of 
circumstances can justify it. This is not the 
way the sexes were ordained to lessen each 


Most scolded wives deserve praise or 
pity. Married love-spats are worse than 
courting, and inexcusable. Loving and 
spatting are absolutely incompatible and 
antithetic ; and can no more coexist than 
health with disease, fire with water, heat with 
cold, or life with death. As disease must 
conquer the constitution, or the constitution 
disease, so either love must succumb to these 



“ I SAY YOU DID ! ” 

“ I SAY i didn’t— so there!” 


other’s faults, or promote each other’s virtues. 
All scolding is but driving and threatening ; 
which makes even boys, much more men, 
defiant and vindictive. Driving contrary 
mules is easy in comparison. 

Happy the home where there is perpetual 
sunshine ! This is the school for the young, 
the nursery of virtue, the influence that 
develops the noblest traits of manhood and 
womanhood. 


“spats,” or they to it. Though “making 
up” by renewed love pledges may turn their 
evil into good a few times, yet frequency 
annuls its virtue. This is but sinning and 
repenting ; which soon turn these new reso¬ 
lutions into animosities. 

You must remember the old English say¬ 
ing about the peace that belongs to every 
house with two “bears ”—bear, and forbear. 

Your first spat is worse than your house 





























































































166 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


burning. Put it right out, or it will consume 
your future conjugal bliss. Even your first 
blame, if only by implication, and seemingly 
trifling, is really horrible, in itself and its ef¬ 
fects. If you do not have the first, you will 
never have any; but the first is about sure 
to breed multitudes of those “little foxes 
that spoil the vines” of love. 

Cruel Neglect. 

But you say: “ My family requires every 
dollar I can earn, and business every moment 
of my time. I must be at its helm, look after 
all its details, get customers, pay debts, equal 
my rivals, make a fortune, support style, an¬ 
swer correspondents, watch clerks, collect 
debts. My time is too precious to be wasted 
in courting my wife.” 

Then give her a divorce, and relieve her 
from this affectional starvation, for this mon¬ 
ster wrong is the lesser. If you starved her 
body merely, you would justly abhor your¬ 
self, and be abhorred; yet for thus starving 
her spirit-nature you are forsooth honored as 
a pattern of industry and probity! She 
pines on and dies out, unaware what her real 
trouble is, or who causes it. She thinks, 
poor confiding victim, she has a disorder of 
the stomach, or liver, or nerves ; whereas 
you are slowly killing her off by breaking 
her heart. Lock her up without food, which 
is to her body what love is to her mind, and 
you have the enormity of your cruelty and 
robbery, only in the physical instead of men¬ 
tal form. 

Better away with business, dismiss clerks, 
and abandon speculations, than thus torture 
and kill your precious wife ; for what are 
they in comparison with her ? Ask her and 
yourself how many dollars will make good 
this death of her affections. Would you be 
happier in your wealth without her love, or 
in her love with less wealth ? But you are 


losing both her love and your uoliars. I 
fling this declaration into the teeth of the 
largest human experience, that he who duly 
loves a wife in purity, can do far more work, 
drive better bargains, wear more and longer, 
be keener in trade, and every way a better 
business man, and more successful, than if 
he neglects her. 

Perpetual plodding is fatal to vigorous ac¬ 
tion. A bow always bent loses its strength. 
What is made up in time, is lost ten times 
over in snap and spirit. Hence business 
men patronize amusements; instinctively 
craving that recreation which fits them for 
their next day’s struggles. Human nature 
needs diversion ; and the domestic affections 
constitute its very best form. Their hearty 
exercise marvellously promotes intellectual 
vigor. 

Take an Illustration. 

Let A and B start married life and business 
together, every way equal in capital, talents, 
everything, except that A shall heartily love 
his wife, and spend two hours every day in 
nurturing her and his conjugal affections, by 
riding, walking, visiting, going to concerts, 
lecture-room, anywhere they please, while 
B plods perpetually over his business and 
ledgers ; in ten years A will be far in advance 
of B in dollars , credit, health, mental sound¬ 
ness and clearness of judgment, in each and 
all the attributes of physical, mental, and 
moral advancement; besides having a tenfold 
better and happier wife than B ; in addition 
to all the direct aid derived from talking over 
proposed plans with her, acting on her sug¬ 
gestions, and being aided in a thousand name¬ 
less ways by her silent but efficient co-opera¬ 
tion. And this perpetually re-increases with 
time. Even as a pecuniary investment, nur¬ 
turing love has no equal. 

How infinitely better A’s wife, as such. 



COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


167 


than B’s ! However splendid a woman may 
be by nature, when her affections die or 
stray, she is of little account as a wife. 
Would to God every husband could realize 
how worthless she becomes without affection 
for him, but how infinitely valuable there¬ 
with ! and the more so the more affec¬ 
tionate. 

Crazy to Make Money. 

Hastening to get rich is your fatal blunder. 
In this rush after the “ almighty dollar,” 
besides breaking down your own constitu¬ 
tion, you starve out your own and wife’s 
affections. Though she has left home, 
parents, and all she holds dear for you, yet 
you leave her for business. She yields to 
that stern necessity which keeps her loved 
one so much from her open arms, but she so 
wishes she could have at least a little, if oidy 
a little of your time and soul. It is so hard 
to stay all alone, seeing no one from morn¬ 
ing till night, week after week. 

And when you are at home, your mind is 
all on business. You may be gaining finely 
in dollars, but are losing her love, which now 
begins to pine. Nothing can prevent it. Her 
loneliness renders her almost frantic. She 
little realizes the cause of her misery, or how 
to obviate it; yet it is slowly but surely eat¬ 
ing out her very vitals. There is no telling 
how much young wives really do suffer in 
and by this chilling starvation of their young 
love. And this decline of its fires for want 
of fuel, allows animosities, which a vigorous 
love would keep at bay to supplant it. 

Besides, you often come home cross- 
grained, because perplexed with cares and 
fatigued by struggles. Even if your long- 
continued and heroic efforts for her have 
induced your irritability, she sees only the 
crossness, and suffers just as much from it as 
.if it were not thus induced. 


Never bring business troubles across your 
threshold. Many, provoked by outside vex¬ 
ations, come home surly, and veiff on their 
innocent wives and children the wrath raised 
by ugly customers ; whereas, whatever may 
be your business cares, you should never 
allow one angry feeling to enter your domi¬ 
cile. This should be sacred, and kept in¬ 
violate from all such venomous reptiles. 
Deposit business troubles along with your hat 
and overcoat. Many hang up their fiddle 
on the outside of their front doors, and while 
cheerful and pleasant abroad, are always grum 
and dictatorial within; whereas all should 
take it down on entering. 

Her Whole Life. 

A wife’s affections must die out, unless 
perpetually refed. This is absolute. Wo¬ 
man lives on love. It is her meat and drink, 
day and night, from its first dawnings to her 
latest breath. Without it she does not, can¬ 
not, live at all, but only stays and mopes. 
To starve it is to starve all; while nourish¬ 
ing it nourishes all. It is to her whole being 
what lubrication is to machinery. Deprived 
of it, the best of feminine material becomes 
hardened or deadened ; but supplied there¬ 
with, even a poor woman makes a good 
wife. 

Words utterly fail to describe the practical 
difference between the same woman when 
loving and loved, or hating and hated. 
Her affections are the key to her whole 
being, to lock or unlock all the good or bad, 
and increase both. How many dollars is 
that child worth ? Can money measure its 
priceless value ? Yet is not that wife, if she 
were all devotion to you, worth quite as 
much ? The social organs are so much 
larger than acquisition, that no money can 
at all express the value of a good child, or 
wife, or husband. And the more they love 




168 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


or are beloved, the more precious they 
become. 

Mutual alienations detract correspondingly 
from a wife’s value ; while hatred renders 
her as much more a curse than no wife, as 
she is the better when loving and beloved. 
Her value rises and falls in proportion to the 
amount of love interchanged. If a given 
amount of affection renders her worth a hun¬ 
dred thousand dollars, a hated, hating one is 
like a hundred-thousand-dollar debt, hang¬ 
ing like a perpetual millstone-incubus, from 
which there is no deliverance ; so that losing 
a wife’s love is a greater loss than her death; 
because it prevents you marrying another, 
and chains you to one you abhor. Losing 
but a little of it is an immeasurable loss, 
while gaining only a little is worth more 
than thousands ; because it renders you hap¬ 
pier ; besides augmenting hers and your 
children’s happiness. 

“ Far Above Rubies.” 

Count the cost, and strike the balance as 
to the difference between a lovely and a hate¬ 
ful wife, and then “ cipher out” the value of 
a good one. Solomon placed it “ far above 
rubies,” and rubies are far above your store 
trash. Yet even he did not duly estimate 
her full value. Next decipher how much 
that man gains who, by delving early and 
late at his eternal “business,” spoils a good 
wife, in and by letting her affections run 
down or die out. Next find out how much 
is gained by cherishing them, and thereby 
perpetually improving both her and yourself. 
Dollars cannot measure such problems. 
What shall it profit a man if, in gaining the 
whole world, he spoils or loses a good wife ? 
And yet many of our shrewdest business 
men daily pocket this very loss! 

Now, and throughout your life, show your 
affection for her and your admiration of her, 


not in nonsensical compliment; not merely* 
in picking up her handkerchief or her glove, 
or in carrying her fan or parasol ; not, if you 
have the means, in hanging trinkets and 
baubles upon her ; not in making yourself a 
fool by winking at, and seeming pleased at, 
her foibles, or follies, or faults ; but show 
them by acts of real goodness toward her ; 
prove by unequivocal deeds the high value- 
that you set on her health and .life and peace 
of mind ; let your praise of her go to the full 
extent of her deserts; but let it be consistent 
with truth and with sense, and such as to 
convince her of your sincerity. 

Empty Compliments. 

He who is the flatterer of his wife only 
prepares her ears for the hyperbolical stuff 
of others. The kindest appellation that her 
Christian name affords is the best you can 
use, especially before faces. An everlasting 
“ my dear” is but a sorry compensation for 
a want of that sort of love that makes the 
husband cheerfully toil by day, break his 
rest by night, endure all sorts of hardships, 
if the life or health of his wife demand it. 

Let your deeds, and not your words, carry 
to her heart a daily and hourly confirmation 
of the fact that you value her health and life 
and happiness beyond all other things in the 
world ; and let this be manifest to her, par¬ 
ticularly at those times when life is always- 
more or less in danger. 

It is not dangling about after a wife; it is- 
not the loading her with baubles and trink¬ 
ets ; it is not the jaunting of her about from 
show to show, and from what is called 
pleasure to pleasure; it is none of these that 
endears you to her ; it is the adherence to 
that promise you have made her : “ With my 
body I thee worship that is to say, respect 
and honor by personal attention and acts of 
affection. And remember, that the greatest 





COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


possible proui that you can give of real and 
solid affection is to give her your time, when 
not wanted in matters of business ; when not 
wanted for the discharge of some duty, 
either towards the public or toward private 
persons. 

Amongst duties of this sort we must, of 
course, in some ranks and circumstances of 
life, include the intercourse amongst friends 
and neighbors, which may frequently and 
reasonably call the husband from his home ; 
but what are we to think of the husband who 
is in the habit of leaving his own fireside, 
after the business of the day is over, and 
seeking promiscuous companions in the 
saloon or club-house ! 

They Prize Fidelity. 

Now, if all young men knew how much 
value women set upon this species of fidelity, 
there would be fewer unhappy couples than 
there are. If men have appointments at the 
White House, they never dream of breaking 
them ; and we can assure them that wives 
are as sensitive in this respect as Presidents 
or Cabinet officers. No man has a right to 
sport with the feelings of any innocent person 
whatever, and particularly with those of one 
who has committed her happiness to his 
hands. 

The trutn is, that men in general look 
upon women as having no feelings different 
from their own ; and they know that they 
themselves would regard such disappoint¬ 
ments as nothing. But this is a great mis¬ 
take : women feel more acutely than men ; 
their love is more ardent, more pure, more 
lasting, and they are more frank and sincere 
in the utterance of their feelings. They 
ought to be treated with due consideration 
lor all their amiable qualities and for all 
their weaknesses, and nothing by which their 
minds are affected ought to be deemed a trifle. 


lflO' 

When we consider what a young woman 
gives up on her wedding-day ; she makes a 
surrender, an absolute surrender, of her 
liberty, for the joint lives of the parties ; she 
gives the husband the absolute right of 
causing her to live in what place, and in 
what manner and in what society, he pleases 
she gives him the power to take from her,, 
and to use for his own purposes, all her 
goods, unless reserved by some legal instru¬ 
ment ; and, above all, she surrenders to him 
her person. 

Examples of Self-Sacrifice. 

Then, when we consider the pains which 
they endure for us, and the large share of 
all the anxious parental cares that fall to 
their lot; when we consider their devotion 
to us, and how unshaken their affection 
remains in our ailments, even though the 
most tedious and disgusting ; when we con¬ 
sider the offices that they perform, and 
cheerlully perform for us, when, were we 
left to one another, we should perish from 
neglect; when we consider their devotion to 
their children, how evidently they love them 
better, in numerous instances, than their own 
lives; when we consider these things, how 
can a just man think anything a trifle that 
affects their happiness ? 

A normally-sexed woman loves to be 
loved and caressed by him who has her 
heart, and “that before folks,” except that 
custom frowns thereon. Women, tell the 
world in general, and your own husbands in 
particular, just how you desire them to corm 
port themselves toward you. 

The married should love each other just 
as young lovers do, only as much more as 
they are older. Then, whatever it is proper 
to feel , it is equally proper to mcinifesi 
“ before folks.” 

It is manly for a man to love his wife. He 



170 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


was created a man expressly for this. Then 
is it not as manly to express this love? and 
equally feminine in her both to tenderly love 
her husband and manifest her outgushing 
tenderness? Is love loathsome, that it must 
be stifled? It is the purest of emotions. 
Only when it is perverted is it indelicate. 

And if husbands and wives would but 


manifest more love in purity, they would 
experience far less of its animal aspect. 
These young lovers are true to the mating 
instinct; but discontinuing these attentions 
proclaims the paralysis of love; for they can 
no more help this its natural language and 
manner, in proportion as they love, than help 
laughing when merry or shivering when cold. 



OU can make your home what 
you wish it to be. You can 
have the good sense, the tact, 
the commanding influence that 
will mould your home and give 
it character. What you are 
your house will be. If you are weak and 
worthless, your domestic life will be a failure. 
If you are a true woman, a true wife and 
mother, the grand effect will be seen on 
everything around you. What, then, are 
some of the traits that belong to the model 
wife ? 

CHEERFULNESS. 

Is there not a demand on our whole 
nature for general cheerfulness ? It is not 
only the “sunshine of the soul,” but that of 
the body. The truly cheerful are not only 
happier in their minds and spirits, but also in 
their very bodies. The brain and nervous 
system play their part in the great drama of 
physical life better; the heart and stomach 


and lungs work better. Indeed, all is better 
throughout. 

Is not that a duty which is productive of 
so much happiness? But can that be a duty 
which is not in our power to perform ? It 
were surely an impeachment of the wisdom 
and goodness of God, did he require us, in 
his providence or in his word—by his natural 
or his revealed law—to do that of which we 
are incapable. 

A Plant of Beauty. 

We consider cheerfulness, then, as a matter 
of duty ; and, of course, as in a great measure 
in our power. It makes us happier our¬ 
selves ; it enables us to reflect more happiness 
on others. Let young wives especially strive 
to cultivate it. It is in its nature a perennial 
plant; and if it is not such at the present 
time, it is because it has degenerated in a 
degenerate world. Let it be restored to its 
pristine beauty ; and let the world thereby— 
in connection with other means tending to 

o 
























COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


171 


the same end—be restored to what it was 
before the loss of Eden. 

DISCRETION. 

This is a virtue which should belong* to 

o 

every one. Above all, do we like to see the 
young wife discreet. Discretion not only 
heightens the pleasures of her existence, but 
adds greatly to her reputation in the just 
estimation of the wise. Coupled with mod¬ 
esty it more than doubles her charms. 

Let discretion then be studied. Let it be 
studied, too, for its immediate as well as 
remote benefits. It will, indeed, bear fruit 
more abundantly in later life ; but it will not 
be without its value in youth. It is a plant 
which it were worth while to cultivate, if 
human existence were more frail, and life 
more uncertain of continuance that it now is. 

MODESTY. 

Of all the qualities appropriate to young 
wives none is more universally esteemed 
than modesty. And what has been, by 
common consent, so highly esteemed, we 
cannot undervalue. Indeed, we do not think 
it has ever been over-valued, or that it can be. 

We have been somewhat amused—not to 
say instructed—by the following remarks on 
this trait of female character, from the pen of 
one who is not only a philosopher, but a 
physiologist. They are not the more inter¬ 
esting, perhaps, because they are somewhat 
new ; but neither are they less so. 

“ Modesty establishes an equilibrium be¬ 
tween the superiority of man and the delicacy 
of woman ; it enables woman to insure there¬ 
by for herself, a supporter—a defender. And 
while man thus barters his protection for 
love, woman is a match for his power; 
and the weak to a great extent, governs the 
stronger. 

“ It is probable that modesty derives its 


cause in woman, from a certain mistrust in 
her own merit, and from the fear of finding 
herself below that very affection which she is 
capable of exciting, and of which she is the 
object. Modesty compels her love to assume 
that form by which nature has taught her so 
universally to express it—that of gratitude, 
friendship, etc. Modesty is a means of attrac¬ 
tion with which nature inspires all females.” 

Under this head we will just add, that 
since by modesty the weaker govern the 
stronger, it is of immense importance that 



THE IDEAL WIFE 


Admirable type of a well balanced woman ; above 
the medium height, shoulders broad, chest full; 
neither spare nor stout; expression intelligent, ami¬ 
able, and indicating force of character combined with 
prudent reserve; affectionate, dignified, and con¬ 
trasting strongly with a vain, simpering nonentity. 

woman should know the true secret of main¬ 
taining her power ; and also by what means 
she is likely to jeopardize that power. And 
without undertaking to determine what shall 
be the precise rules of female action, and the 
precise limits of the sphere within which the 
Author of her nature designed she should 
move, is it not worth the serious inquiry, 
whether she does not, as a general fact, lose 
influence the moment she departs widely 
from the province which nature seems to 
have allotted her ? 











172 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


DIFFIDENCE. 

This trait, though nearly related to mod¬ 
esty, is far from being the same thing, its 
character having been more frequently 
brought in question than that of modesty. 
And yet it seems equally valuable. It gilds 
what modesty graces; and polishes what 
modesty improves. 

Let not the reader confound modesty and 
bashfulness; for they are by no means the 
same thing. Modesty is as much opposed 
to impudence as anything can be ; and yet 
it is certain that impudence is often conjoined 
with bashfulness. Not so often, to be sure, 
in the female sex, as in the other, and yet 
such a phenomenon is occasionally witnessed, 
even in woman. 

Bashfulness is usually the result of too low 
an estimate of ourselves ; whereas, true dif¬ 
fidence only leads us to value ourselves ac¬ 
cording to our real worth. Diffidence makes 
us humble, but bashfulness sometimes makes 
us mean ; at least, there is danger of it. It 

is, at all events, of doubtful utility; and 
though we would not denounce or condemn 

it, we would urge all to endeavor to rise far 
above it. 

But we would endeavor to cultivate and 
encourage everything which belongs to true 
diffidence. It will assist modesty in per¬ 
forming her angelic office ; and the influence 
of both, united, may save from many a pang. 

COURAGE. 

By courage we do not mean that trait for 
which man is constitutionally as much dis¬ 
tinguished, as woman is for the want of it. 
We mean not a courage to meet and sur¬ 
mount physical difficulties, and encounter 
outward and physical dangers. We mean, 
on the contrary, that moral courage which 
is confined neither to sex nor condition. 


Not that physical courage is to be 
despised, even by females. On the contrary, 
we think it is a trait of character which is 
quite too much neglected in female educa¬ 
tion. It is not only lamentable, but pitiable, 
to see a female of twenty, thirty or fifty years 
of age, shrinking at the sight of a spider or 
a toad, even when there is not the slightest 
prospect of its coming within three yards of 
her. 

Nor is it as it should be, when a young 
woman, already eighteen or twenty years of 
age, has such a dread of pigs and cows as 
to scream aloud at the sight of one in a field, 
so well enclosed that it is not possible her 
safety could be endangered were the animal 
ever so malicious. Such unreasonable and 
foolish fears ought by no means to be en¬ 
couraged ; on the contrary, she who finds 
herself a slave to them ought to suppress 
them as fast as possible. 

Groundless Fears. 

This is, indeed, an important but much 
neglected part of female education ; and she 
who is a sufferer therefrom will do well tO' 
derive a hint from these pages. The un¬ 
reasonable fears of which we speak are by 
no means confined to the sight of toads, or 
spiders, or pigs, or cows. We find them 
more or less frequently and in some form or 
other in nearly every family. Some are un¬ 
reasonably afraid of dogs and horses; others 
of cats or snakes; others, again, of the dark, 
or of being alone by night or by day. 

Let us not be understood as saying that 
no fears are to be indulged in regard to any 
of these things; it is only an unreasonable 
and foolish degree of fear that should be 
guarded against. A cow or a horse feeding 
quietly in a pasture, and separated from you 
by a stout fence which no animal in any 
ordinary circumstances is wont to leap, is not 




COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


173 


a proper object of fear with a rational person 
over twelve years of age. 

But it is moral courage that we would 
inspire in women. She has patience, and 
perseverance, and fortitude—why then may 
she not add to these moral courage! What 
man has done, man may do, has been a 
thousand times said; and the remark is not 
less applicable to woman than to man. What 
woman has done, woman may do. But 
woman, in numerous instances, has possessed 
moral courage. She has been known more 
than once to “face a frowning world,” or to 
oppose some of its tyrant fashions. We could 
mention more than one who has thus 
evinced true moral courage, and set her sex 
a glorious example, which not a few of our 
leaders might do well to copy. 

Let woman dare to do right—aether 
fashionable or unfashionable. Let her dare 
to do so in the smaller no less than in the 
larger matters of life. Let her dare to obey 
God, and the laws of God, both natural and 
revealed—both within and around her— 
rather than the laws of any man or set of 
men. Let her do this, and she will evince 
true moral courage; a courage as far sur¬ 
passing the highest efforts of physical courage 
or prowess as right surpasses might; virtue, 
vice; or purity, impurity. 

THE TEMPER. 

Nothing is more unpleasant—slovenliness, 
perhaps, excepted—than a bad temper. We 
beseech every one who is so unhappy as to 
possess such a temper to pay particular at¬ 
tention to what we are about to say on this 
interesting and important topic. 

Some women seem entirely to overlook 
4 he consequences of an ill-temper. These 
are numerous—too numerous to be men¬ 
tioned here. We shall only say that such a 
temper is no less destructive—in a slow way 


—to the health of the body than it is to the 
mental faculties and the affections. 

Some suppose their ill-temper to be con¬ 
stitutional, and this serves them as an apology 
for neglecting to govern it. They seem to 
regard it as so wrought into their very 
structure, that it will hardly be possible ever 
to eradicate it. They are condemned by 
inheritance, as they appear to suppose, to a 
perpetual war within—in which the most 
they can hope for is an occasional victory. 

Perfect Self-Command. 

Now let us tell every woman who has 
imbibed this erroneous and dangerous notion, 
that the command of her temper is not placed 
beyond her reach. She may acquire the 
most perfect self-command, even in this 
respect, if she will. Not in a moment, nor 
in a day, it is true. The work may be the 
labor of months or of years. Still the battle 
can be won : a permanent and final victory 
can be achieved. 

The very general idea that single persons 
somewhat advanced in life, especially females, 
become habitually impatient or ill-tempered, 
has too much truth for its foundation, though 
it is by no means universally true. Nor is it 
ever necessary that it should be so. 

We wish every person could be induced 
to study deeply the causes which operate on 
mankind to originate or perpetuate a bad 
temper. They are numerous—exceedingly 
so. It is not necessary to charge much 
upon our ancestors. The causes may much 
oftener be found within our own minds and 
bodies, would we but look for them there. 
We harbor or perhaps indulge a thousand 
unpleasant feelings from day to day, not 
seeming to know, or at least to realize, that 
as small streams form larger ones, so these 
first risings of anger lead to its more out¬ 
breaking forms. 



174 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


Not a few of the instances of irritability, 
fretfulness, impatience and melancholy have 
their origin in physical causes—in errors in 
regard to exercise, sleep, air, temperature, 
dress, eating, drinking ; and some have their 
origin in mistakes about the theory or the 
practice of religion. Some originate, too, in 
disappointed love. In short, their sources 
are well nigh endless. 

AVOID BAD DIET. 

It is in vain, or almost in vain, to hope for 
any radical improvement in our physical, in¬ 
tellectual or moral condition except in pro¬ 
portion as the body and the bodily appetites 
are kept in proper subjection to right reason 
and religion. 

Here we must again urge upon every 
woman the duty of studying the laws of 
health, and especially those of temperance. 
The knowledge thus to be obtained would 
be of exceeding great value to her in the 
government of her passions and appetites. 

It is related that a teacher in Boston, 
whose general course of discipline was quite 
mild, was sometimes so much affected in his 
temper by high-seasoned or over-stimulating 
dinners, as to be petulant and passionate, 
even to blows, immediately afterward. 

Now, whether this was often the case with 
the individual in question, we cannot say. 
This, however, we may affirm with the utmost 
safety and confidence—that many an indi¬ 
vidual who finds her passions or her appe¬ 
tites more than usually troublesome or 
rebellious, would do well to look for the 
cause in the bad air which she breathes, the 
bad foods or drinks she uses, or in some¬ 
thing else in herself or in her habits which 
might have been prevented. 

We press this part of the subject upon the 
consideration of women because it concerns 
not them alone, but a host of others. No 


one liveth to himself, says an apostie; and 
the remark is quite as important in its appli¬ 
cation to the young woman as to any other 
individual. 

One reason why we urge it is because we 
are almost universally referred to moral 
means and moral considerations alone, in 
order to keep in subjection the body—its 
passions and appetites—and seldom, if ever, 
to a proper attention to our food or our 
drink, our air, our exercise, or our sleep. 
Nay, the hopes of the young, in regard to 
keeping the body in subjection, are some' 
times completely paralyzed by the grave 
assertion that the strength of our passions 
and appetites is constitutional—as much our 
inheritance as the color of our eyes or the 
contour of our physiognomies, and almost 
equally unalterable. 

Outrageous Cookery. 

Now we would encourage no woman to 
expect too much of “temperance in all 
things,” without the co-operation of the 
moral powers, and especially of the will. 
But we would encourage her to strict tem¬ 
perance for her own sake and that of others. 
We would say to her once more, that in 
proportion to her obedience to the laws of 
health, in regard to air, exercise, sleep, tem¬ 
perature, study, food, drink, clothing, etc., 
will be her ability to govern herself accord¬ 
ing to right and reason. The simpler her 
diet, for example, and the more free it is from 
extraneous things—as fat, condiments, etc. 
—the easier will it be to keep herself in 
proper subjection to herself—the body to the 
immortal spirit. 

One of the most powerful and ever active 
causes of that slavery of the soul to the body 
which every person of sense must perceive 
and deplore, is our unnatural and artificial 
cookery. Had it been the aim of all the 







COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


175 



cookery in the world to make it as bad as 
possible for the health of body and soul, we 
know not that things could have been worse 
than they are now. Very few things, indeed, 
are made more palatable, more digestible or 
more nutritious by it—the legitimate and 
only ends of all the efforts of our fashionable 
cookery. On the contrary they are made, 
almost universally, a great deal worse for us. 

Let the woman who would do good in 
the reformation, elevation and eternal pro¬ 
gress of herself and those around her, not 
only study deeply the laws of health and 
life, but let her tax her powers of reasoning 
and invention to see if it is not possible to 
remove the cause of so much mischief from 
our parlors, our sleeping rooms, our kitch¬ 
ens and our tables. Much must be done 
in this respect before the world can become 
what it ought to be; and woman must lead 
the way —woman of some future genera¬ 
tion, if not of the present. 

FRUGALITY. 

Economy is an old-fashioned word, 
which, like the thing for which it stands, 
is fast going into disrepute; and it will re¬ 
quire no little moral courage in her who 
has anything of reputation at stake to com¬ 
mend it. 

“ Is there not something connected with 
the idea of economy which tends, neces¬ 
sarily, to narrow the mind and contract the 
heart?” This question is often asked even 
by those whom age and experience should 
have taught better things. 

There can be no doubt that a just measure 
of frugality and economy is a cardinal virtue, 
and should be early inculcated, even though 
it cost us some time and effort. It should 
be practiced by every wife who is of necessity 
housekeeper and manager. Not a few are 
exceedingly improvident, and often they are 


wasteful. The world seems to be regarded 
as a great storehouse which can never be 
exhausted, let them be as extravagant as 
they may. They forget entirely the vulgar 
but correct adage that “ always taking out of 
the meal tub and never putting in, soon 
comes to the bottom ”—and seem to take 
it for granted there is no bottom to their 
resources. 

Our grandmothers—our great grand¬ 


THE ECONOMICAL WIFE. 

mothers, rather—were not ashamed of fru¬ 
gality or economy. They were neither afraid 
nor unwilling to do what they knew to be 
right, simply because it happened to be 
unfashionable. We are not, indeed, of that 
number who place the golden age exclu¬ 
sively in the past. We can see errors in the 
conduct of our grandmothers. But we also 
see in them excellencies ; many virtues of 
the sterner, more sober sort, which have 
been bartered for modern customs—not to- 

































































































































COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGL 


176 

say vices—at a very great lof s by the ex¬ 
change. What we have thus lost, we should 
be glad, were it possible, to restore. 

BE SYSTEMATIC. 

There is hardly anything which the ma¬ 
jority of our young women hate—frugality 
and economy, and the study of themselves, 
perhaps, excepted—so much as system. In 
this respect a few of our best schools have, 
within a few years, attempted something ; 
and, in a few instances, with success. We 
could mention several schools for females 
whose teachers have done much more good 
by the habits of order and system they have 
inculcated and endeavored to form than by 
the sciences they have taught. 

The tendency of this excellent feature of 
a few of our institutions is, however, pretty 
effectually counteracted by the general feeling 
•of the public, that the school is but a place 
of painful though necessary restraint; and 
that when it is over, study is over—and with 
it all the system which had been either in¬ 
culcated or practiced. And though not a 
few who have been thus compelled to live 
by system for two or three years see plainly 
its excellent effects, and both they and their 
parents acknowledge them, still the school 
is no sooner terminated than everything of 
the kind is very likely to become as though 
it had never been. 

How important then, how supremely so, 
is right education! How important to sow, 
in the earliest years, the seeds of a love of 
order and system ! How important to young 
women especially that this work should not 
be deferred; since if it is so, it is most likely 
to be deferred forever. 

We know full well that here and there a 
housekeeper, convinced in her conscience 
that she can do vastly more for herself and 
others, as well as do it better, by means of 


system than without it, attempts something 
like innovation upon the usual random course 
which prevails about her. She resolves to 
have her hours of labor, her hours of recrea¬ 
tion and her hours of reading and visiting. 
She believes life is long enough for all the 
purposes of life. She is resolved to be sys¬ 
tematic on Sabbath and on week-days ; in 
the common details of the family, in dress, 
and in regard to the hours of rising, meals 
and rest. 

But she has a herculean task to accom¬ 
plish—no small part of which is to bring her 
husband and the other members of her family 
to co-operate with her. Yet amid every dis¬ 
couragement she perseveres, and at length 
succeeds. Is not such a victory worth 
securing? 

INDUSTRY. 

What ordinary virtue is there more com¬ 
mendable than industry? On this account 
and in this view it is that well-disposed 
parents sometimes employ their children in 
a way not absolutely or in itself useful to 
them, for the sake of the general habit. Such 
parents are certainly excusable, even if their 
example should not be regarded as com¬ 
mendable or as worthy of being followed. 

Dr. Good, the well-known theological, 
philosophical and medical writer, avows the 
belief that man is naturally lazy ; that he 
would not so much as lift a finger if he could 
help it; and that all his activity grows out of 
a desire to avoid present or future suffering 
or pain. Perhaps this is carrying the matter 
rather too far; since we see young children 
positively active, not so much from the desire 
of avoiding pain, as from that of procuring 
pleasure. But however untrue it may be in 
regard to children, it is unquestionably true 
of many adults; and of some it is to be 
feared of both sexes. 






























































178 


COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


Of all lazy persons, however, we dislike 
most to see a lazy young woman. Destined 
by her Creator at once to charm, instruct 
and improve the world around her, by her 
looks, her words and her actions—and this 
to a degree which no female has ever yet 
attained—how exceedingly painful it is to 
see her floating along the stream of inaction 
or insignificance, without making one con¬ 
siderable effort to arouse her faculties— 
bodily, mental and moral—from their half 
dormant condition. 

Too many females who are trained in the 
bosom of ease and abundance, have no idea 
of any attempts at benevolent effort, or even 
of active, untiring industry. If they are not 
more selfish than the other sex, they are 
scarcely less so. They live but for them¬ 
selves, and seem to desire no more. Grant¬ 
ing, as we sometimes do, that this is the fault 
of their education, is it therefore the less 
pitiable ? 

HEALTHY MOTHERS. 

Robust health in wife and mother is almost 
as indispensable as in husband and father. 
He requires one who helps , not hinders, and 
can take part in their mutual labors and 
interests. Animal vigor is the paramount 
prerequisite of everything terrestrial. With¬ 
out it none can think clearly or love heartily. 
A nervous woman may cry frantically when 
you leave her, but these morbid tears are 
worse than none. Whether a wife is chosen 
to love and be loved, to live with or help 
along, or even as a drudge, a healthy one is 
a hundred times better than a sickly. 

Rosy children constitute the great ultimate 
of marriage, and are worth a thousand-fold 
more than sickly ones ; but their constitu¬ 
tional health depends much on that of their 
mother, whose prime office it is to impart 
vitality to her young. How can she impart 


what she does not possess ? Those who 
marry weakly girls may expect their little, 
feeble, sickly children to cry night and day, 
require continual nursing and doctoring, and 
then torture them with fears lest any atmos¬ 
pheric change should blow them into a 
premature grave, after parental heartstrings 
have become fully entwined around them. 

LIVE FOR AN OBJECT. 

Idleness begets inanity. All, however 
talented, require to be inspired to effort by 
some great life-object. Better labor to aug¬ 
ment even unnecessary wealth, than do 
nothing. Those who live on their income 
should choose self-improvement, study, poli¬ 
tics, public business, reform, private or public 
improvements, or some life-labor on which to 
spend their force. “ Better wear out than 
rust out” by inertia; for rust consumes faster 
than wear. Those who do not need to work 
for a living, should at least for fun; but work 
anyhow, at something. “ He that will not 
work, neither shall he eat.” Not that manual 
labor is absolutely necessary, but that all 
must do something. Girls, by no means- 
marry drones. 

Nature does not exempt women from this 
executive necessity. They may choose 
what, but absolutely must do something. 
And what comes as natural as housekeeping? 
Not but that they can be good wives yet 
poor housekeepers, or good housekeepers 
yet poor wives; but that good wives are far 
better for being also good housekeepers. 
Houses must be kept, and wives do some¬ 
thing, then why not they keep houses? 
Hirelings may answer, but how much better 
are owners ? 

No family is fit to live in unless its wife 
and mother is at the head of its wardrobe, 
laundry, storeroom and kitchen. Obviously 
she should prepare her children’s food with 





COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 


179 


her own hands, for this trust is too important 
to be delegated ; then why not also that of 
her husband with it ? In the true family it 
is mother here, mother there, mother every¬ 
where and for everything. If a child hurts 
itself, or a bleeding finger requires doing up, 
or any advice is needed, all involuntarily run 
right to “mother.” She is the great “sym¬ 
pathetic nerve” of the whole family, its 
natural indoor head and director, because 
she should love husband and children de¬ 
votedly ; and love always involuntarily does 
and keeps doing for those beloved. And 
this increases her and their affections. Edu¬ 
cating woman for ornament is a cardinal 
modern error; whereas nature requires her 
to become a helpmeet. 

A good wife must take right hold, with 
head, heart and hands, of whatever her hus¬ 


band does; yet the fashionable idea is that 
he must do all , while she only glitters in 
fashionable attire. Not that she should not 
be ornate. Her natural beauties require to 
be shown to the best advantage. That which 
is best generally looks best, which fruits 
illustrate. Whatever is ornamental is there¬ 
fore useful. Use is ornament, and ornament 
use, the world over. The two combine in 
nature, and should in a wife; who is never 
as charming as when doing something to 
render others happy. Give me one who can 
bake and wash, pick and cook esculents, 
rnaKe bread and butter, cut and sew, and 
cater to family creature comforts. Not that 
half the domestic work now required is at all 
necessary, nor that a wife should only know 
how to work; but that she should unite the 
housekeeper with the lady and wife. 































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OME should be bright and happy ; it 
should have everything to make it 
cheerful and pleasant. Flowers are 
decorated with all the colors of the rainbow; 
plants breathe, and their breath is perfume. 
To cultivate these is not only a pleasant pas¬ 
time; they give beauty to the house and 
garden. 

The Beautiful Flowers. 

Blooming, blooming everywhere. 

In country and in town; 

Blooming for the good and wise. 

Looking out in rare surprise, 

Laughing with a tender look, 

Nodding from some cosy nock. 

Dreaming by some idle brook, 

Every flower an open book, 

Every one a precious prize, 

Smiling through the varied dyeo— 

Scarlet and gold and brown— 

God’s sweet thoughts of gracious care. 

Blooming, blooming, everywhere, 

Where quiet reigns, or strife ; 

Lifting faces fair as day, 

Happy greeting on our way ; 

Blooming where the children play. 

Blooming where fond lovers stray. 

Blooming in the hush of night, 

1 railing robes of crystal light 
O’er the garden’s green and gold ; 

Blooming for the young and old. 

Blooming for the wasted hand. 

Blooming free in all the land; 

Fringing the world so noiselessly. 

Lent to us most bountifully ; 

Frail blossoms full of life, 

God’s sweet thoughts of gracious care! 

Blooming, blooming everywhere, 

In haunts of woe and sin; 

Still their mission they fulfil, 

Born to do cur Father’s will— 

Little tokens from above, 

Little fragments of his iove, 


Who can tell what soul shall take 
Some new courage for their sake, 

Bearing midst the sun and showers 
Increase from these fragile flowers? 

Thus, the blossoms’ souls abide, 

When the gates above swing wide, 

And he bears with him the while, 

Mem’ry of the bright flowers’ smile— 

As pilgrim enters in— 

God’s sweet thoughts of gracious care. 

Mrs. Charlotte E. Fisher. 

Our American woods are tangled with 
creeping vines; our meadows are beautifu? 
with blossoms; rough country roads art 
ornamented with flowering shrubs; our hot¬ 
houses look like tropical gardens. Immense 
sums of money are invested in these floral 
beauties whose glory lasts, perhaps, only fox 
a day, but they more than pay for them* 
selves, and the world would be dismal with' 
out them. 

The following are some plain directions 
for the care and culture of the choicest of 
these treasures of nature. 

THE LILY. 

All the species of this splendid genus, 
with which we are acquainted, may be con¬ 
sidered worthy of a place in every good col¬ 
lection of plants. Many of the species are 
well-known, while a greater number are not 
often seen in our gardens. 

The Lily is an interesting flower to the 
young florist as well as the botanist, on ac¬ 
count of the simplicity of its structure and 
magnitude and distinct character of its differ¬ 
ent parts and organs. The root of the Lily, 
or what is generally denominated the root, 
is a scaly bulb, the scales being laid over 






















CARE AND CULTURE OF PLANTS. 


181 


each other, inclosing the germ, or bud. The 
bulb is not a root, strictly speaking, but a 
bud containing the embryo of the future 
plant. The roots are thrown out from the 
bottom of these bulbs, or buds, and, unlike 
the fibres of the Tulip, are perennial; and on 
their strength depends, in a great measure, 
the vigor of the future plant. 

Bulbs, long kept out of ground, are very 
much weakened, and a number of years will 
elapse before they recover strength to bloom 
in great perfection. After the flowering of 
the Lily, in August, the foliage of many 
species decays; the bulbs then are in the 
most perfect state for transplanting. If they 
are permitted to remain long after this, and 
the foliage begins to start again, they will 
not bloom so strong the next year. The Lily 
should not be moved any oftener than neces¬ 
sary. It is not like the Tulip and many 
other bulbs,which are not injured, but rather 
improved, by takiw them up annually after 
flowering. 

The Lily will do well in any well pre¬ 
pared border or bed. To have them in per- 
pection, the soil should be excavated eighteen 
inches deep, and filled with a compost of 
peat or swamp muck, undecayed manure or 
leaf mould, a foot deep; the remaining six 1 
inches may be peat and rich mould. The 
bulbs of strong growing Lilies may be 
planted from four to five inches deep ; and 
weaker sorts from three to four inches. In 
they borders, three bulbs, of the stronger¬ 
growing varieties, are enough for one group, 
or five, of the weeker sorts. They have a 
pleasing effect when planted in masses; or 
they may be planted in beds. Most of the 
species are quite hardy; but they will all be 
benefitted, and bloom more strongly, pro¬ 
vided they receive a covering of rotten 
manure before winter sets in. 

The Old White Lily - -This species has 


always been considered the emblem of white¬ 
ness, and is too well-known to require any 
description, A mass of White Lilies is 
always beheld with admiration, and they 
perfume the air with their delicious fragrance. 
The White Lily is, therefore, indispensable, 
and should be found in every garden. It 
sometimes attains the height of three or four 
feet, and is in flower about the first of July. 

Turk's Cap Lily. —There are many varie¬ 
ties of this species; some with pure white, 
others with purple, spotted, or variegated 
flowers. The petals are very much reflexed, 
giving them the appearance of caps. In 
strong soil, and the roots well established, 
the stems are sometimes thrown up from 
three to five feet, producing twenty or thirty 
flowers, flowering in July. 

The Gold-striped Lily .—There are twa 
varieties of garden White Lily with striped 
leaves, one having yellow, the other white 
striped foliage; both pretty in a collection. 

The Umbel-flowered Orange Lily.-- This ii 
a strong-growing species, producing' quite 3 
number of large, upright orange flowers, 
with rough interior. In contrast with the 
White Lily, it makes an imposing appear-, 
ance. It flowers about the first of July. 

Tiger-spotted Lily. — A very common, 
strong-growing species; but very showy 
having fine, reflexed, orange flowers, with 
black spots. It has the peculiarity of pro¬ 
ducing small bulbs in the axils of the leaves. 
It grows from four to six feet high flowering 
in August, and is a suitable plant for the 
shrubbery as well as the border. It is ver> 
easily propagated, as all the axil bulbs, wheij 
planted in the ground, soon produce flower¬ 
ing plants. 

Lily of the Valley. —An elegant and deli¬ 
cate, sweet-scented plant, which for ages has 
been a favorite flower, and highly prized. 
It succeeds well in the shade in any soil, and 








182 


MANUAL OP PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


soon spreads itself, by its slender, creeping 
roots, beyond the desire of the cultivator. 
It flowers in May and June. 

The Japan Lily. —This magnificent species 
of Lily, and its varieties were formerly 
treated as green-house plants. They are 
found to be as hardy as our common Lilies, 
and will, therefore, prove a great acquisition 
to the garden. These Lilies emit an ex¬ 
quisite odor. 

Few plants are more handsome or attract¬ 
ive than the Japan Lilies. They produce a 
gorgeous display, either in-doors or out; and 
as they are quite hardy, they may be liberally 
planted in the open border, and thus consti¬ 
tute one of our best autumnal flower-garden 
plants. 

Their propagation is simple and certain. 
The bulbs may be separated, and each scale 
will eventually form a new bulb. This 
separation should be effected when the flower 
stems are withered. The scales should be 
stuck into pans of silver sand, and placed in 
a cold frame or pit. After remaining one 
season in this position, they should be planted 
in a prepared bed of peat moss, and a little 
silver sand intermixed with it; thus treated, 
the bulbs will soon grow large enough to 
flower. 

VERBENAS. 

This plant is a native of Buenos Ayres, 
growing through a very extensive tract of 
country. The dazzling, brilliant, scarlet 
flowers cannot be exceeded by any other 
plant yet introduced into this country; and 
blooming from May to November, in the 
open air, with us, makes it one of the most 
desirable plants in cultivation. 

Innumerable splendid varieties have been 
raised, of every color and tint, excepting 
yellow and blue. Some varieties are of a 
bluish-purple, ruby-purple, lilac and dark- 
purple, rose, scarlet, crimson, white, white 


with red eye, scarlet wi ch purple eye, rosy 
with red eye, shaded, striped, etc., in fact, 
every shade of the colors named. The habits 
of all are similar, naturally prostrate and 
creeping plants, taking root freely wherever 
the stems come in contact with the ground, 
and sending forth innumerable clusters of 
their many-hued, brilliant flowers from May 
to November. 

It is kept with difficulty through the 
winter, except in rooms or in the green¬ 
house. In the cellar the roots soon perish; 
nor are any of them quite hardy enough to 
stand the winter. 

They are all so easily raised from cuttings 
that they can be obtained at any green-house, 
for about two dollars a dozen for small plants, 
which, when turned into the ground in 
June, soon make large plants, and by Octo¬ 
ber will be three feet across. They continue 
to flower after severe frosts, and are among 
the last lingering flowers of autumn. 

They flower from seed sown in the open 
ground, in May, the same season, commenc¬ 
ing their bloom in August. Seedling plants 
produce seed in abundance, but those that 
have been a long time propagated from cut¬ 
tings lose that power in a great measure. 
There is no end to the variety from seedling 
plants. To have them come early in flower, 
the seed may be brought forward in the 
frame. No plant equals the Verbena for 
masses, particularly when grown in beds cut 
out on lawns, as the brilliancy of the flowers 
contrasts finely with the green grass. 

PETUNIAS. 

Few things in the garden will make more 
show throughout the entire season, even after 
quite severe frosts, than a bed of Petunias 
from a paper of seed marked “Choicest 
Mixed from Show Flowers.” They will pro¬ 
duce a profusion of flowers, charming one 
from day to day with their variations of 








VOICE OF THE FLOWERS 


Yes—flowers have tones—God gave to each 
A language of its own ; 

And bade the simple blossom teach 
Where’er its seeds are sown ; 

His voice is on the mountain’s height, 

And by the river's side, 

Where flowers blush in glowing light, 

In lowliness or pride ; 

We feel, all o’er the blooming sod, 

It is the language of our God. 

Mrs. Eswng 































































































184 


CARE AND CULTURE OF PLANTS. 


markings, and of color. Some retain their 
distinctive characteristics, while with others 
they are changeful as the kaleidoscope. 
Stripes, blotches, sprays, white throats, green 
edges, they are lovely. Then there are the 
double sorts ; purple with white spots, white 
with purple; rose color, white, purplish-crim¬ 
son margined with white; lilac veined with 
purple; white with stripes of purple in the 
center of each petal, some exquisitely fringed; 
large and full as a rose, and some almost as 
sweet. 

The Petunia is divided into three distinct 
classes, the Grandiflora, Small Flowered and 
Double. 

The Grandiflora varieties have a strong 
succulent growth, the flowers are not so 
numerous as some others, but are very large 
and double, frequently measuring three inches 
in diameter, and some kinds are exquisitely 
marked with various shades of violet, purple, 
maroon and scarlet upon white ground ; 
some striped, others bordered, some marbled, 
some deeply fringed. The double Petunia 
gives no seed, and it is only by fertilizing 
single flowers with the pollen of the double 
that seed can be obtained. But Petunias of 
all kinds are easily multiplied by cuttings. 

The small Flowered class are those that 
make our gardens so attractive with their 
varied hues and markings. Some of the 
new hybrids are of wonderful beauty. 

A new double-fringed Petunia is named I 
after President Garfield. It is thus described: 
Color, light purple veined with deep purple 
magenta, edged with a broad band of an 
exquisite shade of green. Very novel in its 
appearance and a new color in double Petu¬ 
nias ; flower very large and deep fringed. 
Plants strong and vigorous; one of the finest 
sorts ever offered, and worthy of a place in 
every garden. It is a floral beauty of the 
highest order. 


VIOLETS. 

“ Violets, sweet tenants of the shade, 

In purple’s richest pride arrayed, 

Your errand here fulfill ; 

Go bid the artist’s simple stain 
Your lustre imitate in vain, 

And match your Makers skill.” 

This is an extensive genus of plants, of 
dwarf habits, suitable for border or rock- 
work. There are many indigenous species 
which flourish well in the gaaden, and will 
repay the trouble of collecting them from 
the woods, meadows, and pastures. 

The Sweet-scented Violet should not be 
wanting in any collection of plants, on ac¬ 
count of its fragrance and early appearance. 
A single flower will perfume a large room. 
The flowers appear in April, and continue 
through May. There are the single white 
and single blue, and the double blue and 
white varieties; the double sorts are the most 
desirable; they succeed best in a shady, shel¬ 
tered place, and are rapidly multiplied by 
divisions of the plant. 

PANSIES. 

“ Open your eyes, my Pansies sweet, 

Open your eyes for me. 

Where did you get that purple hue ? 

Did a cloudlet smile as you came through/ 

Did a little sunbeam bold *5 
Kiss on your lips that tint of gold ? 

Tell me the mystery.” 

The Heart’s Ease, or Pansy, is a general 
favorite—an old acquaintance with every one 
who has had anything to do with a flower- 
garden. It begins to open its modest but 
lively flowers as soon as the snow clears off 
in the spring, and continues to enliven the 
garden till the snow comes again. The flow¬ 
ers are in the greatest perfection in May and 
June. The burning sun of summer is un¬ 
favorable for their greatest beauty; but in 
autumn they are fine again. The Pansy is 
properly a biennial, but can be perpetuated, 
by cuttings or divisions of the root. 







185 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


To produce a bed of choice Pansies, select 
a north aspect, with a cool bottom. Soil of 
medium texture, and moderately enriched, 
should be preferred for the production of 
large flowers. Keep the soil frequently stirred 
around them, and be careful that the border 
is free from wire worm. If the plants are 
put out in September, they will be estab¬ 
lished before winter; and I have frequently 
found that plants so treated, get through the 
winter quite as well as those coddled in 
frames. As their propagation is easy, depend 
exclusively upon young plants for the fol¬ 
lowing season’s bloom. Seeds should only be 
saved from beds of selected flowers possessing 
the best qualities; for it is only by following 
this up, that improved kinds to any extent 
may be obtained; and, as seed is readily pro¬ 
duced, it is not worth while saving that from 
doubtful or indifferent sorts. 

THE ASTER. 

This large genus of plants embraces more 
than ninety species, all inhabitants of the 
United States; some of them very hand¬ 
some; giving life and beauty to our fields 
and woods, during the autumnal months, by 
the profusion of the various shades of their 
blue, purple, or white flowers. Most of the 
family are perennials, easily transplanted 
when in flower, provided they are cut down 
to the ground, and may be planted among 
the shrubbery or borders, and will add grace 
and beauty to the garden. 

A number of perennial species are in cul¬ 
tivation as garden flowers, of which the New 
England Aster and the Michaelmas Daisy, 
both natives of North America, are perhaps 
the most common, and, w 7 ith some of the 
other species, are prized as among the com¬ 
paratively few flowers to be seen at that dull 
season when the autumn is giving place to 
winter. But the best known and most val¬ 


ued of all the Asters is the China Aster, a 
summer annual, of which many varieties are 
in cultivation. It was brought from China 
to France by a missionary in the 18th cen¬ 
tury, but has been much improved and varied 
by culture. The plant delights in a rich free 
soil. It blossoms from July to the end of 
autumn and adds much to the liveliness of 
the flower-garden. 

THE CHRYSANTHEMUM. 

Long before this genus of plants was- 
knowm in Europe or America the gardeners 
of China and Japan were enthusiastic culti¬ 
vators of it, and it gives its name in the latter 
country to the highest order of honor, “The 
Order of the Golden Flower.” The colors- 
are exceedingly various and beautiful, and 
the form of the flowering head in some- 
varieties is marked by the most perfect sym¬ 
metry, while in others it assumes a medusa- 
like character. 

The Paris Daisy or Marguerites have re¬ 
cently become popular as greenhouse or 
bedding plants. The circumstance that it 
may be had in flower during the late autumn 
months and far into the winter, coupled with, 
its profuse flowering and simple requirements- 
for its culture, renders the Chrysanthemum 
a universal favorite. There are numerous 
varieties, sufficient to form an attractive 
exhibit; in many places the “Chrysanthe¬ 
mum Show” attracts great numbers of spec¬ 
tators. 

Cuttings are struck in November, Decem¬ 
ber and January. They require no heat, but 
merely protection from frost, and till they 
take root they must be kept in a close case 
away from draughts. The soil they require 
is a rich loam, with decomposed manure, 
a third of the latter to two-thirds of the 
former. They should be placed out of doors 
from May till the time of killing autumnal 






186 


CARE AND CULTURE OF PLANTS. 


frost, when they ought to be housed to pro¬ 
tect them from freezing. 

MIGNONETTE. 

This fragrant hardy annual is too well 
known to need any description. A bed of it 
should be found in every garden. It con¬ 
tinues to bloom and send forth its sweetness 
all the season, perfuming the whole region 
about the premises. Self-sown plants begin 
to produce flowers in June. The plants are 
in great demand in and about cities, being 
sold in pots and in bouquets. It is a native 
of North Africa. The name is French and 
signifies “ Little Darling.” 

SWEET PEA. 

“ Peas of all kinds diffuse their odorous powers 
Where Nature pencils butterflies on flowers.” 

Lathyrus odoratus is one of the most 
beautiful, and also one of the most fragrant, 
of the species, and is deservedly one of the 
most popular annuals which enrich the 
flower-garden. The varieties are, white, 
rose, scarlet, purple, black, and variegated. 
Each variety should be sown by itself, in 
circles about a foot in diameter, three or four 
feet from any other plant. When the young 
plants require support, a light, neat stake, or 
rod, should be stuck into the centre of the 
circle, to which they should be slightly 
fastened as they advance in height. Some 
are in the habit of supporting them with 
brush, which looks very unsightly before it 
is covered with the vines. 

The Sweet Pea will grow five or six feet 
high, in rich ground, and continue in bloom 
from July to October. The seed should be 
sown as soon as the ground is in order in the 
spring. 

AMARYLLIS. 

Amaryllis formosisshna , or Jacobean Lily, 
is a flower of great beauty. It is a tender 
bulb, but succeeds well when planted in May, 


in the open border, in a rich, sandy soil. 
The top of the bulb should hardly be covered 
with earth. The flowers are large and of a 
very deep red. The under petals hang down, 
the upper curl up, and the whole flower 
stands nodding on one side of the stalk, 
making a fine appearance. The bulb rarely 
produces more than two flowers, and more 
frequently but one, about one foot high, 
flowering in June or July. Upon the ap¬ 
proach of freezing weather, the bulbs must 
be taken up, dried, and put away in dry saw¬ 
dust, where they will be secure from frost. 

Aalica Stenoplalon is a magnificent species, 
having large orange crimson flowers, beauti¬ 
fully veined w T ith scarlet. This grand novelty 
was discovered in 1877 in one of the West 
India Islands. The flowers are perfectly 
double, and the color is rich, fiery orange red. 

THE WAN PLANT. 

This plant is a native of tropical Asia, 
where it is partially parasitical, its roots 
penetrating the bark of the trees which sup¬ 
port it. It was introduced into England in 
1802. There are several species, but only 
one is generally cultivated. Hoya Carnosa 
has thick waxy leaves, and bears umbels of 
beautiful flesh-colored flowers which are very 
wax-like in appearance. It is an excellent 
plant for house culture as it stands the ex¬ 
tremes of heat and cold better than most 
plants, and is not easily injured by neglect. 
It can be trained to climb on trellis-work to 
almost any height, and when in bloom, 
which continues for half the year, it is a 
very interesting plant. 

There are several varieties of Hoya, but 
one only is generally cultivated. Silver 
Variegated Foliage is very handsome, but is 
of slow growth and difficult to propagate. 
Imperialis is a new variety with beautiful 
foliage and scarlet flowers. Cunningham has 







MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


187 


light green leaves, deeper colored flowers 
than the Carnosa and is a rapid grower. 

They succeed -best in peat, with some 
fibrous soil and sand. They must have per¬ 
fect drainage, and require a period o'f rest. 
Hoya Carnosa is easily propagated from cut¬ 
tings. A very good method is to wrap a cut¬ 
ting in moss, keeping it moist until the roots 
are well started. 

GERANIUMS. 

A lady who has been very successful with 
her flower-garden, and has a rare collection 
of Geraniums, writes as follows: “As Gera¬ 
niums are not at all fastidious about soil, I 
take whatever is available, mix a small quan¬ 
tity of sand with it to make it friable, enrich¬ 
ing with old manure. I nearly fill the pot, 
and then make a hole in the center, set in 
the plant, press the earth firmly around it, 
fill to the top and press down again, water, 
and set the pot in a cool and shady place for 
several days, then bring to the light for 
a few hours, gradually accustoming them to 
the sunshine, until they become fully estab¬ 
lished in their new quarters. When the 
weather is sufficiently warm, I plunge the 
pots in the border for the summer, covering 
the pots entirely. I choose a cloudy day if 
possible; if otherwise, I do the work late in 
the afternoon, so that the intense sunshine 
may not at first beat upon them. I prefer 
massing these new plants by themselves, as 
the effect is more pleasing than when inter¬ 
mixed with other kinds, 

“The Geranium bed is the most attractive 
one of my garden. It is always full of 
bloom, and the varied hues commingled are 
very attractive. I remove all decayed leaves 
and the trusses as soon as the flowers have 
faded. Frequently there will be a few de¬ 
cayed pips marring the beauty of a fine truss, 
and these I carefully remove. All of my large 


stock Geraniums which have been wintered 
two years, I set by themselves, and they fur¬ 
nish an abundance of flowers for bouquets, 
and cuttings for new plants. Where one has 
a plenty of garden room, they need not mind 
having several choice Geraniums of a kind 

“Slips will root well during the summer 
months, if set in the earth near the parent 
stock, where they are shaded from the direct 
rays of the sun. Care must be had to set 
the cuttings well down in the soil, and firm 
the earth compactly around them. In this 
way one can obtain with little care nice 
plants for the winter window garden, which 
will be more shapely than those which have 
become very branchy. Geraniums are ill- 
growing plants unless pruned and trained 
with skill. But they are so easily cultured, 
adapting themselves to most any situation 
whether of shade or sunshine, are so hardy, 
and bloom so freely, that we can but admire 
them though they yield no fragrant flowers. 

“There are many varieties of scented¬ 
leaved Geraniums, and these mixed with the 
odorless blossoms are almost an equivalent 
Then the beautiful “Golden Bronzed Zoned” 
Geraniums, and the “Silver Margined” and 
“Tricolored,” are so beautiful in foliage, 
while Happy Thought , with its creamy yel¬ 
low leaf margined with green; Distinction , 
with deep green leaves zoned with black; Mrs. 
Pollock with bronze red zone belted with 
bright crimson margined with golden yellow, 
are exceedingly ornamental. Beside these 
there are many perhaps equally attractive, not 
often named in the general collection. Freak 
of Nature , first sent out last year, is an im¬ 
provement on Happy Thought the center of 
pure white narrowly margined with light 
green; flowers light scarlet; habit very 
dwarf and spreading. It originated with Mr. 
Gray of England, and was awarded three 
first-class certificates. 




188 


CARE AND CULTURE OF PLANTS. 


“Of the numerous classes into which 
Geraniums are divided, few only are given 
usually by florists. There are the Orna¬ 
mental Foliage of which we have cited a few 
examples, and the Golden Tricolors, Silver 
Tricolors, Golden Bronze, Nosegay and 
Lilliputian Zonale; double and single Gera¬ 
niums. 

“ New Life originated with Mr. H. Can- 
nell, of Swanley, England, in our Centennial 
year, and he sent out the first thousand by 
subscripton only, at $5 each—not one sold 
till the thousand were engaged! Now you 
can purchase it at prices ranging from ten 
cents to thirty. It is unique in color, being 
splashed, striped, and flecked with salmon 
and white on an intense scarlet ground. It 
is sometimes freakish, having pips with some 
petals salmon, others partly white and partly 
scarlet, others pure scarlet. But this very 
freak is charming, for with beautifully 
striped trusses there will be others thus spor¬ 
tive. Its habit is dwarf, compact, and its 
dark leaves zoned with black are very hand¬ 
some. It cannot be surpassed as a free 
bloomer. 

“Of the Sweet-scented Geraniums, we 
have none equal to the hybrid, Mrs. Taylor , 
for beauty of foliage and of flower. It is a 
fine grower, and for green to mix with flow¬ 
ers it is admirable. Dr. Livingstone , a more 
recent novelty, is very handsome and frag¬ 
rant. Rose and Lemon scented are deli¬ 
cious. Lady Plymouth is a variegated rose; 
leaves bronzy green, fringed with creamy 
white, sometimes assuming a pink tinge; 
very ornamental. London Blue is a very rare 
variety of scented Geranium, of heavy creep¬ 
ing growth, with large crimped or curled 
leaves covered thickly with fine spines or 
hairs, and seldom blooms.” 

This practical information will prove val¬ 
uable to all flower-gardeners. 


THE SNOW-DROP. 

The Snow-drop is the earliest flower of al! 
the garden tribe, and will even show her 
head above the snow, as if to prove her ri¬ 
valry with whiteness. Every third year the 
roots should be taken up, in June or July, 
when the leaves are decayed, and kept in a 
dry place till August, when they should be 
replanted. The bulbs are very small. To 
make them look well and to produce a pretty 
effect when in bloom, about twenty should 
be planted together in a clump, one and one- 
half or two inches deep. There is a variety 
with double flowers; both sorts desirable;, 
about six inches high in March and April. 

“ The Snow-drop, who, in habit white and plain. 
Comes on, the herald of fair Flora’s train.” 

There is a flower called the Leucojum , or 
Great Snow-drop, very similar to this, but 
twice the size. Of this there are three 
kinds: the Spring, the Summer, and the 
Autumnal Snow-drop. The bulbs are much 
larger; should be planted five inches from 
each other, four inches deep. “We look 
upGxi the Snow-drop as a friend in adversity, 
sure to appear when most needed.” 

“Lone flower, hemmed in with snows, and white as 
they.” 

THE GLADIOLUS. 

Gladiolus communis is a hardy, showy bor¬ 
der-flower, of which there are several varieties 
in cultivation, viz., white, purple, and red. 
They should be planted in October, on a rich 
sandy soil, about two and a half inches deep, 
and require little protection, except the purple 
variety. They have a flag-like foliage, and 
produce their flowers on long, one-sided 
spikes, or racemes, about two feet high, in 
June and July. 

Gladiolus byzanteum is also hardy, and re¬ 
quires the same treatment; flowers purplish- 
red. The Gladiolus family includes many bril- 








MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


*89 


liant species and varieties; most of them 
green-house plants. Many of them, however, 
succeed well in the open ground, when planted 
in the border in May; blit it is necessary to 
take them up in October, and keep the roots 
dry, and from the frost, till the time of plant¬ 
ing again. All the species delight in a rich, 
light, sandy loam, and should not be planted 
more than one and a half inches under the 
surface. 

Among tiie choice varieties are Calypso, 
Cleopatra, Eldorado, James Carter and Lord 
Byron. 

Gandavensis produces long spikes of the 
most vivid scarlet flowers. It has flowering 
stems four and five feet high, which throw 
out a succession of spikes of its rich and 
brilliant blossoms. 

Floribunda is another beautiful species, with 
a profusion of delicate pink flowers, marked 
with purple, about two or three feet high, in 
August. The treatment of all the tender 
varieties is similar; if they are planted in 
pots, forwarded in a hot bed, and turned into 
the open ground in June, they flower some¬ 
what earlier, and grow stronger. 

THE HYACINTH. 

The Hyacinth is a highly esteemed florist’s 
flower, of easy culture, of which more than 
one thousand varieties are cultivated in Hol¬ 
land, forming quite an important item in the 
■exports of that country, and whence, Great 
Britain, the United States, and all Europe, 
receive their annual supplies, and, in fact, 
all parts of the world. Hyacinths are dou¬ 
ble and single ; of various colors, embracing 
every shade of red, from a deep crimson pink 
down to white; of blue, from white to almost 
black, and some fewyellow and salmon color; 
but thesliades of yellow are not very brilliant, 
and appear yellow only in contrast with the 
■white. 


Some of the white, and other light varie¬ 
ties, have red, blue, purple or yellow eyes, 
which add much to the beauty of the flower, 
and others are more or less striped or shaded; 
and some are tipped with green. The double 
varieties are generally considered the finest, 
but many of the single sorts are equally 
desirable, as what is deficient in size of the 
bell is made in the greater number of them; 
some of the single sorts are the richest in 
color. 

Strong bright colors are, in general, pre¬ 
ferred to such as are pale ; there are, however, 
many rose-colored, pure white and light blue 
Hyacinths, in high estimation. Hyacinths 
begin to flower the last of April in this 
climate, and if shaded by an awning from 
hot suns, may be kept in perfection the greater 
part of a month. They never require water¬ 
ing at any season; keep them free from weeds; 
as the stems advance in height, they should 
be supported by having small sticks, or wires, 
painted green, stuck into the ground back 
of the bulb, to which they should be neatly 
tied; otherwise, they are liable to fall dowiv 
by the weight of the bells, and, as the stem 
is very brittle, it is sometimes broken off 
, when exposed to storms. 

The most suitable time to plant Hyacinths 
is in October or November. The finer sorts 
will appear to the best advantage in beds, 
while the more common varieties may be 
distributed about the borders where most 
convenient. The dimensions of the bed 
should be marked out, and the soil taken 
entirely away to the depth of two feet; the 
earth on the bottom should then be dug and 
well pulverized, and the space above filled 
with the best garden mould, free from vermii 
of every description, and largely composed 
of rich decayed manure. 

In California there grows what is called 
the Twining Hyacinth. It grows in the 






190 


CARE AND CULTURE OF PLANTS. 


mountains and twines about the bushes, 
sometimes growing eight or ten feet. After 
it gets to the top of the bush and rests awhile, 
it lets go of the earth and goes on blooming 
for months regardless of the burning sun. 
The flower stem breaks off near the ground, 
and the flowers are kept swinging in the air, 
supported only by the bush about which it 
twines. The color is deep rose and is very 
pretty. 

Purple Hyacinth Bean .—A fine, tender 
annual climber, growing from eight to fifteen 
feet in a season, Treatment very much like 
the common bean. Flowers in clustered 
spikes. There is a variety with white flowers. 

TULIPS. 

Tulips ought to have a place in every 
garden. They make a brilliant show in the 
spring when the beds are bare of other 
flowers, and afford bloom for a long time, if 
a good assortment is selected. The pretty 
little dwarf Due VanTholsare early bloomers 
and are very gay. They are admired also 
for the house, and by planting in September, 
will come into flower in December. There 
are early single and double Tulips, and also 
late bloomers, so that by having a variety, 
the border may look gay for a long time. 
Parrot Tulips are large and very brilliant in 
color, and picturesque in appearance. 

All of these varieties succeed in ordinary 
garden soil. They ought to be planted in 
October or November, about four to six 
inches apart, and about four inches under 
the surface. Before severe frosts they need 
to be protected by branches of evergreen, 
straw or leaves. After blooming, and the 
leaves have died down, they can betaken up, 
dried and stored till autumn, if the bed is 
needed for other flowers. 

The bulb catalogues issued by leading 
floristR in the autumn, and sent free to all 


applicants, will enable you to select just what 
you want. 

CARNATIONS AND PICOTEES. 

The Carnation and Picotee differ only in 
the arrangement of the color, or markings. 
The distinction is made by florists, and is of 
course arbitrary. Seeds saved from one plant, 
may produce both Carnations and Picotee, or 
even from the same seed-pod. In an old 
work in our possession, the distinction is as- 
stated, but for long years any flower with an 
irregular edge has been considered unworthy 
of propagation. The Carnation should have 
broad stripes of color running through from 
the center to the edge of the petals. The 
Picotee has only a band of color on the edge 
of each petal. 

There are two classes of Carnations, and 
thousands of varieties. The class of Per¬ 
petual Bloomers are called Monthly and Tree 
Carnations. The Garden Carnations are 
hardy, and can be left in the garden during 
winter by giving them a covering of leaves, 
straw, or evergreen boughs. They are easily 
raised from seed. Sown in June or July,, 
will make good robust plants before frost, 
which will bloom the following summer. 
Some of them will be single, perhaps, and 
these can be removed. 

Those of superior merit may be multiplied 
by layering . This method is to select good 
healthy shoots that have not bloomed, and 
make a cut midway between two joints. 
First cut half way through the sho^t, then 
make a slit lengthwise to a joint. Remove 
the earth a few inches in depth, and press 
the branch down so that this slit will open, 
and then cover with the soil. Roots will 
form where the cut was made, and thus a 
new plant will be formed, which can be 
removed in the autumn or spring. Midsum¬ 
mer is the best time to do this, and by 









MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


191 


adopting this method good, healthy plants 
are secured. 

The plants should be well watered a day 
or two before layering is commenced, and 
immediately afterward—then only occasion¬ 
ally. They are frequently propagated by 
cuttings, which can be rooted in wet sand, 
or in light sandy soil. 

I 

Perpetual Bloomers, 

Or Monthly Carnations, can be easily ob¬ 
tained of the florists for summer or winter 
blooming; the former purchased in the 
spring and the latter in the autumn. If one 
raises their own stock, it is not best to allow 
those to bloom much during the summer 
that are wanted for winter flowering. It is 
well to sink the pots in a good sunny place 
in the garden, and when they run up and 
show signs of bedding, cut back the stalk so 
that it may become more compact and 
branchy, then the buds in the late autumn 
or winter, will be much more numerous. 

The best for winter blooming are La 
Purite (carmine), President de Grazv (white), 
Peerless (white, striped with pink) and Peter 
Henderson , of the well-known varieties. Of 
those of recent introduction, Lady Emma is 
excellent. Lord Clyde has for several years 
proved to be an excellent winter bloomer. 
It is of a very robust growth, like its parent 
the Edwardsii , but of a more dwarf, low- 
flowering habit. The ground-work is white, 
thickly striped with carmine, and a frequent 
blotch of maroon ; very floriferous, each stem 
bearing from six to eight flowrets. Lydia is 
another of the recent novelties, and is very 
handsome. Flowers very large and intensely 
double, of a rich rosy, orange color blotched 
and flecked with carmine. Crimson King is 
one of the largest Carnations, very full, 
bushy habit, and robust, color crimson-scar¬ 
let. A pure bright scarlet is rare; when 


therefore, Firebraiid , a novelty of 1880, was 
announced as a bright scarlet, it produced 
quite a sensation. It is very highly com¬ 
mended by those who have seen it. Grace 
Wilder , Princess Louise and Fred Johnson , 
are new hybrid seedlings now offered for the 
first time to the public. 

* DIANTHUS. 

The word is derived from the Greek words 
Dios , divine, and Anthos , a flower, God’s 
flower or flower of Jove. There are several spe¬ 
cies, and many varieties of Dianthus; Dian- 
thus Caryophyllus is what is common known 
as the Clove Pink, and from it have been pro¬ 
duced the double varieties called Carnations 
and Picotees. The plant in its wild state is 
found growing on the south side of the Swiss 
Alps, at a low altitude, where the winters are 
not severe. The common perennial garden 
Pink is Dianthus Plumarias. The old and 
well-known Chinese Pink, Dianthus Chinen - 
sis, is a biennial, flowering the first season 
from seed sown in spring, lives during the 
winter, blooms the second year, and then 
dies. 

New and superb varieties have been intro¬ 
duced of late years from Japan, and Dianthus 
Laciniatus , and Dianthus Heddewigii ’ both 
single and double, make a splendid display, 
and are among the most desirable of our 
garden flowers. Dianthus Diadematus is of 
dwarf habit, very profuse in blooming, 
and the flowers are of various hues, from 
white to dark maroon, and also beautifully 
marbled and spotted. Of the recent novel¬ 
ties Eastern Queen and Crimson Belle are 
superb. “Eastern Queen” is beautifully 
marbled; the broad bands of rich mauve 
upon the paler surface of the petals are very 
striking. “Crimson Belle,” as its name im¬ 
plies, is of a rich crimson hue, with dark 
markings; very large and finely fringed. 






CARE AND CULTURE OF PLANTS 


1 MV 

± fJ dLi 

For early blooming it is well to sow seed 
as early as April. June sowing will secure 
good liardy plants for the following season. 
When there is a profusion of bloom, it is 
well to remove a portion of the flowers, so 
that the plants may not become exhausted, 
and the seed pods beyond what are desired 
tor ripening, ought also to be cut off. 

DAHLIAS. 

The genus Dahlia comprises but few spe¬ 
cies, all natives of the mountains of Mexico, 
whose range is from 5000 to 10,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. About one hun¬ 
dred years ago a Spanish botanist introduced 
seeds of the Dahlia into his native country, 
and named the genus in honor of a Swedish 
botanist, Dahl. The first seed imported 
seemed to be variable and not very promis¬ 
ing. About seventy years since, Humboldt 
sent fresh seed to Germany. Soon after this, 
both seeds and bulbs were introduce'! into 
England and France, and began to attracc 
considerable attention, some enthusiast being 
rash enough to hazard the assertion that 
“ there are considerable reasons for thinking 
that the Dahlia will hereafter be raised with 
double flowers.” 

About 1812 probably the first double 
Dahlia was grown, but for several years after 
this both double and single varieties were 
figured in colored plates, and exhibited at 
horticultural shows. That the single vari- 
ties were prized is not strange, for the double 
were not very good, and even as late as 
1818, published figures showed very imper¬ 
fect flowers. 

The improvement of the.Dahlia after this 
was rapid, and its popularity quite kept pace 
with its improvement. Dahlia exhibitions 
were held in England and 011 the continent, 
which were crowded by enthusiastic admirers 
of this wonderful Mexican flower. For 
many years the Dahlia maintained its popu¬ 


larity, but there is a fashion in flowers, as in 
almost everything, and for a time the Dahlia 
became, to a certain extent, unfashionable, 
and this was well ; for it placed the flower 
upon merit alone, and growers were com¬ 
pelled to introduce new and superior varie¬ 
ties to command either attention or sale for 
their favorite flower. 

A taste for old styles is now the “correct 
thing,” and so we have imitations of ancient 
earthenware, furniture, etc., and import 
origmal Chinese Aster seed, and also obtain 
roots of the single Dahlia from Mexico. 

There are three pretty distinct classes, the 
Show Dahlias, the Dwaif or Bedding, and 
the Pompon or Bouquet, and to this we may 
add the Fancy Dahlia. The Show Dahlia 
grows from three to four feet in height, and 
embraces all our finest sorts, fit for exhibi¬ 
tion at horticultural shows, from which the 
name is derived ; the flowers range in size- 
from two and a half to five inches in dia¬ 
meter. The striped, and mottled and spotted 
varieties belonging to the Show section are 
called Fancy , and though not as rich, nor 
usually as highly prized as the seifs, or those 
of one color, are verv attractive. The Dwarf 
or Bedding Dahlia grows about eighteen 
inches in height, and makesa thick, compact 
bush, and covers a good deal of surface; 
flowers of the size of Show Dahlias. They are 
therefore very desirable for bedding and 
massing. 

The Pompon or Bouquet Dahlia makes a 
pretty, compact plant, about three feet in 
height The leaves are small, and the flowers 
from one to two inches in diameter. Many 
expect to find small flowers on their Dwarf 
Dahlias, and feel disappointed because they 
are of the ordinary size, not knowing that 
it is the plant, and not the flower, that is 
dwarfed, and that only the Pompon gives 
the small flower. The word Pompon i$ 







MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


198 


French for topknot or trinket, meaning 
about the same as the English word cockade. 
The English term Bouquet is very appro¬ 
priate, as. the flowers are so small they are very 
suitable for bouquets. Being of a spreading 
habit, they cover a good deal of ground. 
Unlike most of our bedding out plants, they 
do best in poor soil; if rich, they grow to 
branches and leaves so much, they bloom 
sparingly and late. 

Generally those who plant Dahlias pur¬ 
chase the tuberous roots, because they give 
good strong plants, that flower freely without 
trouble or risk. They are smaller and better 
than the large, coarse roots usually grown, 
because they are raised from cuttings, and 
generally form their roots in pots. When a 
tuber is planted, a number of buds that 
cluster around its top will push and form 
shoots, and if too numerous, a portion should 
be removed; indeed, one good, strong plant 
will suffice, and then the plant will become 
a tree instead of a bush. Even then, if the 
top become too thick, a little thinning of 
the branches will be of advantage. 

If the young shoots that start from the 
neck of the bulb, are cut off near a joint and 
placed in a hot-bed in sandy soil, they will 
root, form good plants, and flower quite as 
well as plants grown from the tuber; this, 
however, requires some care and experience, 
and amateurs generally will succeed best 
with bulbs. 

New varieties of Dahlias, of course, are 
from seed. Some of them prove good, others 
fair, and a portion utterly worthless. As a 
general rule, we would not advise amateurs 
to trouble with seeds, although there is plea¬ 
sure in watching the birth and development 
of a new and beautiful variety. 

The seed of Dahlias may be sown in pots 
in early spring or end of winter, in a light, 
loamy soil; they will germinate quickly, 
13 


and as soon as they begin to show their sec¬ 
ond leaves they should be pricked out into 
other pots or boxes, so that they may have 
plenty of room and air—they are very liable 
to damp off if at all crowded. After pricking 
out- they should be kept in a thrifty, growing 
condition, by proper attention to watering 
and temperature ; the temperature should be 
maintained as near 70 0 as possible, and the 
watering be sufficient to preserve a moderate 
moisture. 

If the green fly attack them, it will be 
best to treat them to a very weak dilution 
of tobacco water ; the young succulent plants 
are very sensitive to smoke, and it is best not 
to fumigate them. I11 about two months the 
young plants should be large enough to pot 
off singly, or to be transplanted into a frame 
or bed, where protection can be given them 
from the cold of night-time, or from late 
frosts. As soon as all danger is past they 
can be transplanted into their summer quar¬ 
ters, and should stand at least three feet 
apart. The soil where they are to grow 
should be rich and mellow. In August 
they will come into flower, and those hav¬ 
ing blooms worthy of cultivation can be 
retained, and the others destroyed. Only 
a small proportion of the plants grown 
from common seed produce flowers equal 
to those now in cultivation, but when seed 
is saved from a choice collection of named 
varieties, the chances are that a large pro¬ 
portion of the plants will produce very 
good flowers. 

The Dahlia is called gross feeder , but it is 
not. It loves moisture rather than rich ele¬ 
mentary food. In clay it finds the best con¬ 
stituents of its development—moisture, silex, 
lime and alumnia. So we say to those who 
love this queenly flower, if you would see the 
queen in all her glory, plant in a comparative 
heavy soil, no manure, and reduce the stalks 








194 


CARE AND CULTURE OF PLANTS. 


to one for eacli tuber, set the stakes firmly, 
to keep the stalks from swaying, and if the 
season is dry, give the bulbs a soaking with 
water every evening during the drought. 
My word for it you will then be proud of 
your success. 

The Pompon, or Bouquet Dahlia is a 
favorite variety of this genus. The little 
round balls of bloom are so pretty and trim. 
Beatrice , blush tinted with violet; Dr. Stein , 
deep maroon, striped and mottled ; Gold- 
finder, golden yellow ; Little Philip , creamy- 
buff edged with lilac; Little Valentine , crim¬ 
son ; Mein Streifting , salmon, stripped with 
crimson; Pearl, white; Prima Donna, white, 
fimbriated; Perfection, deep maroon. 

Single Dahlias. 

Anything for a change from the common 
order of things, seems to be the fashion now¬ 
adays, in flowers as well as in house build¬ 
ing and house furnishing. The antique, the 
antique, is the rage ! So after years of labor 
and hybridization to bring the Dahlia up 
from its native state of single blessedness, to 
its enormous cauliflower blooms, there comes 
a reaction and now single Dahlias are praised 
as “the most beautiful of all flowers,” “the 
par excellence, the Londoner’s flower!” Well, 
let the English florists thus praise its beauty 
if they want to, but we opine that on this 
side of the great ocean it will never be con¬ 
sidered “ the most beautiful of all flowers,” 
however attractive some of them may be, 
and well adapted for bouquets. There is no 
danger of their superceding the doubles, 
but it is well to have both when one can 
afford it; their present high price puts them 
beyond the reach of those whose purses are 
not well filled, but in a year or two, when 
the novelty is worn off, they can be pur¬ 
chased at half or even less, perhaps than 
their present price. 

We find in the Londou Garden the fol¬ 


lowing: “Dahlia perfecta, originally intro¬ 
duced by Messrs. Henderson, is perhaps the 
finest flower which we possess, unless Paro- 
gon, brought into notice by H. Cannell, may 
be considered to bear away the palm. Lutea, 
a quilled yellow, is also a grand bouquet 
flower.” 

The single Dahlias, Paragon and Lutea, 
are now offered for the first time in this 
country. Color very dark velvety maroon 
with shadings of bright scarlet around each 
petal; small yellow disk. Lutea is pure 
yellow, with dark orange center. The 
grandest novelty lately is the Dahlia Juarezii, 
and not only a novelty, but a most valuable and 
useful decorative plant for all purposes through 
the late summer and autumn months. Its 
blossoms are of a rich crimson, and very 
much resemble in shape and color the well- 
known Cactus, Cereus speciosissimus. Height 
about three feet, very bushy flowers of very 
striking appearance and quite unlike those 
of an ordinary double Dahlia, the floweret^ 
being flat and not cupped. 

CAMELLIA JAPONICA. 

This is a very popular genus on account of 
their rich dark-green leaves, and beautiful 
rose-like flowers. They are hardy green* 
house plants, and thrive best in light loam 
mixed with sand and peat, but will do well 
in light soil without the peat. It will not 
flourish in a limestone soil. 

The Camellia Japonica was sent to Eng¬ 
land in 1739 by Father Kamel, a mission- * 
ary, for whom it was named. As a house- 
plant the Camellia requires considerable care, 
on acccount of the tendency of flower buds 
to drop off. A northern exposure is best, 
and a temperature of from forty to fifty de¬ 
grees. When the buds an. swelling, water 
plentifully with warm watei but allow none 
to stand in the saucer. Sponge the leaves 
once a week. In the spring put the plant 










MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


195 


out in a shady place on the north side of a 
house or fence, not under the drip of trees, 
and water it every day. Set the pots on a 
hard bottom, so that no worms can get into 
them. They form their flower beds during 
the summer, and at this time a good growth 
of wood must be encouraged. 

In the Southern States the Camellia can 
be raised with not more than ordinary care ; 
at the North it must be considered entirely 
a green-house plant, and as such will always 
be highly prized. We are often asked how 
it should be cared for as a house-plant, and 
to all such, in the northern part of the coun¬ 
try, where it is necessary to maintain good 
fires in warm houses for several months of 
the year, we have no hesitation in saying, 
let it alone, do not expend care and labor 
where there is so little prospect of reward. 

Camellias are of many hues, and some are 
beautifully striped. Gen. Lafayette , bright 
rose, striped with white, imbricated. Bell 
Romann , imbricated, large flower and petals, 
rose striated with bright crimson. Matteo 
Molfino , petals cerise, with pure white band 
down center. Mrs. Lurmann, crimson, 
spotted, very beautiful. Pure colors of 
white, red, crimson, rose and carmine, can 
be obtained. 

AZALEA. 

Shrubby gr^en house-plants of easy culti¬ 
vation. Very showy and hardy. Like the 
Camelia, they are found in all the leading 
colors, and also striped, blotched and spotted. 
They are both single and double. 

Alexander //, is white, striped with ver¬ 
milion ; edges of petals fringed. Aurelia , 
white, striped with rosy orange, amaranth 
spots. Flag of Truce , is a pure double 
white, very fine. Her Majesty , is rosv-lilac, 
edged with white. Alice , rose, blotched with 
vermilion; double. 

Azaleas need a light soil of sandy loam, to 


which should be added one-half leaf mold. 
Repotting should be done in May, trimming 
the tops to bring them into shape. Then- 
plunge in some sheltered spot in the garden.. 
In September the plants should be brought, 
in under cover or into a cool room. They 
do best when the temperature ranges from 
forty degrees at night to sixty-five or seventy 
by day. The foliage should be showered once 
a week, but care must be taken that the 
roots are not over-watered, as they rot easily. 
Small plants bloom well, but their beauty 
increases as they get age and size. The 
flowers appear on terminal shoots, and are 
from one inch to two and a half inches in 
diameter. 

Azaleas if left to themselves will develop 
long shoots, that after a time become naked 
below and are furnished with leaves only at 
their extremities. Flower stems are formed 
on the new wood of each summer’s growth,, 
consequently the amount of bloom, other 
things being equal, depends upon the amount 
of new wood annually produced. In order 
to have plants of good shape when they be¬ 
come large, it is necessary to give attention 
to pinching and training them from the first. 
The pyramid form, or more properly that of 
a cone, and rounded at the top, is considered 
the best for the plant, as it allows the great¬ 
est exposure of leaf-surface. Two principal 
methods are adopted to regulate the growth 
and bring plants into shape; one is by suc¬ 
cessive pinchings as the growth proceeds, 
the other by allowing long shoots to grow 
and then bending and training them down, 
thus causing many of the dormant buds 
along their whole length to break and de¬ 
velop into shoots. A skillful combination of 
the two methods is probably better than 
either exclusively. In this way, the life of 
the plant is not injured, and its productive 
power is increased. 








CARE AND CULTURE OF PLANTS. 


THE ROSE. 

This well-known and highly esteemed 
family of plants, or shrubs, embraces many 
distinct species, which, by the skill of the 
florist, have multiplied into thousands of 
varieties,. They vary in height from one 
to twelve or fifteen feet, producing flowers, 
single, semi-double and double, and gener¬ 
ally of exquisite fragrance. The colors are, 
pure white, white-tinted, shaded, striped, or 
mottled; every shade of red to purple, and 
all these shades and colors variously mixed; 
also a few yellow varieties. There are no 
black roses, although we sometimes hear of 
them. Such as are sold for black roses are 
those of dark shades of purple or crimson. 

The foliage is also various in the different 
species of varieties, but of a general charac¬ 
ter. They are different also in the appenda¬ 
ges to the plant, some having formidable 
thorns, while others are entirely .destitute. 
Some flower only once in the season—others 
are perpetual, or everblooming. Most are 
hardy, but many require protection. It is a 
flower beloved by every one, not only in the 
present age, but has been in all ages past, 
and will no doubt continue to be the most 
prominent and desirable flower as long as the 
world stands. It may, with propriety, be 
styled the Queen of flowers. 

The Rose is pre-eminently the flower of 
love and poetry, the very perfection of floral 
realities. Imagination may have flattered 
herself that her power* could form a more 
perfect beauty ; but, it is said, she never yet 
discovered such to mortal eyes. This, how¬ 
ever, she would persuade us to be a mere 
matter of delicacy, and that she had the 
authority of Apollo for her secret success : 

-‘ No mortal eye can reach the flowers, 

and ’tis right just, for well Apollo knows 
’T would make the poet quarrel with the Rose.’ 

It is, however, determined, that until the 


claim of such veiled beauty, or beauties, 
shall rest upon better foundation, the Rose 
shall still be considered as the unrivalled 
Queen of flowers. 

It is said, however, that the angels possess 
a more beautiful kind of Rose than those 
we have on earth. David saw in a vision a 
number of angels pass by with gilded baskets 
in their hands. 

“ Some as they went, the blue-eyed Violets strew. 
Some spotless Lilies in loose order threw ; 

Some did the way with full-blown Roses spread. 
Their smell divine, and color sLangely red ; 

Not such as our dull gardens proudly wear, 

Whom weathers taint, and winds’ rude kisses tear; 
Such, I believe, was the first Rose’s hue, 

Which at God’s word in beauteous Eden grew; 
Queen of the flowers that made that orchard gay. 
The morning blushes of the spring's new day.” 

Cowley. 

The Moss 'Rose, or Moss Provence Rose, 
is well known as an elegant plant. The 
flowers are deeply colored, and the rich mossi¬ 
ness which surrounds them gives them a 
luxuriant appearance not easily described; 
but it is familiar to every one. It is a frag-* 
rant flower; its country is not known to us, 
and we know it only as a double flower. 

The origin of its mossy vest has been ex¬ 
plained to us by a German writer: 

‘ The angel of the flowers one day 
Beneath a Rose-tree sleeping lay ; 

That spiut, to whose charge is given 
To bathe young buds in dews from heaven; 
Awaking from his light repose 
The angel whispered to the Mose; 

‘ O fondest object of my care, 

Still fairest found where all are fair, 

For the sweet shade thou’st given to me, 

Ask what thou wilt, ’t is granted thee.’ 

‘Then,’ said the Rose, with deepened glow, 

‘ On me another grace bestow.’ 

The spirit paused in silent thought; 

What grace was there that flower had not t 
’Twas but a moment;—o’er the Rose 
A veil of moss the angel throws, 

And, robed in nature’s simplest weed, 

Could there a flower that Rose exceed? 









(<P __ ^jjj\ 

| -arc of Bifete at| el Other 1 ets I 

iiiii@iiii#ii§i§§§§§§§§ggg^@0gggg 


THE CANARY. 

HIS sweet singer is entitled to the first 
place in any and all places, whether 
book, cage or aviary, his song being 
a pleasure to the poor and rich alike, and he 
can be found in the hut of the poor and the 
mansion of the rich singing as sweetly for 
one as the other. Space will not permit of 
description or account of the origin of the 
Canary, as it is now a domesticated bird, as 
far as we are concerned. The largest num- 
ber of the store-birds are brought from Ger¬ 
many to this country every year, the prefer¬ 
ence being given to them over our native 
birds on account of their excellence cf song, 
and the St. Andresburg and other warblers 
are certainly entitled to it, as they are the 
sweetest singing birds in the world. 

A good St. Andresburg warbler, with its 
sweet water notes, is preferable to any mock¬ 
ing-bird or nightingale for excellence of its 
music (leaving care and trouble out of the 
question) and why are our native birds in¬ 
ferior? The reason is we are a careless 
people about the beautiful in art and nature. 
When you go to buy a new hat you want a 
pretty one, and will pay an extra price to 
get it. If you want a musical instrument 
you will take a friend with you to choose it, 
when you do not know anything about it 
yourself, but when you go to purchase a 
picture you will go alone, look at the price, 
and get a cheap one, and consequently a 
daub. 


When you think of raising young birds* 
you will run to the cheapest place, or from 
some acquaintance get a scrub hen for a gift, 
go to as much trouble to raise scrub birds as 
would be required to raise good stock, with a 
very small extra outlay in the first start. The 
scrubs you cannot give away, whereas there 
is a constant market at good prices for good 
birds. 

There are so many kinds of Canaries now 
in existence, or rather varieties of the same 
family, that it is impossible to enter into a 
description of them. But when buying a 
bird see that he is of good form, clean of 
limb, and, above all, never buy a bird till 
you have heard him sing, and are satisfied 
with the quality of his song. Then do not 
grudge the price for a good bird. When 
made a pet of it is priceless. 

t 

Mating*. 

The best time to mate birds is in the win¬ 
ter, and the 14th of February or St. Valen¬ 
tine’s Day is by many considered a very- 
lucky day to place the birds in the same 
cage. Tet the luck be as it may, the month 
of February in this country, with our houses 
heated as they are now, modernly, is certainly 
the best time to place the birds together, 
After the birds are placed in the cage to¬ 
gether they usually fight for a day or two r 
and sometimes longer, before they mate. As 
soon as they show any sign of mating, by 
carrying paper or anything else they can 
find, and appear to be looking for a place to 



1 97 





198 


CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS. 


put it, a nest made of woven wire and lined 
with cloth should be secured inside the cage, 
and the birds left to themselves as much as 
possible, as they will manage their own af¬ 
fairs much better than if meddled with. All 
breeding cages should be made so that the 
bottom can be removed for cleaning without 
disturbing the birds, eggs, or young 

In eight days from the time the birds mate 
the female will usually lay her first egg, and 
generally one each day thereafter for three 
or four days, and in thirteen days from the 
time the first egg was laid, the first bird 
should make its appearance in the nest, and 
one each day thereafter until all are out. In 
three weeks the young birds are able to take 
care of themselves, and the old ones return 
to the labor of getting ready to raise another 
brood, as they usually raise four broods in a 
season; but do not be disappointed if you do 
not raise more than one bird from ^very 
four eggs that are laid. 

The Color. 

In mating birds the color of the offspring 
desired may be of first importance to some, 
and how to produce it from a cross of differ¬ 
ent colors will be a source of pleasure to 
many, therefore a few of the principal crosses 
will be given, although it is easy to get the 
form and color of the birds that you would 
desire at any well-stocked bird-store in the 
months of February and March, choosing 
therefrom a male and female of exactly the 
same shade or marked alike. 

But as some desiie to try and get some¬ 
thing new, or that never was seen before, as 
though there was anything new under the 
sun, we will give them a chance to try what 
they can do. 

If you desire to get pied birds, which are 
generally strong, hearty birds, get a rich, 
yellow-splashed male, and mate it with a 


yellow hen ; if it is desired to get cinna¬ 
mon-colored birds, a dark-green male bird 
and a very light or white hen will often pro¬ 
duce them; and a very light cinnamon bird 
mated with a green one will very often pro¬ 
duce a dove or fawn-colored variety, which 
are very handsome birds. Most authorities 
agree that the mating of topknot birds will 
produce bare poles, but by many this is 
contradicted, who have raised beautiful 
crested birds from a male and female, hav¬ 
ing only moderately good topknots. 

A great improvement can be made in the 
form of the bird most often met with, and 
known as the German bird, by crossing it 
with the part Belgin or long-breed variety ; 
and when the male bird is a good songster 
the offspring will be the same, if not better 
songsters thant heir parent bird. The Belgin 
variety is usually not an extra good songs¬ 
ter, and it is a delicate species in this 
climate. 

As soon as the young birds leave their 
nest they should be removed from the cage 
and the cage thoroughly cleaned, and the 
nest removed to keep the vermin, with which 
it will be infested, from annoying the birds: 
and when your cage is dry and fresh seed 
and water in it, return the birds, and they 
will get the most comfortable night’s rest 
they ever had in their young lives. 

The proper seed for young birds is crushed 
hemp, canary millet and rape. In addition 
give crackers steeped in milk and hard boiled 
egg. Cuttle-fish hung in the cage and gravel 
spread on the bottom of the cage are really 
necessary, and the least care and attention 
that is paid to them otherwise the better they 
will get along. The best place to raise birds 
is in a quiet room. After they are raised 
they ought to be removed to where they will 
have a first-class singing bird for an instruc¬ 
tor, and by this means and treatment our 






MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


199 


American birds will get a reputation such 
as the German birds never had, and that 
is saying a good deal. 

Food. 

The best food for Canaries is rape, millet 
and canary seed, and occasionally a little let¬ 
tuce and maw °eed. Any sweet vegetable 
is good for them, but sweetcakes and sugar 
-should not be given. A good mixture to 
keep your birds in song and health is made 
.as follows: One pound sweet crackers pul¬ 
verized, three hard boiled eggs, and one- 
lialf ounce of Cayenne pepper (which should 
he bought at a responsible drug-store to 
make sure that it is not mixed with red 
lead, which is a deadly poison); take the 
shell off the eggs, rub them and the pep¬ 
per into the pulverized crackers with your 
hands until thoroughly incorporated, spread 
it on a board and place it in a dry place 
(not in the sun) until perfectly dry, when 
it can be put away for use; it will keep 
indefinitely, and will save the time and 
trouble of boiling eggs every day. 

Give a teaspoonful a day to each bird, 
in a small dish, in addition to the other 
food. Never buy package seed, for it is apt 
to be musty and a large portion of millet 
seed of the poorest quality mixed in it, and 
will be very apt to injure the health of your 
bird. If possible buy your seed from a bird 
store and get the same as they use for their 
own birds, even if you have to pay a higher 
price for it. In addition to this feed a small 
piece of lean beef scraped fine, once a week, 
will be found beneficial to your bird. Al¬ 
ways hang cuttle-fish in the cage. 

The Mule Bird. 

These are generally procured by crossing 
a male bird of the other species with a hen 
Canary, and lovely birds are often produced 
by crossing the European goldfinch, the sis¬ 


kin, the linnet, the bnllfinck, the indigo 
bunting, the nonpariel and bobolink with a 
well-formed and very tame hen Canary, the 
treatment being in every respect the same 
as the Canaries. 

THE MOCKING BIRD. 

Next to the Canary comes this lovely 
songster in general favor, and a cute, cun¬ 
ning lovely pet he is, knowing his friends 
and recognizes them as quick as a dog 
would, greeting them with a shrill whistle 
and a spring from his perch as much as to 
say, “Dear master, what have you got for 
me now?” Don’t delay, but give him the 
worm, spider or grasshopper, see him jump 
to his perch and sing with it in his beak, as 
much as possible to make you understand 
how grateful he feels to you for the favor, 
after which he will get down to the bottom 
of the cage and eat it, but before doing so 
making sure that it is dead; then up to his 
perch he bounds, and the yell of a dog that 
is hurt could not be shriller than the scream 
that he will give, changing into the song of 
the robin, canary, sparrow. 

All at once he stops. Then you will hear 
a hen cackling, a rooster crowing, a cat 
mewing, or a pig squealing ; then there is a 
silence; he is pluming his feathers, the ex¬ 
citement is all over, for a half hour he will 
work away industriously, or until every fea¬ 
ther is in place, when he will commence to 
sing some notes very loud and sometimes 
very low, varying his prelude before the opera 
commences; then off he starts, being a whole 
concert in himself, and for hours he will 
sing- without intermission. 

When you make up your mind to have a 
Mocking Bird go to some responsible bird 
dealer and get him to choose a good young 
male bird, which he c^n do by the markings 
of the plumage and by the formation of the 










200 


CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS. 


body of the bird, and whether it will make 
a good song bird. As the Mocking Bird 
takes three years to come into full song it is 
of no second importance that you should 
get a good one. The best time to buy is in 
November, for then the bird will be through 
its first moulting, which is most dangerous 
to all young birds, and more particularly to 
Mocking and soft-feed birds in this climate. 
Before you get your bird get a large cage 
and have it in readiness for him, and let it 
be such a cage as you will desire to keep 
him in for years, for of all birds the Mocking 
Bird dislikes to have any change made in his 
habitation, and especially his cage. 

Food for the Mocking- Birds. 

It must be sweet, for if at all sour it will 
give him the diarrhoea, which proves fatal 
with a great many birds. Never buy mixed 
Mocking Bird food. If you have not got 
time to mix your bird’s food, which should 
be done every morning, sell the bird, or to 
kill him instantly would be more charitable 
than to give him what will cause a lingering 
death. Buy pure Mocking Bird food at a 
bird store, and every morning mix enough 
with about an equal quantity of finely-grated 
raw carrot, or boiled potato mashed very fine 
and thoroughly mixed, and it is best to vary 
it, giving the bird the potato mixture one 
day and the carrot the next; and every other 
day it will be well to give or mix into the 
food, along with the potato or carrot, a part 
of a hard-boiled egg; a pepper-pod should 
be hung in the cage, and a few insects or 
meal worms given every day. 

Gravel and water are essential to all birds, 
and should be given to this one. By proper 
attention to the above rules a Mocking Bird 
can be kept in song for eight or ten years in 
a cage, although they have been known to 
live twenty years. After nine or ten they 


do not sing and are of little value, as they 
become more liable to disease year by year. 

THE BED BIRD 

comes next to the mocking bird in general 
favor, this being one of our most beautiful 
birds, and selling at a moderate price, so 
easily kept in confinement. Such a loud 
and almost constant songster well deserves, 
to be a general favorite. Who can help but 
love to see the beautiful red fellow showing 
his coat of smooth cardinal feathers, red bill 
and jet black whiskers, and his lovely crest, 
that he can erect or depress at pleasure, 
forming a foolscap on the top of his head, 
and he is really one cf our hardiest birds, if 
properly fed, being liable to fewer ailments 
than most other birds. 

The proper food being a mixture of wild 
rice or pada, wheat, canary, oats, sunflower, 
and a very little hemp, crackers steeped in 
milk, with a little red pepper in it, and 
couple of meal worms, and other insects every 
day, a small quantity of raw, lean meat 
scraped fine, the core of sweet apple once 
or twice a week ; a little cuttle fish should 
always hang in the cage, also a red pepper 
pod, gravel and water, which you must give¬ 
to all birds clean and fresh. When so 
treated he will live and sing for seven or 
eighth years in confinement, a pleasure and 
delight to all who see and hear him. 

THE BOBOLINK. 

Next in general favor comes the Bobolink., 
on account of his merry jingle of a song, 
and which is the merriest song of all birds, 
and the low price that he can be bought at 
in the Spring of the year. A person owning 
a Bobolink reahy has two birds in the vear in 
appearance. In summer he is gaudy, black, 
yellow and white; in winter he changes ta 
brown, yellow and black streaks, and resem¬ 
bles the female, which always retains this. 








MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


201 


sombre colored plumage. He likes to ap¬ 
pear in a new dress. 

When properly treated this bird will sing 
ten months out of twelve, his song being 
much like the canary’s, but much louder. 
His proper food is millet and canary, and to 
keep him in health and song he requires in¬ 
sects the same as the red birds. When 
moulting he should be given in addition to 
above some hemp seed, but not at other 
times, as it is too fattening, and as he is in¬ 
clined to be somewhat of a glutton, and gets 
very fat and too lazy to sing. When so 
treated he will live in the cage and sing five 
to eight years. 

THE AMERICAN GOLDFINCH. 

This bird has a great many names, such 
as the wild canary, Canadian yellow bird, 
mustard bird, hanging bird, Yankee whang- 
doodle, etc. It is admired and loved by all, 
its body being covered with a coat of rich 
lemon-colored feathers, excepting the top of 
the head, wings and tail, which are jet black 
splashed with white, its bill and Let pink, 
giving the little fellow an elegant appear¬ 
ance, their song being a lovely jingling 
warble, and very similar to its European 
cousin, and in the cage it sings with great 
animation. They become very tame, but 
do not generally live long in confinement. 
They have been known to mate with the 
female canary, but their offspring is very 
delicate, and almost, if not impossible to 
raise. 

Food, a mixture of lettuce, canary, rape, 
and maw seeds, thistle seed and ripe plantain 
when it can be had; red pepper, green let¬ 
tuce and grass they are fond of. 

THE BLUE JAY. 

Another beautiful bird, and no one can 
kelp but admire the beautiful Jay as he wel¬ 
comes you to his cage, with his crest erect. 


He may be taught to whistle tunes almost 
perfect when taken young, and trained to do 
many amusing things at command; but if 
allowed to run at large he is apt to be mis- 
chevious like all the rest of the crow family. 
He is a hardy bird and will live many years 
in confinement if fed on bread and milk, 
oats, a little raw meat cut fine, and part of a 
raw egg; once in a while a little sweetmeats 
will be a great treat for him if not given too 
often. Give him plenty of water tc bathe 
in, and plenty of gravel to pick, and any 
kind of fruit or insects will be appreciated. 
His cage must be large to save his plumage. 

THE ROBIN 

is also quite a pet; a very strong, hardy bird, 
with a coarse yet rather pleasant song when 
wild. If taken young the male may be 
taught to whistle very sweetly. Being easily 
kept he is quite a favorite among some people, 
there being a strange superstition among 
others that it is unlucky for a Robin to be 
kept in a house, and when such nonsense 
gets into the head of a human being there 
is no way to get it out unless you split the 
head open with an ax, and then you will find 
the ghost. Treat the Robin the same as 
mocking birds. 

THE CAT BIRD 

is really the rival of the mocking bird, but 
if anything harder to raise, and not many 
of them make good songsters in the cage; 
but when you get a good one, that has been 
raised from the nest, you have a lovely pet. 
They require the same treatment as the 
mocking bird and the same food. 

THE BROWN THRUSH. 

Another very fine strong bird, but not by 
any means a constant singer, singing princi¬ 
pally in April, May and June. Treatment 
the same as the mocking bird; food the 
same. 



*202 


CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS. 


THE NONPAR1EL. 

Who can help but admire this beautiful 
plumaged bird, called by some the Mexican 
canary, and by the English the painted bunt¬ 
ing, and they cannot be blamed for giving it 
chat nickname, for it certainly looks more 
like the work of an artist who was fond of 
high colors than the work of nature. For 
its great beauty alone it should be kept by 
all bird fanciers, and then its song is very 
t;weet, and it becomes very tame. This 
bird should be fed on canary, millet and 
rape, and in addition given a few insects 
such as meal worms, etc., also fruits and a 
little green food. When so treated it will 
live for about eight years in confinement. 

THE INDIGO BIRD 

This is another handsome blue bird, very 
hardy and a loud, good singer. No one ever 
Tegrets buying this bird. His food should 
be canary, rape and millet seed, and in addi¬ 
tion a few insects, which they are very fond 
of. 

THE LINNET. 

This is a very thrifty, hardy bird, a good 
songster, and readily mates with the canary, 
producing a very beautiful songster. The 
seed given to it should be canary, millet and 
rape. Gravel and water should be given to 
all birds, including this one. 

ENGLISH TRUSH 

is a very fine songster in its natural home, 
but in this country there is not one in four 
that make good singing birds. If you have 
one treat it the same as the mocking bird. 

ENGLISH BLACK BIRD. 

Now you come to a European bird that is 
hardy and handsome, as well as a splendid 
songster, his plumage being a beautiful 
shining black, and his bill a bright orange 
or gold color. Feed and treat him the same 
as the mocking bird. 


EUROPEAN STARLING. 

This is a very fine bird, and one of the 
handsomest of the European birds, being a 
beautiful black, speckled all over the body 
feathers with a yellowish white. See him in 
the sun and he will certainly attract anyone’s 
attention. His song is very sweet, and he is 
a constant singer, summer and winter, and 
can be trained to sing and whistle tunes, and 
perform other amusing tricks easier than most 
of other birds. His treatment should be the 
same as other soft-feed birds, but he is a 
hardy fellow and does well on bread and 
milk, varied alternately with mocking-bird 
food, sand and gravel to eat and roll in, and 
plenty of water to bathe in, being essential 
to health. When so treated he usually lives 
ten years in confinement 

THE NIGHTINGALE. 

This is considered by many Europeans to 
excel our mocking bird ; and Wilson, a 
Scotchman, in his ornithology of North 
American birds, concedes the superiority ot 
our mocking bird, and even goes so far as to 
bring into his work a quotation from Shake¬ 
speare, “That if th.e Nightingale sang by 
day its song would not be considered superior 
to the cackle of a goose.” But the Nightin¬ 
gale is a superb songster, and if he could be 
with any certainty kept in his cage in this 
country for any length of time he would be 
a very valuable bird for us as an instructor 
of the canary, as he does not get the discor¬ 
dant yells into his song as our Mocking 
bird is apt to do; but not one in ten can be 
kept for a year in a cage, but they usually do 
well in an aviary or large room, where there 
can be some small trees. They should be 
fed and treated the same as the Mocking 
bird. 

THE SISKIN, 

or black-headed thistle finch of Europe, is 
•not a very handsome bird, but a good one. 







203 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


The prevailing color of its plumage is a 
yellowish-green, very elegantly shaded with 
black; a neat little bird and usually very 
hardy, and can be mated with the Canary 
female. Rape, canary, hemp and maw 
seeds, thistle seed, when it can be had, and 
a little cracker soaked in milk it generally 
becomes very fond of. Gravel and water 
must be given to keep health. He is fond 
of bathing and should have plenty of water 
for that purpose, except when moulting. 

THE CHAFFINCH. 

This is a greatly admired songster, and it 
well deserves to be, for it is one of the most 
elegantly formed and handsomest of birds; 
a very fair songster naturally and an apt 
scholar, and sometimes can be induced to 
mate with the female Canary, producing a 
lovely-formed bird of good plumage and an 
■excellent songster. Canary, rape and millet 
seeds are the proper food for these birds. 

THE BULLFINCH. 

This is a badly-formed bird, putting one 
in mind of a thoroughbred alderman, with 
a big paunch, its body being too thick for its 
length, and to make it look still worse its 
tail is. not long. It can be readily taught to 
perform many tricks, which are very amus¬ 
ing. Its natural song is not good, and when 
trained the price is so high that it puts them 
almost out of the market, when it is con¬ 
sidered that they are not hardy birds in this 
climate. Seeds should be rape, canary and 
millet, and a piece of dry cracker and hard- 
boiled egg ground together they are very 
fond of. They can be induced sometimes to 
mate with a female Canary. 

THE GREEN LINNET. 

This beautiful little bird is a great favorite 
with those that desire to cross-breed birds, 
and when this bird is mated with the Canary, 
which can readily be done, they produce the 


very finest of singing birds, and are sold aa 
Green Canaries, their song being louder than 
the Canary of purer blood, and, in addition, 
they are hardier. They require the same 
seed and treatment as the Canary. 

THE SKYLARK 

is a great favorite amongst Europeans, as it 
deserves to be, but in this country, where 
many birds are kept, it is generally given 
the cold shoulder. It does well in the avi¬ 
ary, and it will sing in a lark cage or special 
cage made for it, but will not sing in an 
ordinary cage, and will not live long in any 
kind of a cage. Crackers and milk, also maw 
and rape seeds, meal worms and ant eggs, are 
the proper food. Gravel and water and a 
piece of green sod they must have in their 
cage all the time. 

THE JAVA SPARROW. 

A most beautiful bird, comes to us from 
the Island of Java. It is almost impossible 
to tell whether the coat of feathers, which 
are heavy, are skin or feathers, by the naked 
eye, they are so smooth and close on the 
bird’s body; a true object of beauty, but not 
generally good songsters. There are two 
varieties of them brought to this country— 
the gray and the white, the white being a 
scarce bird and much higher-priced. These 
birds being quarrelsome it is difficult to get 
them mated with a Canary, but when ac¬ 
complished it will pay you for the trouble, 
the young being hardy, easily raised, very 
handsome, and excellent songsters. Canary, 
millet and oats should be the general food. 
Gravel and water they must have, as they 
are very quarrelsome little fellows. If two 
males are put into one cage they will fight 
like the Kilkenny cats, or until there is 
nothing left but their tails. This shows that 
male creatures should L\e<,iT be without re¬ 
fining female society. 





204 


CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS. 


THE JAPANESE ROBIN. 

This lovely bird is now coming into gen¬ 
eral favor, as well lie should, for his elegant 
form and beautiful plumage, which is of 
many distinct colors. As his name implies 
he comes to us from Japan. He is a very 
good songster, and might be called a mocker 
of birds. Hearing another bird sing he will 
listen, and apparently record the tune and 
notes, and, to your suprise, in a day or two 
he will come out with his new song almost 
as perfect as the bird he is imitating. He 
should be fed and treated the same as the 
mocking bird, and when so treated he will 
live many years, and sing nine or ten 
months in the year. 

THE TROOPIAL. 

This very beautiful bird comes to us from 
South America, where it is tolerably plenti¬ 
ful, but on account of its great beauty, hearty 
constitution, and excellence of song, he is 
such a favorite where known that the market 
is large for him, and the price, consequently, 
high. A more lovely pet cannot be gotten 
from a naturalist than this one. Food and 
general treatment the same as the mocking 
bird. 

THE PARROTS. 

Now we come to a family of birds which 
is large and beautiful, with but very few 
exceptions, and a number of them have the 
power of learning to talk. As a general 
thing, however, the most beautiful of them 
are not what can be called talkers, and in a 
work of this kind it will be an impossibility 
to give a description of many of them. 

The Gray Parrot. 

This kind comes to us from Africa, and 
is an ashen-gray color, with the end of the 
tail red and a black beak, and is one of the 
best talkers and will whistle like a good fel- 
\ow, and may be considered one of the best- 


natured of the Polly family, out in this 
country he is usually not a hardy bird, espec¬ 
ially for the first year or or two. 

ilie Double Yellow-Head. 

This is a South American bird ana an 
equal in every respect to the gray parrot 
above described, and much hardier in this 
climate, and if one wing is clipped and the 
bird allowed to run around the house, plac¬ 
ing a perch on a stand, which the bird will 
get onto whenever it is going to drop, keep¬ 
ing it in a clean and healthy condition, and 
never soiling the carpet or anything else. 

Cuban Parrot. 

This is the general favorite on account of 
its aptness in learning almost anything it 
hears and the low price at which it sells. It 
readily learns to sing, whistle, and say a 
great many words and sentences, and per¬ 
forms a great many amusing tricks, such as 
hanging by one and then by two feet, and 
then by the bill alone to a perch, turning, 
over and over on the perch, flapping his, 
wings, at the same time yelling like a Com¬ 
anche Indian. 

One three years old owned by the writer 
will talk and act as follows: Keep your 
weather-eye open, he, hi, ho ; your other eye 
to the wind and Cuty will get hurt; up, up, 
oh, ’tis so nice ; Nellie, oh, ’tis so nice; hur¬ 
rah, oh hurrah, boys ; rats, rats, shut up, 
what you doing ; kiss Nellie; stick a feather 
in your nose; oh, it hurts ; which it learned 
from having the caked food removed from 
its nostrils by the use of the stem end of a 
feather; and to the dog: Oh, Prince, kiss 
Nellie, kiss Nellie ; for all that is good, kiss 
Nellie. He will run after a cat or bird, yel¬ 
ling ketch the catee, or ketch the doggee, at 
every few steps ; will sing when told to do 
so, and when done singing will say that is 
the way to do it, and laugh like a lady at 




MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


205 


the very idea of singing and talking, and it 
is as much opposed to profanity as a sincere 
church deacon. 

When it hears an oath or profane expres¬ 
sion it will say, “Ah, ah,” and walk back' 
wards as quick as it can to get away. And 
I am sorry to say that many of our profess¬ 
ing Christian brethren would be put to 
khame by the true Christian spirit shown by 
the beautiful bird called a Parrot when pro¬ 
perly trained. 

The Blue Front Amazon. 

This is a very fine bird, and will make a 
good pet, but not much of a talker in the 
English or German language, but in Spanish 
it will excel most other birds, both in sing¬ 
ing and talking. 

The Red Front Parrot 

is a South American bird, very hardy, and a 
very good cheap bud and amusing pet. 

The Shell Parakeet. 

This beautiful bird comes to us from 
Australia, and are often called love birds, 
their habits resembling the true love bird so 
much in the affection they show for each 
other. That and their beautiful plumage and 
form of the bird makes it a great favorite. 

Their food should be rape and canary, and 
in addition some fruit, a little maw seed once 
a week ; gravel and water the same as all 
other birds must be given to them. There 
are a great variety of Parakeets, and all 
should be treated the same way. A few of 
them can be taught to say words, but none 
of them make good talkers. 

The Loreys 

are the handsomest of the Parrot family, but 
few of them talk, and none excel in talking. 
Treat them the same as the Parakeets. They 
will whistle and sing and perform all kinds 


of amusing tricks, and have often been 
taught to waltz to music of the violin and 
piano. They are tolerably hardy, and if kept 
in health will live long in confinement. 

The Cockatoos 

are a very handsome branch of the Parrot 
family, and all are very handsomely crested 
birds, but not good talkers, but very apt at 
learning other things, and become very tame 
and playful, it being very amusing to watch 
them playing with a stick, taking it in their 
bills and reaching with onefoot for it, then 
rolling over on their back, and screaming, 
while they toss the stick about, in their claws. 
If you have one of these beautiful birds feed 
it on canary, hemp and sunflower, and wild 
rice. The seed should be placed where the 
bird can always get it, but crackers and 
coffee, or tea with sugar and milk in it ought 
to be given; plenty of gravel and water and 
some fruit is about all that is required to 
keep your bird in health. 

The Macaws 

are very long and beautiful birds, but should 
not be kept in a cage, as they are apt to get 
their beautiful long tail soiled, which mars 
the splendid appearance of the bird. The 
aviary is the proper p^ce foi this bird, in 
which his lovely plumage is shown to ad¬ 
vantage. When taken young they can be 
taught to speak well, but when old they 
rarely accomplish much in talking. 

Their food should be wild rice, oats, corn, 
crackers, and plenty of fruit, such as mel¬ 
low apples, bananas, pairs, etc., which they 
are very fond of, and is necessary to keep 
the bird in health. 

The entire Parrot family is very long 
lived, it being a recorded fact that they live 
ninety years in confinement, but the aver¬ 
age of a healthy, well-kept bird is twenty- 
five years. 






206 


CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS. 


Teaching to Talk. 

A parrot will pick up very readily from 
any one it hears talking, but, like a child, 
it is apt to learn what is not desirable, but 
this can be overcome by the owner of the 
pet taking it into a room that is quiet for 
half an hour twice a day, and teaching by 
repeating to it in the same tone of voice 
three or four words day after day until 
learned, always using the same words. It 
will soon commence to answer, and make 
use of other words that it has heard cas¬ 
ually spoken, and if such words are not de¬ 
sired, they should be frowned on at once, 
and the bird scolded. If he is encouraged 
or laughed at, and he repeats the objection- 
abe words several times, it will be hard to 
break him of saying them in future. 

Never feed parrots meat. If lean it will 
heat the blood, and cause the bird to pull 
out its feathers; if fat meat is given it will 
give the bird the diarrhoea, as in their nat¬ 
ural state they live altogether on fruit, seeds, 
roots and nuts. 

PIGEONS. 

Most boys love to have pets outside the 
house, and many prefer the Pigeon to any 
other. The first thing to be done when you 
desire to have Pigeons is to prepare a roost 
or cot, which may be made in any barn, 
shed, or outhouse, or a large box may be put 
up sufficiently high to prevent cats or other 
animals from getting to it. Pigeons must 
be fed and confined to their cots till they 
have young, or they will be apt to find other 
quarters which they may prefer. Then 
choose your Pigeons, if common ones, which 
are the best in cities, as they are less liable to 
be decoyed away, and as they can be had 
for from forty to fifty cents a pair. A pair 
of fancy ones will cost you all the way from 
one t^ twenty dollars. 


Beautiful Varieties. 

There are very many beautiful breeds of 
Pigeons. The Blue Rock Dove is a very 
handsome bird ; also the Pouter, which has 
the power of inflating its chest to such an 
extent that they appear to be double the size 
of the original bird, this quality being greatly- 
admired by boys; the Carrier, on account 
of its homely head, but good birds to raise 
young, and as they are used for carrying 
messages are very amusing ; but the Tumbler 
is the boys’ delight as he usually flies high 
and comes tumbling over and over in the air 
down to his cot. The Fantails are very beau¬ 
tiful, having many of the characteristics of 
the peacock. It is really the proudest and 
prettiest of the Pigeon family. The Trumpeter 
is an old and very nice bird, making a noise 
like a trumpet as he brings his wings to the 
ground, and should be kept by every one 
laying claim to keeping a collection. 

Pigeons very seldom lav more than two 
eggs, and the period of incubation is eigh¬ 
teen days. Both the male and female assist 
in the hatching and feeding the young. 
When first hatched the young feed for about 
ten days from a food disgorged from the crop 
of its parents, and after with grain carried 
in the crop of the old birds. Pigeons and 
Doves differ from most birds in their mode 
of feeding their young, and the observation 
of this will be very interesting to boys, the 
young thrusting their bill into the open bill 
of the old Dove, and the food is actually 
pumped from the old bird’s crop into the 
young bird’s. 

CHICKENS. 

These are also the boys’ delight. Like 
the pigeon fowl have all descended from the 
one source or specimen, the wild Jungle Fowl 
of India, a great number of varieties of them 
existing in the domesticated state, amongst 





MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


207 


which the best known are the Spanish, the 
Polish, the Bramas, the Cochins, the Hou- 
dans, the Game, the Bantams, the Malay, the 
Sikey, the Hamburgs, the Dorkins, and too 
many other kinds to mention. Chickens re¬ 
quire grain, vegetables, meat, water and 
gravel, when in confinement, but when al¬ 
lowed to run at large they get along nicely 
when given some grain alone, but in dry 
weather they should have a good supply of 
clean water at their roosting-place. 

Boxes should be placed up from the floor 
of the hen-house and straw placed in them 
for nests, and a decoy egg, which should be 
made of opal glass or china, put in each 
nest, and the hens will be much more apt to 
lay in them than elsewhere, and thereby save 
you the trouble of going under fihe house or 
barn to hunt for eggs. 

Breeding-. 

When a hen has laid from fifteen to twen¬ 
ty eggs she will usually show a desire to set; 
then if from ten to fourteen eggs are placed 
under her, which should be from different 
nens, especially if it is summer-time, so as 
to make sure of their being fresh, a larger 
number will hatch out, and in three weeks 
from the time she commences to set the 
young should be hatched out, and lovely 
little balls of down they will be. Crumbled 
bread soaked in milk and hard-boiled yolk 
of egg must be in readiness for them to eat, 
for in a few hours after they are hatched 
they will begin to pick for themselves. They 
are very little trouble to keep, and raise 
themselves if kept out of the way of rats ; 
the old hen will generally keep cats and 
dogs from them. 

Bird Seed. 

There are but few persons who consider 
how much their birds’ health depends upon 
the quality of the seed given to the bird. 


They think because it is bird-seed it must be 
all right. What would you think of a house¬ 
wife that would go and buy a barrel of poor, 
musty flour to make bread for her children, 
because it was got nearer home, at the corner 
grocery, or it cost a few cents less? Tliis 
holds good in bird-seed, only to a greater ex¬ 
tent, and there is even still more danger if 
you buy the seed done up in fancy packages, 
which is generally the poorest that can be had 
in the market. Go to any bird store with a 
regular established trade, and you can rely 
upon getting good seed. 

GENERAL DISEASES OF BIRDS AND 
THE PROPER REMEDIES 
THEREFOR. 

Asthma. 

This is a disease that all birds are liable to, 
but the German Canaries more so than any 
other. It is generally caused from a cold 
neglected, and sometimes from improper 
food. Hemp seed should not be given to 
the German Imported Canaries, except wheu 
breeding, and then fed plenty of hard-boiled 
egg with their other food, they will be better 
without it. When the bird is attacked with 
this disease he must be kept on low diet, 
such as cracker soaked in milk. 

Rape and maw seed, also a little lettuce, 
will be good for him; a little bird tonic in 
his drinking water, and hang a piece of fat 
pork well rubbed into pure red pepper in the. 
cage for him to bite on when he desires. 
When taken in time it can be cured, but 
when once a bird has had it he will be very 
liable to get it again. 

Want of Appetite. 

When this occurs give your bird a small 
piece of garden sod, so that he can pick the 
earth and grass both, and any other delicacy 
that can be thought of, even if it be a little 
sweet cake. 






208 


itii iil 




































































































































































































































































































































































CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS. 


209 


The Oil Gland. 

This is a small round lump on the back 
of the bird, and above the tail, and its use is 
to supply the bird with the oil necessary to 
plume its feathers. When this becomes ob¬ 
structed, as it will sometimes, it gets gorged 
with oil, and causes the bird much suffering. 
The bird will appear to be puffed and un¬ 
easy, and every once in a while be seen pick¬ 
ing at it. Take the bird gently but firmly 
and pass the point of a fine needle into it in 
two or three places, and annoint it with a 
little butter to prevent the perforations from 
scabbing over, and the bird will do the rest 
-itself. 

Moulting-. 

This is. an annual occurrence with birds, 
and if the feathers come off freely all that is 
required is to keep the bird warm and out of 
drafts, which may be easily done, as the usual 
time for birds to moult is August and Sep¬ 
tember. It is good to give your bird an ex¬ 
tra quantity of nourishing food at this period, 
as the new feathers which take the place of 
the old ones cause a great strain on the sys¬ 
tem of the bird. When the bird does not 
cast its feathers freely, a small quantity of 
saffron put into the drinking water, will 
generally afford relief. Keep the bird warm, 
covering the cage at night, and hang it in 
the sun in day, watch for diarrhoea at this 
time as it is very liable to occur. 

Dysentery. 

Tliis is often a fatal disease with all birds. 
The bird affected with it voids a white milky 
matter, which causes a great deal of pain and 
inflammation of the intestines, but is gener¬ 
ally easily cured, if it is attended to in its 
early stages, but if allowed to run for twenty- 
four hours the case is generally hopeless. As 
soon as detected, which may easily be done, 
for the bird will generally show a disposition 

to sit still with its head resting on its wing, 
14 


this is a notification that your bird feels 
bad. Rook in the bottom of the cage, if 
the droppings of the bird are white and 
thin like chalk and water, he has the 
diarrhoea. 

Now put some red pepper into his food, a 
piece of very rusty iron into his water, and 
cover the cage up. Set it in a warm place. 
If the droppings are not thicker in about 
four hours, add eight or ten drops of brandy, 
which has laid on blackberries for some time 
and do not remove the iron. Cover a<rain 
as before. If seed-eating birds, remove any 
hemp-seed that may be in the cage and give 
a little maw-seed in its place with other seed. 
If soft-feed bird, give more pure mocking¬ 
bird food and less vegetable matter, and 
during the attack no vegetable or fruit 
should be given to any bird. 

Broken Lambs. 

When this misfortune is met with the 
limb must be put into the natural position 
as nearly as possible, and then secured by 
splints, or otherwise placed in a low cage 
without perches, with straw on the bottom, 
to keep the plumage of the bird from getting 
soiled; food and water placed in convenient 
reach of it, and the cage covered up and put 
in a quiet place, it will usually be as well as 
ever in a week or ten days. 


Constipation. ^ 

This is of common occurrence with seed¬ 
eating birds. The remedies are vegetable 
matter, such as lettuce, grass, etc., and in 
urgent cases a few drops of castor oil should 
be given, which may readily be done by 
holding the bird in the left hand, and with 
a stick brought to a point the oil can be 
run down its throat. Be careful not to get 
it on the bird’s plumage, and a dose is from 
three to eight drops, according to the size 
of the bird. 







210 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


Egg Bound 

is a frequent occurrence with young birds, 
and they will brood upon an empty nest. 
The remedy is to annoint the vent of the 
bird with a little sweet oil, and to administer 
a dose of castor oil through the bill. Handle 
gently, for if you break the egg it will likely 
be the end of all. 

Sneezing. 

aally caused by cold, and may be re¬ 


in 



FISH GLOBES. 

lieved by passing a small straw through the 
nostrils of the bird. Keep the bird out of 
drafts and keep it warm. 

Huskiness and Boss of Voice. 

Usually caused from cold. Never purchase 
a husky bird, but when he gets so you will 
have to do the best you can for him, his voice 
is often restored ; but if he lives long he is 
almost sure to lose it again. Keep the bird 


a warm place, give it, if a seed-eating bird* 
flaxseed and ripe plantain, crackers and milk 
with a little red pepper on it, and sweet cake 
with a little sherry wine on it, and a piece of 
fat pork smoked and rubbed well in red 
pepper, should be hung in the cage, and a 
few drops of good tonic should be put into 
the drinking water. 

Long Claws and Beak. 

Though not diseases, they will oring them 
on, when the beak is too long. It prevents 
the bird from getting its food. When the 
claws are too long it prevents the bird, 
through fear of hanging, from getting on or 
off its perches. This is easily remedied, all 
that is required is to hold the bird firmly and 
place its foot on a block ; with a sharp knife 
cut off the surplus growth of the nail, being 
careful not to cut into the quick, which runs 
about one-fourth of an inch into the nail 
from the toe. The surplus beak may bere- 
moved in the same way. 

Tlie Scab 

cometimes makes its appearance about the 
head and eyes of a bird, and often there is a 
small ulcer. When so, it should be removed 
with a sharp knife and the place anointed 
with fresh butter or sweet oil, and fresh 
nourishing food, including fruit and veget¬ 
ables should be given. 

Fits or Ejjilepsy 

or fits ofdizziness. Birds attacked with this 
fall from their perches and struggle. The 
best remedy is to souse them into a bucket 
of cold water quickly and place the bird 
gently down. He will most probably soon 
recover. When he does put him where he 
will get perfectly dry, and put a little sherry 
wine and spirts of nitre in his drinking 
water to prevent its return, and, in addition, 
give it more nourishing food. Soon he will 
appear like a new bird. 






























211 


CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS. 



Cancer. 

Sometimes this makes itself felt to the 
grief of the canary breeder, as it is conta¬ 
gious, and before it is known what is the 
matter several birds are affected 
with it. It is best to destroy a 
bird so affected. A cure is 
sometimes effected by bathing 
the parts frequently with warm 
water and milk, and anointing 
with olive oil or butter. 

Vermin 

sometimes come to birds, but 
may be easily destroyed, if of 
the body kind, by anointing the 
bird under the wings with lard, 
and placing a clean cloth over 
the cage at night for a week or 
ten days. But the red mites 
are the plague of all bird-fan¬ 
ciers, their habits being the 
same as the house or bedbug, 
which trouble all dirty house¬ 
keepers. They live in the crev¬ 
ices of the cage, and come out 
only at night to feed and an¬ 
noy the bird. They breed so 
fast that the supply continually 
increases as long as their food 
lasts, and their food is the blood 
of the bird; the only true rem¬ 
edy is to detach the perch that 
the bird sleeps on from the rest 
of the cage. As this cannot be 
done we have now to do the 
next best thing, and that is to 
obstruct the passage from the 
cage to the bird by the use of 
insecticide. This may easily be 

done by putting a piece of felt 

\ 

or cloth secured to the ends of the perches 
by wrapping with wire and saturating it with 
lard and kerosene oil twice a week. 


THE PERCH. 

The suspended bird perch, which can be 
bought at bird stores, is a great ornament to 
a cage; it is really a set of perches or eight 


AQUARIUM. 

small arms secured to a centre spindle, and 
hung by a spring from the hook that the 
swing is usually secured to. In the centre of 














































































2V1 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


the coiled spring is a piece of felt which, 
when saturated with kerosene oil, forms a 
sure barrier against their getting to the bird, 
so the bird getting rested at night is in better 
condition and spirits and more in the humor 
for singing next day. 

GRAVEL 

must be given to all birds, and if it is spread 
freely upon the bottom of the cage so much 
the better. 

WATER. 

Above everything do not give the bird 
stale water to drink unless you desire it to 
die; and if that is your desire you had best 
kill it, to save it the suffering it will have to 
endure by being compelled to use impure or 
rotten water. 

AQUARIA. 

Gold and Silver fish have been known in 
this country since the days of Washington. 
They abound in the fresh, clear waters of 
China, and are now quite common in our 
artificial ponds, lakes in parks, etc.; and who 
has not seen them in glass globes and tanks 
in the dining-room and parlors of the most 
refined and better class of citizens, the man¬ 
agement and care being so little that it is a 
surprise that a fish globe is not to be found 
in every house in the land. The most indo¬ 
lent lady can attend to a fish globe with 
pleasure. 

Globes for fish are best set on a stand, and 
can be placed on the table, mantel or bracket. 
Chains are very often used, but should not 
be. Fish should be kept in a cool place, and 
the sun never allowed to shine on a globe 
containing fish or on a tank except in winter¬ 
time, and then not on all the tank and only 
for a short time. Globes should not be more 
than three-fourths filled with water. The 
water should be partially changed twice a 
week, and before filling the globe cover the 
bottom of it with clean gravel. 


FOOD. 

Fish do not require much food, but food 
they must have. There is a prepared food 
kept at all aquaria goods stores, which is gen¬ 
erally good, but fish will do well on a little 
sweet cracker or bread crumbled into the 
water, but it must be given in small quanti¬ 
ties, for if not eaten it sours in the water, 
and is injurious to the fish. Barth worms 
are the very best of food, and can be kept all 
winter if put into a box of moist earth, 
which must be kept moist and out of the way 
of frost. The worms should be cut into 
small pieces before being given to the fish. 

More amusement can be had from the in¬ 
vestment of two or three dollars in a globe 
and fish than in a hundred dollars in theatre 
tickets, and it will be an interesting orna¬ 
ment to any room, whether poorly or ele¬ 
gantly furnished. The gold, silver and pearl 
fish are certainly gems, and there are hun¬ 
dreds of others that you can choose at any 
aquaria goods store, and if the reader be a man 
or lad, there are many beautiful fish in our 
own creeks that, with a small net, can be had 
for the catching of them. Diseases of fish 
are not many, but if vou have manv fish in 
one tank, and you see one sick, which can 
be easily told by the dull appearance of the 
fish and his coming to the top of the water 
to get air, remove it from the tank and place 
it in a large dish or small tank, and if it 
does not get better in a day or two it is best 
to destroy it, as it will not be worth the 
trouble of trying to cure. 

RABBITS. 

This is another favorite with the boys, and 
the common Rabbit is the one most often met 
with, but the Rabbit is not by any means 
neglected. There are many kinds of fancy 
Rabbits, viz.: The Perfect lop-eared, the Oar 
lop-eared, the Horn Rabbit, the Angora 








CARE OF BIRDS AND OTHER PETS. 


2i3 


Rabbit, and the Maltese Rabbit, all of which 
are very odd-looking, but none as handsome 
as the pure white with pink eyes. Rabbits 
are very prolific, usually having eight or ten 
young four times a year; they are amusing 
and profitable pets, as the young may readily 
be sold, are easily kept, living upon grass, 
hay, vegetables, fruit, such as apple parrings, 
scraps of bread, or any vegetable matter that 
is not decayed. The young should not be 
taken from their parents until they are six 
weeks old. 

DOGS. 

There being so many different kinds of 
these kind, affectionate and serviceable ani¬ 
mals, a general description of them cannot 
be given. A puppy under six months old 
should never have meat given to it, and 
until a year old no raw meat should be given. 
Young puppies, bread and milk alone, (which 
would be good food for some puppies in hu¬ 
man form), when older, bread and milk varied 
with soup and bread, and then some cooked 
meat, and they must have a good warm bed 
in a dry place. When so fed and kept they 
can be generally raised without having the 
distemper or other sickness. 

WHITE MICE. 

Another children’s pet, which are very 
pretty, with their lovely pink eyes. They 
can be trained to do many amusing tricks, 
and are very tame and hardy; will live upon 
anything a person can, but corn-meal is their 
favorite. They are very prolific, having 
young from four to six times a year, and 
from five to twelve each time. 


WHITE RATS 

come to us from China, and are very similar 
to white mice. When kept clean they make 
very nice pets. Can be fed on most any 
refuse from the table, but in addition must 
have fresh meat twice a week. They are 
even more prolific than the mice, having 
usually from eight to fourteen at a litter^ 
The young are very pretty after they are two- 
weeks old; before that time they have no¬ 
hair on their bodies, the head being as large 
as the rest of the body, eyes not open. 

CATS AND MONKEYS 

are pecs for the ladies, and as there is such a 
variety of them, and so few of the latter 
kept, a description in a work of this kind 
would be superfluous. If you want a Monkey- 
go to a store of a naturalist and make your 
selection. If he has not got the kind you 
want he can show you the pictures and de¬ 
scription of so many that it will not be any 
easier for you to make your selection than 
than to buy a calico dress when the obliging 
dry-goods clerk has shown you over one 
hundred pieces, but after you have made up 
your mind and give the order for him to get 
you one, do not go back the next day to try 
to obtain another kind that you think you 
might like better, for if he is a prompt and 
reliable man he will have already sent his 
order off, and even if you do not hear him, 
he is very apt to swear at the fickle-minded- 
ness of some people. 

Most ladies would call them ugly, but 
mice and rabbits are born without hair on 
their skin, so why make all this fuss about 
Rats? 





FOR THE 





h • I FOR THE 

"OUSEKEEPER. 

RECEIPTS FOR EVERYDAY USE. 



H ETHER, as some 
persons claim, half 
the ills of life are 
due to bad cooking, 
it is certain a large 
proportion of them 
can be traced to in¬ 
judicious diet and 
food not properly 
prepared, It is one 
of the happy evidences of 
advancing civilization that 
cooking has come to be 
recognized as a science, and 
schools for teaching the 
most approved methods have been estab¬ 
lished in many of our large towns. 

To cook well is immensely more important 
to the middle and working classes than to 
the rich, for they who live by the “ sweat of 
their brow,” whether mentally or physically, 
must have the requisite strength to support 
their labor. Every wife, mother or sister 
should be a good plain cook. If she has 
•servants she can direct them, and if not, so 
much the more must depend upon herself. 

In the selection of provisions the best is 
generally the cheapest. Half a pound of 
good meat is more nutritious than three times 
the amount of inferior. As to vegetables, 
get them fresh. Above all, where an income 
214 



is small and there are many to feed, be care¬ 
ful that all the nourishment is retained in the 
food that is purchased. This is to be effected 
by careful cooking. Cleanliness is an imper¬ 
ative condition. Let all cooking utensils be 
clean and in order. Uncleanliness produces 
disorder, and disorder confusion. In the 
cooking of meat by any process whatever, 
remember, above all, to cook the juices in it, 
not out of it. 

A Means to Good Health. 

Let there be some body to your soup. 
Vegetable soup is generally the next ching 
to water, and sometimes so uncomfortably 
near that it is hard to distinguish them apart. 
On the other hand, meat soups are often too 
thick, and, strictly speaking, should be called 
puddings. Here, as elsewhere, the golden 
mean is entitled to its name. As much skill 
can be shown in this part of the culinary art 
as in preparing a turkey for Thanksgiving. 

The strong point in favor of good cooking 
is not so much to gratify the palate as to 
perfect the health. The explanation of many 
fatal disorders is to be found in nothing but 
badly-cooked and ill-assorted viands. Our 
households would enjoy better health, and 
be better able to withstand sickness when 
it comes, if pains were only taken to have 
food well chosen and properly cooked. 



















HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


215 


Life is made all the brighter by satisfactory 
feeding, and he is a dull philosopher who 
despises a good dinner. We sit down to the 
enjoyment of the table more than a thousand 


times every year, and whoever thoroughly 
realizes this fact cannot fail to see the neces¬ 
sity of becoming acquainted with the various 
cooking processes. 



ERY housekeeper needs a list 
of well-tried receipts for ready 
reference. It is impossible to 
carry in your memory a great 
number of receipts, with the 
various articles of which they 
are compounded. Even if these 
■could be remembered, the proportions might 
be forgotten; it is therefore necessary to have 
•exact copies of the great variety of receipts 
which are now recommended by teachers 
and experts. 

Those that are here furnished are the very 
best, having been thoroughly tested and ap¬ 
proved by persons who know what good 
cooking is. They are of invaluable service 
in the kitchen. 

But we should not only know how to 
cook, we should also know how to eat. The 
grand rule in fixing the number and periods 
-of our meals is to proportion them to the real 
wants of the system as modified by age, sex, 
health and manner of life, as indicated by the 
true returns of appetite. As the blood is 
usually most impoverished after the eight or 
ten hours’ fast of the night, breakfast should 
be early. The stomach is usually vacated 
■of its contents in about four hours after eat¬ 
ing, but it may be an hour or two later before 
the blood calls for a renewed supply. 


Persons engaged in active labor, in which 
bodily expenditure is rapid, of course require 
to eat more often than the indolent and 
sedentary, and children need nourishment 
oftenerthan adults. But too long abstinence, 
especially if the digestive power be not 
strong, sharpens the appetite, so that there 
arises danger of excessive eating. Some 
avoid luncheon, for fear of spoiling the din¬ 
ner, whereas the thing they most need is to 
have it spoiled. 

Nightmares and Headaches. 

When the intervals between the meals are 
so long as to produce pressing hunger, some¬ 
thing should be taken between them to stay 
the appetite and prevent over-eating. Late 
and hearty suppers are to be reprobated; 
active digestion and sleep mutually disturb 
each other, as at night the exhalation of car¬ 
bonic gas is lowest, and tissue changes most 
retarded. The overloaded blood is not 
relieved, and invades the repose of the brain, 
producing heavy, disordered dreams and 
nightmare, followed by headache and ill- 
humor in the morning. 

Still, there is the opposite extreme of sit¬ 
ting up late, and going to bed wearied, 
hungry, and with an indefinable sense of 
sinking, followed by restless, unrefreshing 













216 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


sleep. A little light nourishment in such 
cases, a couple of hours before retiring, may 
prevent these unpleasant effects. 

Some one has remarked that “the idle 
man is the devil’s man, and it may also be 
said of the stomach, that if it has nothing to 
do it will be doing mischief.” Food should 
not be taken after severe exercise, nor should 
exercise of veiy active character be taken 
immediately after eating. Too much food 
overpowers the nervous system as much as 
excessive muscular exercise. To sum up all 
under this head, people must be more care¬ 
ful what they eat, at what times they eat, 


how much they eat, if they would preserve 
the healthy condition of the vascular and. 
nervous systems. 

There can be no precise rule laid down for 
the governance of all. A little careful ob- 
servation, however, would teach every one 
of mature age what is best adapted to his 
particular organization. If men would watch 
with half as much anxiety the influence of 
different articles of food on their systems as. 
they do the effects of growing crops and 
financial failures on the money market, 
longevity would oftener be obtained than 
large fortunes. 


0 

SOUPS 


YSTER SOUP. —Two quarts 
strained oyster liquor, season 
with pepper and salt to taste 
and boil. Then add ioo 
oysters; let all boil together 
till oysters curl, skimming 
constantly; remove oysters 
to tureen and thicken the soup with 3 table¬ 
spoons butter rubbed smoothly into the yolks 
of 2 hard-boiled eggs, boil in a separate 
vessel (to prevent curdling), 1 qt. milk; pour 
on oysters in tureen and add soup last. 

Tomato Soup.— Take 1 qt. cooked to¬ 
matoes, I qt. hot water ; bring to a boiling 
point, then add 1 teaspoon soda, after which 
add 1 pt. hot milk and season with pepper 
and salt. Just before serving add y 2 cup 
cracker crumbs. 

Bouillon. —Take 4 lbs. from the middle 
of the round, 2 lbs. bone, 2 qts. cold water, 
1 tablespoon salt, 4 pepper corns, 1 table¬ 
spoon mixed herbs; cut meat and bones in 
small pieces, simmer 5 hours, boil down to 
3 pts., strain, remove the fat and season with 


salt and pepper; serve. Boil in 1 onion, y 2 
carrot and turnip if liked. 

White Stock Soup. —Six lbs. knuckle of 
veal, y 2 lb. lean bacon, 2 tablespoons butter 
rubbed in 1 of flour, 2 onions, 2 carrots, 2 
turnips, 3 cloves stuck in an onion, 1 blade 
mace, bunch of herbs, 6 qts. water, pepper 
and salt, 1 cup boiling milk. 

Cut up the meat and crack the bones.,. 
Slice carrots, turnips, and 1 onion, leaving* 
that with the cloves whole. Put on with 
mace, and all the herbs except the parsley, 
in 2 qts. cold water. Bring to a slow boil 
take off the scum as it rises, and at the end 
of an hour’s stewing add the rest of the cold 
water—1 gal. Cover and cook steadily, 
always gently, 4 hours. 

Strain off the liquor, of which there should 
be about 5 qts.; rub the vegetables through 
the colander and pick out bones and meat. 
Season these highly and put, as is your 
Saturday custom, into a wide-mouthed jar or 
a large bowl. Add to them 3 qts. stock,, 
well salted, and when cold keep on ice. Cook 


















HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


21V 


to-day’s stock; remove the fat, season, put 
in chopped parsley and put over the fire. 
Heat in a saucepan a cup of milk, stir in the 
floured butter ; cook 3 minutes. When the 
soup has simmered 10 minutes after the last 
boil, and been carefully skimmed, pour into 
the tureen and stir in the hot, thickened milk. 

Beef Soup.— Have a beef’s shank chopped 
into convenient pieces at the butcher’s. Put 
in a kettle and cover with water. Put a close 
cover on and boil till the meat drops from 
the bones. Strain through a colander and 
let it set in a cool place over night. In the 
morning the fat will be hard on the top. Skim 
carefully and put over the fire. Slice carrot, 
onion and turnip and fry them brown and 
use for seasoning. Boil slowly for an hour. 
Just before dishing add a very little sugar, 
5 cloves, 10 kernels allspice and a teaspoon 
of celery salt. Strain again and serve. 

Beef Heart Soup.— Take 1 beef heart, cut 
off most of the fat and wash it thoroughly. 
Then put the heart into a kettle with 1 y 2 
gal. cold water and boil until tender. Just 
before it is quite done add salt to the taste. 
Have ready a variety of finely chopped vege¬ 
tables—about 1 qt.—to which may be added 
a small quantity of either macaroni, rice or 
vermicelli. Boil all together for 1 hour. 
Serve hot with cubes of golden brown toast, 
and you will enjoy a delicious soup. Better 
satisfaction will be given if the heart is re¬ 
moved from the broth before adding the 
vegetables. It may then be stuffed and 
baked, sliced for sandwiches or made into a 
fine hash. 

Turtle Soup. —A turtle weighing 8 or 10 
lbs.; cut off its head and let drain. Remove 
from the shell, selecting the liver and eggs 
and carefully discarding the gall. Quarter 
the turtle, lay in a pan and pour over it boil¬ 
ing water ; scrape it clean and cut off claws, 
then place it in cold water, wash thoroughly 


and wipe dry. In a soup kettle brown 3, 
tablespoons flour with a large tablespoon 
lard, then add one medium sized onion 
chopped fine. 

Cut the meat cf turtle in small pieces and 
fry in the lard and flour till partially cooked, 
then add 1 gal. water and boil slowly until 
reduced one-half. When meat is tender add 
following spices : small tablespoon cinnamon, 

1 teaspoon mace and 12 or 15 cloves, all 
beaten fine ; also add thyme, parsley, salt 
and pepper, both cayenne and black. Before 
serving add 1 tumbler Madeira and one-half 
tumbler claret, also the juice and rind of 1 
lemon. If the turtle has eggs, add them to^ 
the soup about 1 5 minutes before serving. 

Soup for an Invalid.— Cut in small pieces 
1 lb. beef or mutton, or a part of both ; boil 
gently in 2 qts. water, take off the scum, and 
when reduced to a pint strain it, season with, 
a little salt, and take a teacup at a time. 

Ox-Tail Soup.— Take 2 ox-tails and 2 
whole onions, 2 carrots, a small turnip, 2 
tablespoons flour and a little white pepper, 
add a gallon of water, let all boil for 2 hours; 
then take out the tails and cut the meat into 
small pieces, return the bones to the pot for 
a short time, boil for another hour, then 
strain the soup, and rinse 2 spoons arrowroot 
to add to it with the meat cut from the bones, 
and let all boil for y of an hour. 

Veal Broth. —Put a knuckle of veal in 4 
qts. water, with 1 onion and 2 or 3 stalks of 
celery. Boil slowly, and when the meat is 
done, strain. Add 2 oz. rice or vermicelli 
and season to taste. Be careful not to let 
the rice cook too much. 

Mutton Broth.— Put 3 lbs. neck of mutton 
into 2 qts. water, with 2 onions and 2 small 
turnips sliced. Boil slowly 2 hours, strain, 
season to taste and add a little rice. 

Mutton Broth.— Put a few pounds of 
mutton into cold water and boil till tender. 




218 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


skim off the grease and season to taste. This 
is excellent for invalids. 

Chicken Broth. —Boil a young chicken in 

2 or 3 qts. water till tender. Skim off the 
oil and season to taste. Some prefer a little 
thickening; if so, add a little flour mixed 
smooth with water. 

French Tomato Soup. —One qt. tomatoes, 

3 pts. boiling water, i even teaspoon each of 
soda, pepper and salt, butter size of egg, I 
small minced onion, I qt. milk. Put onions 
and tomatoes over the fire with the hot water, 
strain and rub through a colander. Boil the 
milk, stir in the butter and soda, and after 
one boil keep hot. Put pepper and salt with 
tomatoes, simmer 5 minutes, then stir in the 
milk; serve at once. Omit onions for mock 
turtle soup. 

Vegetable Soup. —One cup rice to 1 qt. 
cold water; let it come to a boil, then chop 
fine a small cabbage and 6 onions together, 
cook slowly till most done, then take 4 large 
potatoes, slice them round, put in to cook till 
soft enough to put a fork through them ; 
now add salt to taste, then milk to thin it 
down, a little butter if you wish it. Be sure 
not let it burn, add more water if it thickens 
too much. 

Delicious Vegetable Soup. —One teacup 
onions, I teacup carrots, 1 teacup turnips, 1 
teacup celery, 1 teacup parsnips, all cut fine. 
Cover with water and simmer for 2 hours or 
more until perfectly done. Boil later 1 to 5 
potatoes very thoroughly and when done 
skim from the water; strain through colander. 
Strain also vegetables when thoroughly 
done. Put vegetables and potatoes into soup 
kettle and add 1 tablespoon chopped parsley. 
Melt 1 tablespoon butter with equal part 
flour, rub smooth, add pepper and salt and 
stir into the boiling compound. Serve with 
toasted bread in form of dice. 

Potato Soup —No. 1.—Boil y doz. good 


sized potatoes with a little celery, parsley and 
onions chopped fine. Brown a few slices of 
dry bread, butter and cut fine. Pour the 
soup over this and serve at once. 

Potato Soup —No. 2.—Pare 1 doz. good- 
sized potatoes and slice them y 2 inch thick, 
then cut into squares or diamonds and boil . 
very carefully till tender to the fork. Add 2 
qts. sweet milk, bring to a boil and thicken 
a little. Add 3 or 4 hard boiled eggs,sliced 
fine or chopped, and seasoning to taste. 

Potato and Celery Soup. —Five good- 
sized potatoes, as much celery as you like, 3 
pts. water. Boil until tender, then put 
through strainer, add I pt. sweet cream, salt, 
butter and pepper to taste. 

Celery Soup. —One qt. soup stock, 3 
bunches celery chopped fine, cooked y 
hour, 1 qt. milk put in just long enough 
before using to boil up, add enough flour to 
thicken the least bit, also pepper and salt. 
Serve hot. 

Cream Celery Soup. —Take 2 qts. veal 
stock, 2 bunches celery, 2 cloves, 2 onions, 

3 peppercorns, 1 string parsley ; boil 1 hour 
and strain, then add 1 pt. whipped cream. 
After dished season with salt to taste. 
Tapioca or asparagus may be substituted for 
celery. 

Macaroni Soup. —Boil y 2 lb. macaroni 
until tender in as little water as will cook it 
well. Put a knuckle of veal into cold water 
and boil about 2 hours, add a stalk or two 
of celery and boil y 2 hour longer; then strain 
through a colander, add the macaroni, boil 
together a few minutes, add a little cream or 
milk and season to suit the taste. 

Noodle Soup.— Boil a shin of beef till 
tender, take out the bone and strain the 
liquor through a colander, then season to 
taste and add the noodles, which are made 
as follows: Break 1 egg into a basin, add 
flour enough to make a stiff dough, roll out 




HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


219 


■very thin and sprinkle lightly with flour, then 
roll up as you would a roll of jelly cake 
and slice up into thin slips, shake out and 
put into the soup. Boil about io minutes, 
and it is ready to serve. 

Friar’s Duck Soup.— Have some good 
clear consomme well seasoned and boiling, 
beat 4 yolks of eggs with i pt. cream, pass 
the custard through a muslin strainer. Five 
minutes before serving add the custard to the 
consomme. Do not let it boil. Cut the 
breast of chicken into tiny strips (as the 
vegetables are for a julienne soup), and add 
them to the soup and serve. 

Egg Dumplings for Soup. —To ]/ 2 pt. 
sweet milk add 2 well-beaten eggs and as 
much sifted flour as will make a thick smooth 
batter. Drop a spoonful at a time into the 
boiling soup, cover closely and boil 6 
minutes. 

Rice Soup. —Stew 3 lbs. beef in 2 or 3 
qts. water. When partly done add I onion 
and a small bunch of sweet herbs, and boil 
slowly till the meat is very thoroughly 
cooked, then strain and add a handful of 
rice and cook till it is soft, then add season¬ 
ing to taste. 

Gumbo Soup. —Stew 2 qts. tomatoes y 2 
hour, add 2 qts. okra, shredded, flavor with 
thyme, onion and parsley. Boil slowly to¬ 
gether till tender. Stew a chicken and season 
with butter. Beat the yolks of two eggs 
with 1 tablespoon vinegar. Put this mixture, 
with the chicken, into the kettle of tomatoes. 
Cover all with water and boil 4 hours. Take 
out the bones and season soup to taste. 
This is very nice. 

Bean Soup. —Put I pt. beans into 2 qts. 
water, with a small soup bone and boil 2 y 2 
hours. Take out the bone, season the soup 
to taste and thicken with y 2 tablespoon 
flour, beaten smooth in a little milk. Pea 
soup may be made in the same way. 


White Soup. —Cut up 1 large chicken, put 
into a soup pot with y 2 gal. cold water and 
1 lb. veal, off the leg, cut into squares. 
When the white meat is quite done and ten¬ 
der, take it out of the soup and separate from 
bone. Chop this very fine, or grind it in a 
meat cutter; with this mix I pt. bread 
crumbs that have been soaked in a pint of 
boiling milk, the yolks of six hard boiled 
eggs made into a smooth paste with a little 
cold water and y 2 teaspoon of the extract of 
almond. Strain the soup from the rest of 
the chicken and veal and mix very gradually 
with the paste, putting only a little of the hot 
liquid on at a time. When this is done put 
soup back on the fire till it comes to a boil 
for a few moments, and just before serving 
pour into the soup a heated pint of rich 
cream. ' 

Wine Soup. —Take any large, fat fowl, 
either chicken, duck or goose, if it is old so 
much the better, provided it is fat. Cut it 
up and break the bones and boil 3 y 2 hours 
in a gallon of water, or until the fowl is 
thoroughly done. Have ready a teacup of 
well-browned flour, which mix into a smooth 
paste with a little of the soup before adding 
it to the kettle, having first taken out the 
particles of the fowl; y hour before it is 
done add a handful of allspice and 3 blades 
mace. Crumble the yolks of 6 hard-boiled 
eggs and add them 15 minutes before the 
soup is taken off. Just as it is served pour 
in a large wine glass of sherry or Madeira 
wine. 

Clam Soup.— Bring to a boil 2 qts. water, 
seasoning to taste, and a few rolled crackers. 
Then add 1 can clams, with the liquor that 
is on them, and boil about 5 minutes. 

Mock-Turtle Soup. —Soak 1 pt. black 
beans for 12 hours. Chop up the meat from 
a beef shank and put on to boil with the 
beans. Season to taste. Cover the bones 




220 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


with water and boil for 6 hours, then put the 
liquor into the beans. Add 2 eggs well 
beaten, then press the soup through a 
colander and serve with slices of lemon. 

Julienne Soup. —Cut up 3 onions and fry 
them brown in a little butter. Add season¬ 
ing to taste, a little mace and 3 tablespoons 
strong stock. Add turnip, celery and carrot 
cut fine. Throw in a few green peas. Boil 
until the vegetables are tender. Strain for 
the table. 

Vermicelli Soup. —Boil y 2 lb. vermicelli 
till tender, then add to it some meat liquor, 
boil together a few minutes and season to taste. 

Bisque Soup. —Equal parts milk and 
strained tomato (1 pt. each), heat in separate 
dishes; to the tomato add a piece of butter 
the size of a walnut, salt and a little nutmeg. 
Let the milk boil and thicken slightly with 
flour. When ready to serve put a piece of 
soda the size of a pea into the tomato, and 
pour into the milk. 

Green Pea Soup. —Wash a small quarter 
of lamb in cold water, and put it into a soup- 
pot with six quarts of cold water ; add to it 
two tablespoonfuls of salt, and set it over a 
moderate fire; let it boil gently for 2 hours, 
then skim it clear; add a quart of shelled 
peas and a teaspoonful of pepper; cover it, 
and let it boil for half an hour ; then having 
scraped the skins from a quart of small young 
potatoes, add them to the soup ; cover the 
pot and let it boil for half an hour longer ; 
work quarter of a pound of butter and a 
dessert spoonful of flour together, and add 
add them to the soup 10 or 12 minutes be¬ 
fore taking it off the fire. Serve the meat on 
a dish with parsley sauce over and the soup 
in a tureen. 

Corn Soup. —Cut the corn from the cob, 
and boil the cobs in water for at least an hour, 
then add the grains and boil until they are 
thoroughly done; put 1 doz. ears of corn to 


a gallon of water, which will be reduced to 3 
qts. by the time the soup is done ; then pour 
on a pint of new milk, 2 well-beaten eggs, 
salt and pepper to your taste ; continue the 
boiling a while longer, and stir in, to season 
and thicken it a little, a tablespoon ful of good 
butter rubbed up with 2 tablespoonfuls of 
flour. Corn soup may also be made nicely 
with water in which a pair of grown fowls 
have been boiled or parboiled, instead of 
having plain water for the foundation. 

Philadelphia Pepper Pot. —Put 2 pounds 
of tripe and 4 calves’ feet into the soup-pot 
and cover them with cold water; add a red 
pepper and boil closely until the calves’ feet 
are boiled very tender ; take out the meat, 
skim the liquid, stir it, cut the tripe into small 
pieces, and put it back into the liquid ; if 
there is not enough liquid, add boiling water; 
add half a teaspoonful of sweet marjoram, 
sweet basil and thyme, 2 sliced onions, sliced 
potatoes, salt. When the vegetables have 
boiled until almost tender, add a piece of 
butter rolled in flour, drop in some egg balls 
and boil fifteen minutes more. Take up and 
serve hot. 

Dried Bean Soup. —One pint dried beans, 
half pound ham, 1 quart of stock, 1 y 2 
quarts of boiling water, salt and pepper to 
taste. Wash the beans and soak them over 
night. In the morning drain the water off, 
and cover them again with the boiling water; 
add the ham and boil gently two hours. 
Now, add the stock. Press the beans 
through a sieve, return them to the soup 
kettle, and bring to a boil. Add salt and 
pepper, and serve with toasted bread. 

To Get Up a Soup in Haste. —Chop 
some cold cooked meat fine, and put a pint 
into a stew-pan with some gravy, season with 
pepper and salt and a little butter if the 
gravy is not rich ; add a little flour mois¬ 
tened with cold water, and 3 pints boiling 



HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


221 


water, boil moderately half an hour. Strain 
over some rice or nicely toasted bread and 
serve. Uncooked meat may be used by us¬ 
ing i quart of cold water to a pound of 


chopped meat, and letting it stand half an 
hour before boiling. Celery root may be 
grated in as seasoning, or a bunch of parsley 
thrown in. 



FISH 



O BOIL FISH.— Boil the fish 
in half water and half vine¬ 
gar, with salt, 3 small onions, 
y 2 lemon cut up, pepper, all¬ 
spice and cloves. When done 
draw aside to keep warm 
while you prepare the sauce. 
Rub together y pound butter, the yolks of 
4 eggs and a tablespoon flour ; when well 
mixed add of the liquor in which the fish was 
boiled as much as you need for the sauce. 
Cook the same 4 minutes, drain the fish 
well, lay on the dish and pour sauce over it. 

Fish Chowder. —Half lb. salt pork cut in 
small pieces, 2 large onions sliced, 3 large 
potatoes sliced, 6 crackers soaked in milk, 
salt, pepper and parsley to taste. Put in the 
kettle a layer of pork, then cod, onions, 
seasoning, potatoes and crackers, then again 
the same, cover with cold water and stew 
gently an hour and a half. 

Thick Cream Sauce for Salmon. —Melt 
2 even tablespoons butter in saucepan, add 
4 heaping tablespoons flour, x / 2 teaspoon 
salt, y 2 saltspoon white pepper, y 2 teaspoon 
celery salt, a little cayenne pepper. When 
thoroughly cooked in butter, add I pt. hot 
cream or rich milk; add very gradually, 
stirring all the time. Put in shredded 
salmon. 

Puree of Salmon. —Remove the oil, 
bones and skin from y 2 can of salmon, chop 
salmon very fine, heat together for 10 min¬ 
utes 1 slice of onion, 1 quart of milk, and 


then remove die onion, melt I tablespoon 
butter, add 2 tablespoons flour, 1 teaspoon 
salt and 1 saltspoon pepper ; mix well and 
add to the hot milk ; add the salmon and 
when heated strain and serve. 



MIDDLE CUT OF SALMON. 


Salmon is cut in slices down the middle 
of the upper side, as from A to B, and then 
in slices across, D to C, on the under side ; 
a little of the “thick” or upper side, and 
“thin” or under side, are put on each plate. 

To Fry or Broil Fish Properly. —After 
the fish is well cleansed, lay it on a folded 
towel and dry out all the water. When well 
wiped and dry, roll it in wheat flour, rolled 
crackers, grated stale bread or Indian meal, 
whichever may be preferred; wheat flour 
will generally be liked. 

Have a thick-bottomed frying-pan or 
spider, with plenty of sweet lard salted; (a 
tablespoonful of salt to each pound of lard), 
for fresh fish which have not been previously 
salted ; let it become boiling hot, then lay 
the fish in and let it fry gently, until one side 
is a fine delicate brown, then turn the other; 
when both are done, take it up carefully and 
serve quickly, or keep it covered with a tin 
cover and set the dish where it will keep hot. 



















222 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


To Bake a Large Fish Whole. —Cut off 

the head and split the fish down nearly to 
the tail; prepare a nice dressing of bread, 
butter, pepper and salt, moistened with a little 
water. Fill the fish with this dressing and 
sew together with needle and strong thread. 
Lay the fish on a grate, on a bake-pan or 
dripping-pan, and pour round it a little water 
and melted butter. Baste frequently. A 
good-sized fish will bake in an hour. Serve 
with the gravy of the fish, drawn butter or 
oyster sauce. 

Croquettes of Fish. —Bone fish of any 
kind, chop thoroughly, season to taste. Beat 
up an egg with a little flour and milk. Roll 
into balls, dip in beaten egg, dredge with 
cracker crumbs and fry in hot butter. Brown 
on both sides and serve for breakfast. Salt 
fish, freshened over night, is very nice pre¬ 
pared in this way. 

Boiled Cod. —Lay the fish in cold water, 
a little salt, for y 2 hour. Wipe dry and sew 
up in linen cloth, coarse and clean, fitted to 
the shape of the piece of cod. Have but one 
fold over each part. Lay in the fish-kettle, 
cover with boiling water, salted at discretion. 
Allow nearly an hour for a piece weighing 
4 lbs. 

Cod Pie. —Any remains of cold cod, 12 
oysters, sufficient melted butter to moisten 
it, mashed potatoes enough to fill up the 
dish. 

Mode: Flake the fish from the bone and 
carefully take away all the skin. Lay it in 
a pie-dish, pour over the melted butter and 
oysters (or oyster sauce, if there is any left), 
and cover with mashed potatoes. Bake for 
y 2 hour to a nice brown color and send to 
table. 

Dried Codfish. —This should always be 
laid in soak at least one night before it is 
wanted; then take off the skin and put it in 
plenty of cold water; boil it gently (skim¬ 


ming it meanwhile) for 1 hour, or tie it in a 
cloth and boil it. 

Serve with egg sauce, garnish with hard 
boiled eggs cut in slices and sprigs of parsley. 
Serve plain boiled or mashed potatoes with it. 

Codfish Cakes. —First boil soaked cod, 
then chop it fine, put to it an equal quantity 
of potatoes boiled and mashed; moisten it 
with beaten eggs or milk, add a bit of butter 
and a little pepper; form it in small round 
cakes, rather more than in. thick; flour 
the outside and fry in hot lard or beef drip¬ 
pings until they are a delicate brown ; like 
fish, these must be fried gently, the lard 
being boiling hot when they are put in; 
when one side is done turn the other. Serve 
for breakfast. 

Codfish Gravy.—Pick up about I lb. cod¬ 
fish and soak overnight. Boil a few minutes 
in fresh water, and when tender drain off the 
water and add 1 qt. milk. When it comes 
to a boil, add some thickening. Beat 1 egg 
into the thickening, or add 2 or 3 hard 
boiled eggs sliced fine. 

To Fry Smelts.—Egg and bread-crumbs, 
a little flour, boiling lard. Smelts should be 
very fresh, and not washed more than is 
necessary to clean them. Dry them in a 
cloth, lightly flour, dip them in egg, and 
sprinkle over with very fine bread-crumbs, 
and put them into boiling lard. Fry to a 
nice pale brown, and be careful not to take 
off the light roughness of the crumbs, or 
their beauty will be spoiled. Dry them 
before the fire on a drainer, and serve with 
plain melted butter. 

Baked Haddock. —Choose a nice fish of 
about six pounds, which trim and scrape 
nicely, gutting it carefully, fill the vacuum 
with a stuffing of veal, chopped ham, and 
bread-crumbs ; sew up with strong thread, 
and shape the fish round, putting its tail into 
its mouth, or, if two are required, lay them 



HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


223 


along the dish reversed—that is, tail to head ; 
rub over with plenty of butter, or a batter of 
eggs and flour, and then sprinkle with bread¬ 
crumbs. Let the oven be pretty hot when 
put in. In about an hour the fish will be 
ready. Serve on the tin or dish in which 
they have been baked, placing them on a 
larger dish for that purpose. Mussel sauce 
is a good accompaniment. 

Baked Salmon or Halibut. —Let the fish 
lay for twenty minutes in cold salt water. 
Place it on a gridiron across a dripping-pan, 
and bake in a moderately hot oven for an 
hour, if the fish is large. Half that time will 
be sufficient for a small fish. Butter the top 
just before serving, and put back in the oven 
for a minute to brown nicely. To the gravy 
that has dropped into the dripping-pan, add 

1 tablespoon Worcestershire sauce, I of 
tomato catsup, and the juice of I lemon. 
Beat a heaping teaspoon of flour in a little 
cold water, and thicken. Serve this sauce 
with the fish. 

Boiled Pike. —Scale and clean the pike, 
and fasten the tail in its mouth by means of 
a skewer. Lay it in cold water and when it 
boils, throw in the salt and vinegar. The 
time for boiling depends, of course, on the 
size of the fish ; but a middling-sized pike will 
take about half an hour. Serve with Dutch 
or anchovy sauce, and plain melted butter. 

Baked White Fish. —Clean and wash the 
fish thoroughly, wipe with a cloth, and rub 
the inside with salt. Make a dressing as for 
chicken, stuff the fish, and sew up with 
twine ; then put into a dripper with a little 
hot water. Dip a sheet of white paper in 
some melted butter or olive oil, and cover 
the fish for the first 20 minutes or ]/ 2 hour. 
Then remove the paper, and baste occasion¬ 
ally. Be sure to have the fish a nice brown 
when done. It will need to bake from 1 to 

2 hours, according to size of fish. 


To Broil Shad a la Shipman. —Freshen 
through the day, if salt, hanging the fish to 
drain at bed-time. In cooking proceed as 
with fresh shad. Rub the bars of the grid¬ 
iron smooth and grease them slightly and 
lay the shad upon it with the skin down ; 
broil very slowly 20 minutes and take care 
not to scorch ; turn and repeat the broiling 
(flesh side down) for 10 to 15 minutes. 
Have ready cream and butter, add the butter 
by spreading it upon the flesh side of the 
fish, set it for a moment in the oven and add 
the cream as it goes to the table. If the 
fish is fresh, wash clean, and salt and pepper 
over night if for breakfast. 

Oyster Stew. —One-fourth quart milk, 1 
doz. oysters ; put in milk and let it get to 
the boiling point, put in oysters and leave in 
milk until oysters swell nicely, then take off. 
Seasoning can be put in before or after tak¬ 
ing off as preferred. 

Escalloped Oysters. —Put a layer of rolled 
cracker in an oval dish and then a layer of 
oysters. Dredge with salt and pepper and 
moisten with sweet cream. Add another 
layer of crackers, oysters, cream and season¬ 
ing as before. Continue these alternate 
layers until the dish is nearly full, then 
cover with a thin layer of crackers and 
pieces of butter. If the dish be a large one 
it will require 1 ]/ 2 hours to bake. 

Oyster Toast. —Select 15 plump oysters, 
chop them fine, add salt, pepper and a sus¬ 
picion of nutmeg. Beat up the yolks of 2 
eggs with a gill of cream ; whisk this into 
the simmering oysters ; when set, pour the 
the whole over the slices of buttered toast. 

Deviled Oysters. —Take 25 nice fat oys¬ 
ters, ]/ 2 pt. cream, 1 table-spoon butter, 2 
table-spoons flour, 1 table-spoon chopped 
parsley, yolks of 2 eggs, salt and cayenne 
pepper to taste. Drain the oysters and chop 
them middling fine and drain again, put the 





224 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


cream on to boil, rub the butter and flour 
together and stir into the cream while boil¬ 
ing ; as soon as it thickens take it from the 
fire and add all the other ingredients—beat 
the yolks before adding them. Have the 
deep shells of the oysters washed perfectly 
clean, fill them with this mixture, sprinkle 
lightly with bread-crumbs, put them in a 
baking pan and brown in a quick oven for 5 
minutes. Serve in the shells. Garnish with 
parsely. 

Deviled Lobster. —One pt. cream, 2 
tablespoons butter, y teaspoon dry mus¬ 
tard, a pinch of cayenne pepper, y tea¬ 
spoon salt, 1 can shredded lobster without 
juice and yolk of 1 egg. Bake brown in 
scalloped shells with bread-crumbs and a 
bit of butter on the top of each. 

Stewed Oysters a la Delmonico. —Take 
I qt. liquid oysters, put the liquor from the 
oysters in a stew pan, and add ]/ 2 as much 
water, salt, pepper, a teaspoon butter for 
each person and a teaspoon rolled cracker 
for each. Put on the stove and let boil ; 
when it boils pour in the oysters ; there will 
be about 10 for each person. As soon as it 
begins to boil count 30 slowly, after which 
remove the oysters from the stove. Have 
dish ready with 1 y 2 tablespoons cold milk 
for each person. Pour the stew on this and 
serve. Never boil the milk. 

Broiled Oysters. —Drain the oysters well 
and dry them with a napkin. Have ready a 
griddle hot and well buttered ; season the 
oysters ; lay them to griddle and brown 
them on both sides. Serve them on a hot 
plate with plenty butter. 

Panned Oysters. —Put y 2 tablespoon but¬ 
ter in pan ; when it bubbles add oysters, salt, 
red pepper, Worcestershire sauce, tomato 
catsup, green pepper chopped. 

Shell Oysters.— To Feed. —Wash them 
and lay round side down in a jar, tub, or 


pan, and sprinkle oatmeal or cornmeal, with 
a little salt over them, and cover them with 
salted water. Do this once a day and they 
will soon get fat. 

To Stew .—Open them, taking care to save 
the liquor, which should be strained, and 
and wash the oysters from the grit. For 
every dozen oysters add their liquor and 

1 pt. water, with a few cracker crumbs and 
seasoning. Bring to a boil, and add a little 
sweet cream. 

To Roast .—Place the oysters, unopened, 
on a broiler, and roast about 8 minutes. 

To Scallop .—Put a layer of oysters on the 
bottom of a pan, then a layer of bread or 
cracker crumbs, with seasoning, a little but¬ 
ter, and the liquor from the oysters. Add 
another layer of oysters, with seasoning as 
before ; also a little milk or water. Cover 
with cracker crumbs, and bake in the oven 
to a nice brown. 

To Fry. —Wash the oysters and lay on a 
cloth to absorb the moisture. Beat up 1 or 

2 e SS s an d dip the oysters into the beaten 
egg and then roll in bread or cracker crumbs, 
and fry a nice brown in butter. 

Clam Chowder.—One-half peck clams. 
Wash them clean to remove the sand, have 
a very little water boiling in a kettle over a 
hot fire, put in the clams, let boil about 10 
or 1 5 minutes, or until they open. Skim out 
into a pan, save the water they were boiled 
in. When cool, open with a knife. To 
make the chowder, have about 1 doz. good- 
sized potatoes pared and sliced thin, 3 or 4 
onions prepared the same, and a good pint 
of cracker crumbs. 

A porcelain-lined kettle is best to make it 
in. 1 ut in about 1 cup butter, then a layer 
of potatoes, a little of the onion, a layer of 
clams, also of crackers, a little seasoning and 
so on until the ingredients are all used. Add 
the water the clams were boiled in, and if 





HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


225 


that does not cover the chowder, add boiling- 
water. Let cook over a gentle fire about y 2 
hour. If it seems to be sticking on, stir, but 
otherwise do not stir until done. 

To Cook Terrapins, Maryland Style.— 
After bleeding them at least an hour, put 
them into warm water; a young one will 
boil tender in half an hour. Be careful not 
to cut off the heads, as it will make them 
watery. The terrapin is done when the shell 
comes off easily. Be careful in picking them 
not to break the gall, as that will make the 
whole meat bitter, and do not waste the 
liquor. To 3 terrapins put y lbs. butter 
and a little salt. For those who like it, wine 
is added to the taste. 

Crab Pie.—Parboil 12 large crabs and pick 
them, slice as thin as possible some stale , 
bread, butter well and lay them in a little I 


milk. Put a layer of this bread at the bot¬ 
tom of the baking dish, then a layer of crab, 
sprinkle with salt, cayenne and a slice of 
lemon cut very thin and in small pieces, 
cover this with bits of nice fresh butter, 
then commence with bread again and re¬ 
peat the whole; put a layer of bread on 
top, bake for y 2 hour. Shrimp may be 
used instead of crab. For 1 doz. crabs 
use y 2 lb. butter. 

Soft Shell Crabs.—-These should be 
cooked as soon as possible after being 
caught, as their flavor rapidly deteriorates 
after being exposed to the air. Select crabs 
as lively as possible, remove the feathery sub¬ 
stance under the pointed sides of the shells, 
rinse them in cold water, drain, season with 
salt and pepper, dredge them in flour and fry 
in hot fat. 


.M^abs, apd Hotv to Carv^ Pl)eir> 


ENERAL DIRECTIONS.— 

To make fresh meat rich and 
nutritious it should be placed 
in a kettle of boiling water 
(pure soft water is best), skim¬ 
med well as soon as it begins 
to boil again, and placed where 
it will slowly but constantly boil. The meat 
should be occasionally turned and kept well 
under the water, and fresh hot water sup¬ 
plied as it evaporates in boiling. Plunging 
in hot water hardens the fibrine on the out¬ 
side, encasing and retaining the rich juices— 
nnd the whole theory of correct cooking, in 
a nut-shell, is to retain as much as possible 
of the nutriment of food. 

Roasting proper is almost unknown in 
these days of stoves and ranges—baking, a 
much inferior process, having taken its place. 


In roasting the joint is placed close to a 
brisk fire, turned so as to expose every part 
to the heat, and then moved back to finish 
in a more moderate heat. The roast should 
be basted frequently with the drippings, and, 
when half cooked, with salt and water. 

In roasting all meats, success depends 
upon basting frequently (by dipping the 
gravy from the pan over the meat with a 
large spoon), turning often so as to prevent 
burning, and carefully regulating the heat of 
the oven. Allow fifteen to twenty-five min¬ 
utes to the pound in roasting, according as 
it is to be rare or well done, taking into 
consideration the quality of the meat. 
Roasts prepared with dressing require more 
time. In roasting meats many think it 
better not to add any water until the meat 
begins to brown. 



15 











226 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


Broiling is the most wholesome method 
of cooking meats, and is most acceptable to 
invalids. Tough steak is made more tender 
by pounding or hacking with a dull knife, 
but some of the juices are lost by the oper¬ 
ation ; cutting it across in small squares with 



JOINTS OF BEEF. 


1. Sirloin. 

2. Top, or aitch bone. 

3. Rump. 

4. Buttock, or round. 

5. 'Mouse buttock. 

6. Veiny piece. 

7. Thick flank. 

8. Thin flank. 

9 - Eeg. 


10. Fore rib (5 ribs). 

11. Middle rib (4 ribs). 

12. Chuck rib (3 ribs). 

13. Shoulder. 

14. Brisket. 

15. Clod.. 

16. Sticking. 

17. Shin. 

18. Cheeks or head. 


a sharp knife on both sides is better than 
either. Tough meats are also improved by 
laying for two hours on a dish containing 
three or four table-spoons each of vinegar 
and salad oil (or butter), a little pepper, but 
no salt ; turn every twenty minutes. The 
action of the oil and vinegar softens the 


fibers without extracting their juices. Trim 
off all superfluous fat, but never wash a 
freshly-cut steak. Never salt or pepper 
steak or chops before or while cooking, but 
if very lean, dip in melted butter. 

When you buy beef, select that which is-, 
of a clear cherry-red color after a fresh cut 
has been for a few moments exposed to the 
air. The fat should be of a light straw' 
color, and the meat marbled throughout with 
fat. If the beef is immature, the color of 
the lean part will be pale and dull, the bones 
small, and the fat very white. High-colored, 
coarse-grained beef, with the fat a deep yel¬ 
low, should be rejected. 

In corn-fed beef the fat is yellowish, while 
that fattened on grasses is whiter. In cow- 
beef the fat is also whiter than in ox-beef. 
Inferior meat from old or ill-fed animals has. 
a coarse, skinny fat and a dark red lean. 
Ox-beef is the sweetest and most juicy, and 
the most economical. When meat pressed 
by the finger rises up quickly, it is prime, 
but, if the dent disappears slowly, or remains, 
it is inferior in quality. 

Joints for Roasting. —Ribs, sirloin, chump 
of rump, mouse buttock, top side, fillet of 
sirloin, tongue (fresh), heart. 

Joints for Salting. —Round, aitch-bone, 
silver-side, brisket, tongue. 

Joints for Frying or Broiling. —Rump- 
steak, beef-steak (well beaten), liver. 

Joints for Stezving.— Beefsteak, topside, 
brisket, and inferior portions, liver, ox-tail. 

Joints for Puddings and Pies .—Beefsteak,, 
fillet. 

Joints for Soup and Gravy. —Shin, cheeks 
and inferior parts, ox-tail. 

To Make Tough Meat Tender, for 5 or 
6 lbs.—Put the meat into an earthen bowl 
with enough cold water and vinegar, equally 
mixed, to half cover it; add plenty of pepper 
to keep off the flies, a carrot, a turnip and ^ 
























































































HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


227 


small onion sliced, a stalk of celery, a root 
of parsley, a blade of mace, io cloves, an 
inch of cinnamon and a few bits of lemon 
peel. Turn the meat several times daily in 
the pickle for a week, and then cook like 
beef a la mode , first browning it with half a 
cup of flour, then add the pickle and enough 
boiling water to make a good gravy; season 
it palatably and simmer the meat in it for 
about 3 hours, keeping it covered; strain the 
scraps of vegetables from the gravy before 
serving both hot, with plain potatoes or any 
preferred vegetable. 

Broiled Beefsteak.—Put a gridiron over 
the hot coals. A steel gridiron with slender 
bars is to be preferred, as the broad bars 
seem to fry the steak. Have a platter with 
a little melted butter on it. When the steak 
is done on one side lay it on the platter, the 
cooked side down, for half a minute : then 
broil the other side and serve it in the same 
manner. Sift a little seasoning on it, butter 
lightly; place in the oven for an instant and 
serve at once on hot plates. 

Fried Beefsteaks.—Cut some of the fat 
from the steak and put it in a frying pan and 
set it over the fire ; if the steaks are not very 
tender beat them with a rolling pin, and when 
the fat is boiling hot put the steak evenly 
in, cover the pan and let it fry briskly until 
one side is done, sprinkle a little pepper and 
salt over and turn the other ; let it be rare 
or well done as may be liked ; take the steak 
on a hot dish, add a wineglass or less of 
boiling water or catsup to the gravy; let it 
boil up once and pour it in the dish with the 
steak. 

Gravy.—Put table-spoon flour into the 
skillet, stir till brown and free from lumps, 
add y 2 pint milk, stir well and season. 

Beefsteak Pie.—Take some fine tender 
steaks, beat them a little, season with a salt- 
spoon of pepper and a tea-spoon of salt to 


2 lbs. of steak ; put bits of butter, the size 
of a hickory nut, over the whole surface, 
dredge a tea-spoon of flour over, then roll 
it up and cut in pieces 2 inches long ; put a 
rich pie paste around the sides and bottom 
of a tin basin ; put in the pieces of steak, 
nearly fill the basin with water, add a piece 
of butter the size of a large egg, cut small, 
dredge in a tea-spoon of flour, add a little 
pepper and salt, lay skewers across the basin, 
roll a top crust to half an inch thick, cut a 
slice in the center ; dip your fingers in flour 
and neatly pinch the top and side crusts to¬ 
gether all around the edge. Bake one hour 
in a quick oven. 

Roast Beef.—The sirloin and rib pieces 
are best for roasting. Season, dredge 
lightly with flour, and place in the oven. 
Baste frequently. For rare beef, a quarter 
of an hour to the pound is the rule, bur the 
quality of the meat should determine the 
time. Thicken the drippings with browned 
flour, add a little Worcestershire sauce, if 
you like. Serve in a gravy-dish. Some 
prefer the red juice from the meat, as it is 
carved. An onion sliced and put on top of 
a roast while cooking, gives a nice flavor. 
Remove the onion before serving 



c 


SIRLOIN OF BEEF. 

A sirloin of beef is cut across for the under 
cut and lengthwise for the upper. 

Roast Beef with Yorkshire Pudding.— 
Roast the beef upon a grate laid across a 
dripping-pan. Forty minutes before it is 
done, pour the pudding into the pan below, 














228 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


first having strained out the fat. Finish 
roasting the beef, which will drip on the 
pudding. The pudding will be done as soon 
as the beef. (Allow fifteen minutes to the 
pound if you like it rare, twenty, if well 
done.) Cut the pudding into squares. Dish 
the meat, and lay the squares of pudding 
around it. 

Yorkshire Pudding.—Mix 4 table-spoons 
flour with 1 pt. milk, 3 eggs, yolks and 
whites beaten separately, and a little salt. 
Make the batter thin. Bake in a shallow 
tin pan 10 minutes, then put under the grate 
where the beef is roasting. Leave the pud¬ 
ding in the oven a few minutes after the beef 
is taken up. Before serving, pour off the 
fat from the top. 

Scalloped Beef.—Take cold corned or 
roast beef, cut off all the sinew and fat, and 
cut into small pieces not more than half an 
inch square. Line the bottom of a pudding 
dish with a crust made of sea-foam crackers 
crumbled fine and moistened with milk ; 
then cover with a layer of meat. Season 
with pepper and salt and sprinkle with bits 
of butter. Alternate the layers and cover 
with a crust of crackers moistened with 
milk. Before putting on the upper crust 
add a cupful of nice gravy or of milk and 
hot water with a small lump of butter ; 
cover with a plate or pie-tin and bake 45 
minutes. Remove the cover and brown 
nicely. 

Beef Loaf.—Take 3 y 2 pounds of beef 
chopped very fine ; round steak is best, 2 
well-beaten eggs, 6 small crackers rolled 
fine, 1 cup sweet milk, a piece of butter size 
of an egg, salt, pepper and sage to taste. 
Mix well, press into a bread tin, cover with 
a tin and bake 2^ hours, occasionally bast¬ 
ing with butter and hot water. 

How to Select Veal.—It should be small, 
of a pinky white, and the kidney should be 


well covered with fat. The calf should not 
be killed after it is eight to ten weeks old, or 
the meat will be coarse. Large, coarse veal 
is cheaper than the more delicate kind. The 
flesh should be closely grained and dry ; if 
it is moist and clammy, it is approaching de¬ 
composition and is not fit for cooking. 

Pieces for Roasting. —Fillet, breast, best 



end; liver and brisket, best and scrag ends; 
neck, best ends; heart, sweetbread. 

For Pie .—Inferior parts. 

For Boiling. —Knuckle, part of shoulder, 
head, tongue and brains. 

' For Frying .—Cutlets from shoulder, etc., 
liver. 

For Stewing. —Breast, brisket end; neck, 
scrag and best end; sweetbread, feet. 



































































HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


229 


For Soup .—Inferior parts, as knuckle, 
scrag, etc. 

To Roast Veal.—Rinse the meat in cold 
water ; if any part is bloody, wash it off; 
make a mixture of pepper and salt, allowing 
a large teaspoon of salt and saltspoon of 
pepper for each pound of meat, wipe the meat 
dry, then rub the seasoning into every part, 
shape it neatly and fasten it with skewers, 
and put it on a spit or set it on a trivet or 
muffin rings in a pan ; stick bits of butter 
over the whole upper surface, dredge a little 
flour over, put a pint of water in the pan to 
baste with, and roast it before the fire in a 
Dutch oven or reflector, or put it into a hot 
oven; baste it occasionally, turn it if neces¬ 
sary that every part may be done ; if the 
water wastes add more, that the gravy may 
not burn ; allow i 5 minutes for each pound 
of meat, a piece weighing 4 or 5 pounds will 
then require one hour, or an hour and a 
quarter. Veal should be thoroughly cooked; 
no meat undercooked is more unpalatable. 



BREAST OF VEAL. 

A breast of veal is used for roasting, stew¬ 
ing, ragout, and it is sometimes boiled so as 
to roll, or a large hole is made in it for 
stuffing. In carving a breast of veal, the 
ribs should be first separated from the 
brisket from A to B. The small bones are 
considered the choicest. Cut them as at D 
D D, and the long bones at C C C, and 
serve according to preference. 

Veal Chops.—Cut veal chops about an 
inch thick, beat them flat with a rolling-pin, 
put them in a pan, pour boiling water over 


them and set them over the fire for 5 min¬ 
utes, then take them up and wipe them dry; 
mix a tablespoon of salt and a teaspoon of 
pepper for each pound of meat, rub each 
chop over with this, then dip them first into 
beaten egg, then into rolled crackers as much 
as they will take up, then finish by frying in 
hot lard or beef dripping, or broil them. 

For the broil have some sweet butter on a 
« 

steak dish, broil the chops until well done 
over a bright clear fire of coals (let them do 
gently that they may be well done), then 
take them on to the butter, turn them care¬ 
fully once or twice in it and serve. 

Or dip the chops into a batter made of 1 
egg beaten with x / 2 teacup milk and as much 
wheat flour as maybe necessary. Or simply 
dip the chops without parboiling into wheat 
flour, make some lard or beef hot in a frying- 
pan, lay the chops in and when one side is a 
fine delicate brown turn the other. When 
all are done take them up, put a very little 
hot water into the pan, then put it in the dish 
with the chops. 

' Or make a flour gravy thus : After frying 
them as last directed, add a tablespoon more 
of fat to that in the pan, let it become boiling 
hot; make a thin batter of a small tablespoon 
of wheat flour and cold water, add a little 
more salt and pepper to the gravy, then 
gradually stir in the batter ; stir it until it is 
cooked and a nice brown, then put it over 
the meat or in a dish with it; if it is thicker 
than is liked, add a little boiling water. 

Veal Cutlets.—Two or 3 lbs. of veal cut¬ 
lets, egg and bread-crumbs, 2 tablespoons 
minced savory herbs, salt and pepper to 
taste, a little grated nutmeg. 

Cut the cutlets about of an inch in 
thickness, flatten them and brush them over 
with the yolk of an egg ; dip them into 
bread-crumbs and minced herbs, season with 
pepper and salt and grated nutmeg, and fold 
















230 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


each cutlet in a piece of buttered paper. 
Broil them and send them to the table with 
melted butter or a good gravy. 

Fillet of Veal. —Stuff with dressing as for 
fowls, the dressing being placed in the hollow 
where the bone was taken out. Roast to a 
nice brown and serve with brown gravy. 

Fillet of Veal Boiled. —Tie it round with 
tape and put into a floured cloth. Plunge 
into cold water and boil for 2 y 2 hours. 
Serve with oyster or egg sauce. 

Loin of Veal Roasted. —Make a stuffing 
and lay it in the loin, then tie up. Put into 
the dripper with a little water. When nearly 
done, dredge with flour and baste with butter. 
Add a little more water, and make a nice 
brown gravy. 

Loin of Veal Boiled. —Plunge a loin of 
veal into a kettle of cold water, boil slowly 
for about 2 hours. Remove the scum as it 
rises, and serve with parsley and melted 
butter. 

Veal Pot-Pie. —Cut up some veal into 
small pieces and boil in 2 or 3 qts. of water 
till tender. Season while cooking. Take 
out the veal and make a soft biscuit dough 
with soda or baking powder. Add this 
dough to the liquor in spoonfuls and boil 10 
or 1 5 minutes. The pieces of veal may be 
served in the same dish with the pot-pie. 

Beef or Veal Pie. —Make a crust some¬ 
thing like tea biscut, only a little shorter. 
Line a deep pie-plate or dish with the crust. 
Take the cold pieces of meat left after bak¬ 
ing or boiling, put in a layer of meat, 
sprinkle thick with cracker crumbs, add 
seasoning to taste, and a piece of butter the 
size of an egg. Add hot water enough to 
moisten the cracker well. Lay on the upper 
crust. Bake about an hour in a moderate 
oven. Serve with mashed potatoes, and it 
is also quite nice cold for lunch or supper. 

Pressed Veal.—Boil 2 or 3 lbs. of veal 


till tender. Cut or pick it up into small 
pieces, and press into a mold or deep tin. 
Put ^ oz. of gelatine into the liquor it was 
boiled in, and pour this gravy over the meat. 
It will look and taste very nice. When cold 
it should be sliced with a sharp knife. 

Boiled Calf’s Head (without the skin.) 
—Calf’s head, water, a little salt, 4 table¬ 
spoons melted butter, 1 table-spoon minced 
parsley, pepper and salt to taste, one table¬ 
spoon of lemon-juice. 

After the head has been thoroughly 
cleaned, and the brains removed, soak it in 
warm water to blanch it. Lay the brains 
also into warm water to soak, and let them 
remain for about an hour. Put the head 
into a stew-pan, with sufficient cold water to 
cover it, and when it boils, add a little salt; 
take off every particle of scum as it rises, 
and boil the head until perfectly tender. 
Boil the brains, chop them, and mix with 
them melted butter, minced parsely, pepper, 
salt and lemon-juice in the above proportion. 
Take up the head, skin the tongue, and put 
it on a smafl dish with the brains round it. 
Have ready some parsley and butter, 
smother the head with it, and the remainder 
send to table in a tureen. Bacon, ham, 
pickled pork, or a pig’s cheek are indispen¬ 
sable with calf’s head. The brains are 
sometimes chopped with hard-boiled eggs. 



HALF OF CALF’S HEAD. 

A calf s head must be cut down the center 
in rather thin slices on each side, from A to 
B. The meat round the eye is scooped out 
by cutting a circle 3t C; it is considered a 













HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


231 


delicacy. A small piece of the palate and 
accompanying sweetbread must be sent on 
each plate. 

How to Select Mutton. —It is best at 


4 to 7 years of age. The color should be 
dark red. It should be fat in order for it to 
be tender and of good flavor. The fat should 
be very white and firm, and the lean should 


be fine grained and firm also. Mutton is 



JOINTS OF MUTTON. 


A sheep is thus divided 

1. Leg. 

2. Chump end Loin. 

3. Best end Loin. 

4. Neck, best end. 

5. Neck, scrag end. 


6. Shoulder. 

7. Breast. 

A saddle is the two loins 
undivided. 

A chine is the two sides 
of the neck undivided. 


considered best during the fall of the year, 
or perhaps it would be nearer the mark to 
say from August to New Year. The flavor 
of mutton is thought to be improved by 
keeping it a few days after it is killed. It 
should be hung in a cool, dry place away 
from flies, and should be wiped dry every 
day. 

In choosing mutton remember that the 
brisket is first to become tainted, and that 


part of the meat that lies around the kidneys. 
Wether mutton is much the better. It can 
be distinguished from the ewe by its larger 
bones and darker meat. A leg of mutton 
furnishes the most economical family dinner. 
It shrinks less than other joints in the cook¬ 
ing, and has a solidity and substance that 
makes it “go farther” than most meats. 

Parts to Roast. —Saddle, haunch, leg, 
chump end of loin, best end of loin, best end 
of neck, shoulder, breast, chine, head, heart. 

Salted .—Leg for ham. 

Boiled. —Leg, neck, scrag end and middle. 

Fried and Broiled .—Chops and cutlets 
from loin and neck, cutlet from leg. 

Stewed .—Scrag of neck. 



SADDLE OF MUTTON. 


A saddle of mutton is the joint ordered for 
a small dinner party. It is cut in very thin 
slices close to the back bone, B to A, and 
then downward, from A to D and C. But 
a lady is scarcely ever required in the present 
day to carve a saddle of mutton. 



SHOULDER OF MUTTON. 

A shoulder of mutton must lie with the 
knuckle toward the right and the blade bone 
toward your left hand. In the middle of the 




































































232 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


part farthest from you place the fork, and 
then give one sharp cut from the edge to the 
bone. The meat flies apart and you cut 
rather thick slices on each side of the open¬ 
ing, A to B, till you can cut no more. Then 
there are two or three slices from the center 
bone to the end, B to C. Afterward turn 
over the joint and cut slices from the under 
side. Some people, instead of cutting the 
joint in this manner, begin with the slices 
cut lengthwise near the middle of the joint 
from the end to the knuckle. 



LEG OF MUTTON. 


A leg of mutton must be placed with the 
knuckle toward the left hand; you then cut 
into the side farthest from you toward the 
bone, B to C, helping thin slices from the 
right and thick slices toward the knuckle. 
The little tuft of fat near the thick end is a 
delicacy and must be divided among your 
guests. 



LOIN OF MUTTON. 


A loin of mutton is carved either through 
the joints, which brings it into the form of 
“ chops,” or it is cut lengthwise in a parallel 
line with the joints, thus: The cut at A is a 
thin slice of brown meat, followed by other 
slices cut in succession. At D long slices 


can be removed by cutting through to the 
bone. The long lines at B and the short 
ones at C indicate the situation of similar 
cuts. This is the best mode for a lady, but 
a loin is rather for family consumption than 
for guests. 



FOREQUARTER OF LAMB. 

A forequarter of lamb consists of a 
shoulder, the breast and the ribs. If a lady 
is obliged to carve this joint, she must first 
place her knife upon the shoulder, draw it 
through horizontally, and then remove the 
joint whole, placing it on a separate dish, 
which is held for its reception. She must 
then cut off the breast and separate the ribs 
(see cut), but the cook should always cutoff 
the shoulder and leave it on the joint. 

The hindquarter consists of a leg and loin.. 

Boiled Leg of Mutton.—Cut off the 
shank-bone, trim the knuckle and wash the 
mutton, put it into a pot with salt and cover 
with boiling water. Allow it to boil a few 
minutes, skim the surface clean, draw your 
pot to the side of the fire and simmer until 
done. Time, from 2 to hours. Do not 
try the leg with a fork to determine whether 
it is done or not, you will lose all the juices 
of the meat by so doing. Serve with drawn 
butter. 

Roast Loin of Mutton.—Loin of mutton, 

a little salt; cut and trim off the superfluous 
fat, and see that the butcher joints the meat 
properly, as thereby much annoyance is 
saved to the carver when it comes to table. 
Have ready a nice clear fire (it need not be a 
very wide, large one), put down the meat,, 























HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


233 


\ 


dredge with flour and baste well until it is 
done. 

Broiled Mutton Chops. —Loin of mutton, 
pepper and salt, a small piece of butter; cut 
the chops from a well-hung, tender loin of 
mutton, remove a portion of the fat and trim 
them into a nice shape; slightly beat and 
level them, place the gridiron over a bright, 
clear fire, rub the bars with a little fat and 
lay on the chops. While broiling frequently 
turn them, and in about 8 minutes they will 
be done. Season with pepper and salt, dish 
them on a very hot dish, rub a small piece 
of butter on each chop and serve very hot 
and expeditiously. 

Mutton Chop Fried. —Cut some fine 
mutton chops without much fat, rub over 
both sides with a mixture of salt and pepper, 
dip them in wheat flour or rolled crackers, 
and fry in hot lard or beef drippings ; when 
both sides are a fine brown, take them on a 
hot dish, put a wineglass of hot water in the 
pan, let it become hot, stir in e ^easpoon of 
brown flour, let it boil up at once and serve 
in the pan with the meat. 

Roast Forequarter of Lamb.—Lamb, a 
little salt. To obtain the flavor of lamb in 
perfection it should not be long kept; time 
to cool is all that is required; and though 
the meat may be somewhat thready, the 
juices and flavor will be infinitely superior to 
that of lamb that has been killed two or 
three days. Make up the fire in good time, 
that it may be clear and brisk when the joint 
is put down. Place it at sufficient distance 
to prevent the fat from burning, and baste it 
constantly till the moment of serving. Lamb 
should be very thoroughly done without 
being dried up, and not the slightest appear¬ 
ance of red gravy should be visible, as in 
roast mutton; this rule is applicable to all 
young white meats. Serve with a little 
gravy made in the dripping-pan, the same as 


for other roasts, and send to table with it a 
tureen of mint sauce. 

Roast Mutton. —A leg or saddle of io 
lbs. weight will require 2^ or 3 hours" 
roasting. Put into a pan with a little flour 
and water and salt. When nearly done, 
sprinkle flour over it. Baste well in its own 
drippings. 

Irish Stew. —Stew some mutton chops 
till they are half done, then add some onions 
sliced thin and some potatoes cut in halves 
and a carrot sliced fine. Just before dishing 
up add a little thickening. 

How to Select Pork. —See that the fat 
is firm, and the lean white and finely grained, 
the skin or rind thin and smooth. If the 
flesh feels clammy, the pork is bad. If the 
fat has kernels in it, the pig has been measly. 
Very red flesh signifies scarlet fever. Pork 
is the driest and fattest of meat. Bacon 
and hams are salted and smoked pig’s flesh. 
The pig’s blood is used in black and white 
puddings. 

Parts Roasted .—Spare rib, Loin, Leg, and 
Head. Salted and Boiled. —Belly, Chop, 
Leg, Head, Hand, Pettitoes, Chine, and 
Tongue. Fried —Chops from Loin, Pig’s 
Fry, and Sausages. 

Roast pork is never seen at dinner parties, 
but is occasionally served at a family dinner, 
as it is a favorite dish with very many. It 
must be placed on the table with the back 
upward, and the crackling taken off before 
any attempt is made to cut the meat. The 
leg is carved like a leg of mutton, but the 
slices should be thicker and not so large. 
Slices of the crackling may be tendered with 
each serving of the meat. 

To Roast a Leg of Pork.—Take a sharp 
knife and score the skin across in narrow 
stripes (you may cross it again so as to form 
diamonds) and rub in some powdered sage. 
Raise the skin at the knuckle and put in a. 






234 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


stuffing of minced onion and sage, bread 
crumbs, pepper, salt, and beaten yolk of 
egg. Fasten it down with a buttered string, 
or with skewers. You may make deep in¬ 
cisions in the meat of the large end of the 
leg, and stuff them also, pressing in the fill¬ 
ing very hard. Rub a little sweet oil all over 
the skin with a brush or a goose feather, to 
make it crisp and of a handsome brown. 



JOINTS OF PORK. 


A pig is thus divided : 

1. Spare Rib. 

2. Hand. 

3. Belly. 

4. Fore Foin. 


5. Hind Foin. 

6. Beg. 

The chine is the neck 

whole. 


A leg of pork will require from 3 to 4 
hours to roast. Moisten it all the time by 
brushing it with sweet oil, or with fresh 
butter tied in a rag. To baste it with its 
own dripping will make the skin tough and 
hard. Skim the fat carefully from the gravy, 
which should be thickened with a little flour. 

A roast leg of pork should always be ac¬ 
companied by apple sauce, and by mashed 
potatoes and mashed turnip. 


Pigs in Blanket—Choose fresh, large 
oysters, slice breakfast bacon very thin, roll 
each oyster in a slice of bacon and pin 
through with a hard wood toothpick. Do 
not use fat in frying, the bacon is sufficient. 
Serve immediately on a hot platter. 

Pork and Beans.—Pick over carefully a 
quart of beans and let them soak over night; 
in the morning wash and drain in another 
water, put on to boil in cold water with 
a teaspoon of soda; boil about 30 minutes 
(when done the skin of a bean will crack if 
taken out and blown upon), drain, and put 
in an earthen pot first a slice of pork and 
then the beans, with 2 or 3 tablespoons of 
molasses. 

When the beans are in the pot, put in the 
centre ^ or ^ of a lb. of well-washed salt 
pork with the rind scored in slices or 
squares, and uppermost; season with pepper 
and salt if needed ; cover all with hot water, 
and bake six hours or longer in a moderate 
oven, adding hot water as needed ; they can¬ 
not be baked too long. Keep covered so 
that they will not burn on the top, but re¬ 
move cover an hour or two before serving, 
to brown the top and crisp the pork. 

Pork Sausages.—Take such a proportion 
of fat and lean pork as you like, chop it 
quite fine, and for every 10 lbs. of meat take 
4 oz. of fine salt, and 1 of fine pepper; 
dried sage or lemon thyme, finely powdered, 
may be added if liked ; a teaspoon of sage, 
and the same of ground allspice and cloves, 
to each 10 lbs. of meat. Mix the season¬ 
ing through the meat, pack it down in stone 
pots, or put it in muslin bags ; or fill the 
hog’s or ox’s guts, having first made them 
perfectly clean, thus : empty them, cut them 
in lengths, and lay them three or four days 
in salt and water, or weak lime water, turn 
them inside out once or twice, scrape them, 
then rinse them, and fill with the meat. 






























HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


235 


If you do not use the skin or guts, make 
the sausage-meat up the size and shape of 
sausage, dip them in beaten egg, and then 
into wheat flour, or rolled crackers, or 
simply into wheat flour, and fry in hot lard. 
Turn them, that every side may be a fine 
color. Serve hot, with boiled potatoes or 
hominy; either taken from the gravy, or 
after they are fried, pour a little boiling 
water into the gravy in the pan, and pour it 
over them, or first dredge in a teaspoon of 
wheat flour, stir it until it is smooth and 
brown, then add a little boiling water, let it 
boil up once, then put it in the dish with the 
sausage. 

Chopped onion and green parsley may be 
added to the sausage meat, when making 
ready to fry. 

Or sausage-meat may be tied in a muslin 
bag, and boiled, and served with vegetables; 
or let it become cold, and cut in slices. 

“Mississippi Sausage.” —Eight lbs. lean 
tenderloin, 6 lbs. backbone fat, 4 teaspoons 
black pepper, 2 teaspoons salt, 1 teaspoon 
cayenne pepper, 7 tablespoons sage. Mix 
well after grinding. 

Pork Chops, Steaks and Cutlets. —Fry 

or stew pork chops, after taking off the rind 
or skin, the same as for veal. 

Cutlets and steaks are also fried, broiled, 
or stewed, the same as veal. 

Roast Pig.—Thoroughly clean the pig, 
then rinse it in cold water, wipe it dry ; then 
rub the inside with a mixture of salt and 
pepper, and if liked, a little pounded and 
sifted sage ; make a stuffing thus : Cut some 
wheat bread in slices ^ in. thick, spread 
butter on to half its thickness, sprinkled with 
pepper and salt, and if liked, a little pounded 
sage and minced onion ; pour enough hot 
water over the bread to make it moist or 
soft, then fill the body with it and sew it 
to cr ether, or tie a cord around it to keep the 


dressing in, then spit it; put a pint of water 
in the dripping-pan, put into it a tablespoon 
of salt, and a teaspoon of pepper, let the fire 
be hotter at each end than in the middle, put 
the pig down at a little distance from the fire, 
baste it as it begins to roast, and gradually 
draw it nearer ; continue to baste occasion¬ 
ally ; turn it that it may be evenly cooked; 
when the eyes drop out it is done; or a 
better rule is to judge by the weight, 15 
minutes for each pound of meat, if the fire is 
right. 

Have a bright clear fire, with a bed of 
coals at the bottom ; first put the roast at a 
little distance, and gradually draw it nearer; 
when the pig is done stir up the fire, take a 
coarse cloth with a good bit of butter in it, 
and wet the pig all over with it, and when 
the crackling is crisp take it up ; dredge a 
little flour into the gravy, let it boil up once, 
and having boiled the heart, liver, etc., ten¬ 
der, and chopped it fine, add it to the gravy, 
give it one boil, then serve. 

Pig’s Cheek. —Is smoked and boiled like 
ham with vegetables; boiled cabbage or 
fried parsnips may be served with it. 

Roast Spare-Rib. —Trim off the rough 
ends neatly, crack the ribs across the mid¬ 
dle, rub with salt and sprinkle with pepper, 
fold over, stuff with turkey dressing, sew up 
tightly, place in dripping-pan with pint of 
water, baste frequently turning over once so 
as to bake both sides equally until a rich 
brown. 

Pork Fritters. —Have at hand a thick 
batter of Indian meal and flour ; cut a few 
slices of pork and fry them in the frying- 
pan until the fat is fried out; cut a few more 
slices of the pork, dip them in the batter and 
drop them in the bubbling fat, seasoning with 
salt and pepper; cook until light brown and 
eat while hot. 

Baked Ham. —Cover your ham with cold 




236 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


water and simmer gently just long enough 
to loosen the skin so that it can be pulled 
off. This will probably be from 2 to 3 hours, 
according to the size of your ham. When 
skinned put in a dripping pan in the oven, 
pour over it a teacup of vinegar and 1 of hot 
water, in which dissolve a teaspoon English 
mustard; bake slowly, basting with the 
liquid, for two hours. Then cover the ham 
all over to the depth of 1 inch with coarse 
brown sugar, press it down firmly, and do 
not baste again until the sugar has formed a 
thick crust, which it will soon do in a very 
slow oven. 

Let it remain a full hour after covering 
with the sugar, until it becomes a rich golden 
brown. When done drain from the liquor 
in the pan and put on a dish to cool. When 
it is cool, but not cold, press by turning 
another flat dish on top with a weight over 
it. You will never want to eat ham cooked 
in any other way when you have tasted this, 
and the pressing makes it cut firmly for sand¬ 
wiches or slicing. 

To Boil a Ham.—Wash thoroughly with 
a cloth. Select a small size to boil, put it in 
a large quantity of cold water and boil 20 
minutes for each pound, allowing it to boil 
slowly; take off the rind while hot and put 
in the oven to brown half an hour; remove 
and trim. 

To Broil Ham.—Cut some slices of ham 
of an inch thick, lay them in hot water 
for half an hour or give them a scalding in a 
pan over the fire, then take them up and lay 
them on a gridiron over bright coals ; when 
the outside is browned turn the other, then 
take the slices on a hot dish, butter them 
freely, sprinkle pepper over and serve; or, 
after scalding them, wipe them dry, dip each 
slice in beaten egg and then into rolled 
crackers and fry or broil. 

A ham may be cut in three ways: By 


beginning at the knuckle, which must be 
turned toward the left hand, and cut in a 
slanting direction, or at the thick end, which 
is then turned toward your left; or in the 
ordinary manner, like a leg of mutton, be¬ 
ginning in the center. The slices must be as 
thin and delicate as they can be cut. One 
slice is given as an accompaniment to fowl 
or veal. 

Ham Toast. —Mince finely y of a pound 
of cooked ham with an anchovy boned and 
washed; add a little cayenne and pounded 
mace; beat up two eggs, mix with the mince 
and add just sufficient milk to keep it moist;, 
make it quite hot and serve on small rounds 
of toast or fried bread. 

Head-Cheese.—After thoroughly cleaning 
a hog’s head or pig’s head, split it in two 
with a sharp knife, take out the eyes, take 
out the brains, cut off the ears and pour 
scalding water over them and the head and 
scrape them clean. Cut off any part of the 
nose which may be discolored so as not to 
be scraped clean; then rinse all in cold water 
and put it into a large kettle with hot (not 
boiling) water to cover it, and set the kettle 
(having covered it) over the fire ; let it boil 
gently, taking off the scum as it rises; when 
boiled so that the bones leave the meat 
readily, take it from the water with a skim¬ 
mer into a large wooden bowl or tray; take 
from it every particle of bone, chop the meat 
small and season to taste with salt and 
pepper, and if liked, a little chopped sage or 
thyme. 

Spread a cloth in a colander or sieve, set 
it in a deep dish and put the meat in, then 
fold the cloth closely over it, lay a weight 
on which may press equally the whole sur¬ 
face (a sufficiently large plate will serve); let 
the weight be more or less heavy, according 
as you may wish the cheese to be fat or lean ; 
a heavy weight by pressing out the fat will 




HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


237 


of course leave the cheese lean. When cold 
take the weight off, take it from the colander 
or sieve, scrape off whatever fat may be 
found on the outside of the cloth, and keep 
the cheese in the cloth in a cool place, to be 
eaten sliced thin, with or without mustard 
- and vinegar or catsup. 

After the water is cold in which the head 
was boiled, take off the fat from it and what¬ 
ever may have drained from the sieve or 
colander and cloth, put it together in some 
clean water, give it one boil, then strain it 
through a cloth and set it to become cold, 
then take off the cake of fat. It is fk for any 
use. 

Pig’s Feet Soused.—Scald and scrape 
clean the feet; if the covering of the toes will 
not come off without, singe them in hot 
embers until they are loose, then take them 
off. Many persons lay them in weak lime 
water to whiten them. Having scraped 
them clean and white, wash them and put 
them in a pot of hot (not boiling) water with 
a little salt and let them boil gently, until by 
turning a fork in the flesh it will easily break 
and the bones are loosened. Take off the 
scum as it rises. 

When done take them from the hot water 
into cold vinegar enough to cover them, add 
to it one-third as much of the water in which 
they were boiled, add whole pepper and 
allspice, with cloves and mace if liked, put a 
cloth and a tight-fitting cover over the pot 
or jar. Soused feet may be eaten cold from 
the vinegar, split in two from top to toe, or 
having split them, dip them in wheat flour 
and fry in hot lard, or broil and butter 
them. In either case let them be nicely 
browned. 

To Make Lard.—Take the leaf fat from 
the inside of a bacon hog, cut it small and 
put it in an iron kettle, which must be per¬ 
fectly free from any musty taste; set it over 


a steady, moderate fire until nothing but 
scraps remain of the meat; the heat must be 
kept up, but gentle that it may not burn the 
lard ; spread a coarse cloth in a wire seive, 
and strain the liquid into tin basins which 
will hold 2 or 3 qts. ; squeeze out all the fat 
\ from the scraps. 

When the lard in the pans is cold, press a 
piece of new muslin close upon it, trim it off 
at the edge of the pan and keep it in a cold 
place. Or it may be kept in wooden kegs 
with close covers. Lard made with ^ as 
much beef suet as fat is supposed by many 
persons to keep better. 

Venison, Roast (a New York recipe).— 
Take any joint, according to taste and re¬ 
quirements, and cook it in the usual coat of 
paste and paper. Flour it well, mixing 
ground ginger and pepper with the flour, and 
let it be well frothed. Make a thick sauce 
by putting a pint of pure tomato pulp in a 
lined saucepan, with a teaspoonful of extract 
of meat and half an ounce of chopped capers ; 
an ounce of black currant jelly should be 
put in a few minutes later, together with the 
same weight of brown roux. Season with 
salt, a pinch of white sugar and ginger, a 
dash of cayenne and a squeeze of lemon 
juice. Send to table very hot and pour a 
little plain gravy round the meat. This can 
be recommended. 



To carve a haunch of venison, place the 
loin nearest you. Make a cut from A to B, 
then serve slices from A to C. Serve fat 
from the left side. Venison, in order to be 
a delicacy, must be of prime qualitv and 
must be carefully cooked. 



















238 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


Boston Tripe. —One lb. honeycomb tripe, 
I egg, 2 tablespoons milk, i tablespoon of 
flour, y 2 teaspoon salt, y saltspoon pepper; 
beat egg, add flour, salt, pepper, milk. If 
the tripe has not been soaked over night in 
cold water, pour boiling water upon it, let 
cool and dry with towel. Lay the smooth 


side of it into the batter, then place it in 
spider in hot pork fat. Cook slowly until a 
delicate biown. Dip the remainder of the 
batter onto the honeycomb side, turn and 
cook in same way. Put on platter smooth 
side down. Serve immediately. This is an 
excellent receipt. 




POULTRY AND GAME 


HICKEN PIE.— To make a me¬ 
dium sized pie requires I good 
sized chicken, which should be 
carefully dressed, then boiled in 
water sufficient to cover it until 
thoroughly done. Add a little 
salt and a very little pepper. When so well 
done that the meat will slip from the bones, 
take the bird out of the kettle, remove the 
meat, break it into pieces as large as the two 
fingers. The kettle with the gravy has mean¬ 
while been boiling, and should continue to 
boil until nearly all the water is absorbed. 

When it begins to fry, which indicates that 
the water is boiled out, put the broken up 
chicken into the kettle and allow it to cook, 
watching it very closely that it does not burn, 
stirring frequently. In this way it gets the 
delicious browned taste that adds so much to 
this dish in any form. Prepare a crust in the 
same way as ordinary puff paste is made. 
Line a deep pan with the paste, break an egg 
into the dish and thoroughly wet the inside 
of the crust, place the chicken in, then put a 
top crust on, leaving a hole in the top so as 
to keep moist by adding liquor in which there 
is butter. 

Deviled Chicken.—Prepare a mixture of 
mustard, pepper and salt, moistened with a 
little olive oil; put a small quantity of oil 
in the spider ; add just onion enough to give 


it flavor, and toss the chicken about in this a 
moment ; remove, rub and brush the mix¬ 
ture over the chicken and broil. Serve with 
a sharp, pungent sauce made of drawn butter, 
onion juice, mustard and chopped capers. 

Brunswick Stew. —Boil chicken or squir¬ 
rel with a little piece of salt bacon, add to it 
tomatoes, butter beans and green corn in 
time to be well cooked, a tablespoon butter 
and salt and pepper. 

Roast Turkey or Chicken. —Pick and 
draw with care, then wash in a number of 
waters. Rinse out the inside with soda 
water. Wipe dry ; make a dressing of bread¬ 
crumbs mixed with a little butter, seasoning, 
herbs, and hard-boiled eggs chopped fine. 
Stuff the inside of the fowl with this. Sew 
up with a strong thread; tie the neck to 
prevent the stuffing from squeezing out. 
Put in the oven with i or 2 cups water and 
a little salt in the pan, and baste often. 
Allow fifteen minutes to the pound if the 
fowl is old. If young ten will do. This rule 
allows for a brisk fire. 

Do not let the skin get darker than a rich 
brown. If there is danger of its getting 
darker, lay a sheet of writing paper over the 
top. Chop the giblets fine, stew them in 
water enough to cover them, add them to 
the gravy of the fowl ; thicken with a little 
flour beaten smooth in cold water. Boil up 










239 


HELPS FOR THE 

together, and serve in a gravy-dish. The 
gravy may be seasoned with celery salt. 

Dressing or Stuffing —Stale bread suffi¬ 
cient to fill a 2 qt. baking-dish—half Graham 
and half white is best—soak till soft; add 
seasoning to suit the taste. Take a pound 
of nice beef-steak and cook it rarely, turning 
all the juice of the meat over the prepared 
dressing, chop the steaks fine and spread it 
evenly over the dish; cover closely and 
steam an hour. 



ROAST FOWL. 


The joint will usually separate by inserting 
the knife between the legs and side and 
pressing back the leg with the blade of the 
knife, if not, it can be easily severed by a 
touch of the knife. Next cut off the wing 
from D to B. Remove merry thought and 
side bones. Serve a slice of the white meat 
with some of the dark, to each guest, con¬ 
sulting preferences as far as possible. 

How to Cook a Fowl. —Make a paste, 
by rubbing together cold, each of a cup 
of butter and flour, and then stir this into 
about 3 qts. boiling water, so that a smooth 
gravy is formed. Carefully dress a fowl, 
removing all the pin feathers, stuffing it with 
any desired forcemeat, and trussing it in a 
short, compact shape. Simmer the fowl in 
this sauce, keeping it covered, for about 2 ]/ 2 
hours, or until it is tender, and then remove 
the trussing cords and serve it, either with 
plain boiled or baked potatoes or with some 
dumplings made like biscuit dough and 
cooked with the fowl, for about 20 minutes. 
A lean poor bird will become plump and 
white under this treatment. 

Chicken Pie. —Stew the chicken till cen- 


HOCJSEKEEPER. 

der, thicken the gravy a little, and add a 
little milk. Line a dish with a good rich 
crust, put in the chicken and gravy, season 
and cover with a crust. Bake from y 2 to 
of an hour. 

Broiled Chicken. —Prepare in the same 
way as for boiling, cut them in two through 
the back and flatten them; place on a cold 
gridiron over a nice red fire. After a little 
time, when they have become thoroughly 
hot, set them on a plate or other dish and 
lard them well with a piece of butter, pepper 
and salt them to taste, chiefly on the inside, 
then place them on the brander and continue' 
turning till done—they will take fully 20 
minutes. Serve hot, with a little butter and- 
plenty of stewed mushrooms—a delightful 
dish. 

Chicken Pie. —Cut the chickens in pieces 
and boil till tender. Thicken the gravy and 
season; then make a nice rich crust out of 
baking powder or soda biscuit dough, line 
the dish with this dough and lay in the- 
chicken, taking care to have the bones all 
point toward the center, so that when it is 
cut you will not cut across a bone. Put in. 
plenty of gravy and cover with a crust. 

Chicken Pates.— Take cold chicken that 
has been cooked in any way, mince fine. 
Make a sauce of a cup of milk thickened' 
with 1 teaspoon corn-starch or flour, add 1 
tablespoon butter, seasoning to taste. Make 
a good puff-paste and line small pate-pans 
with it. Bake quick. Fill the crusts in the 
pan with the chicken compound and set in 
the oven to brown. 

Chicken Cutlets. —Cut in as large pieces 
as possible the thick parts of 2 chickens, 
either cooked or uncooked. Dip in beaten 
egg and then in cracker or bread-crumbs, 
and fry to a light brown in butter. They 
should be served with a thickened and well- 
seasoned gravy made from the bones. 






240 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


Boiled Fowl.—Having cleaned the fowl 
thoroughly, sew up in a coarse white cloth, 
plunge into a kettle of boiling water and boil 
slowly for an hour or more, according to age 
and toughness of fowl. Serve with celery, 
parsley, oyster sauce or simple white sauce, 
and garnish with slices of lemon. 

To Curry Chicken.—Slice an onion and 
brown in a little butter, add a spoon of curry 
powder, allow it to remain covered for a few 
minutes to cook; add a little more butter 
and put in chicken, veal, etc., etc., cut up 
small, thicken with a little flour. This is 
excellent. 

A turkey and goose are helped by cutting 
slices off the breast, and then the wings and 
legs are taken off. The breast is reckoned 
the best and the wing next in preference. 
Gentlemen are often partial to the drum¬ 
stick, the slender part of the leg. A little of 

9_ 


BOILED TURKEY. 

the stuffing is served with every portion of 
the bird. The drumstick is often reserved 
till the bird is cold and then grilled for 
breakfast. The rest must be carved as you 
would a fowl, dividing the breast, A to B, 
and cutting the back in two. Wild duck is 
helped in the same manner. 

Mode of Broiling Chicken.—Dress the 
chicken, wash and dry with a towel. Heat 
the spider and place in it the chicken, skin 
down; add salt and pepper and a lump of 
butter on each half; cover with a tin and let 
it cook rather slowly midway or back of the 
middle if too hot. When thoroughly 
browned turn and cook in the same way 
until well done. This method prevents the 
burnt and underdone places in chicken 


broiled over coals. Garnish with parsley or 
cresses and a thin slice or two of lemon. 

Boiled Fowl with Oysters.—One young 
fowl, 3 doz. oysters, yolks of 2 eggs, a gill of 
cream; truss as for boiling, fill inside with 
oysters bearded and washed in their own 
liquor; secure the ends of the fowl, put it 
into a tin boiler or saucepan and place the 
saucepan in a kettle of boiling water. Keep 
it boiling I ]/ 2 hours or rather longer, then 
take the gravy that has flowed from the 
oysters and fowl, of which there will be a good 
quantity, stir in the cream and yolks of eggs, 
add a few oysters scalded in their liquor; let 
the sauce get quite hot but do not allow it 
to boil, pour some of it over the fowl and the 
remainder send to the table in a gravy bowl. 
A trifle of powdered mace improves it. 

Roast Duck.—Use onions and 
potatoes, chopped fine and highly seasoned, 
for the stuffing. Bind on the slices of salt 
pork and baste frequently while they are 
cooking in a moderately hot oven for about 
2 hours. 

All poultry is better to be drawn as soon 
as possible after killing, while the flavor will 
be much improved if it is filled with 3 or 4 
onions cut in quarters, and the bird kept at 
an even temperature for a week before it is 
wanted for use. Wrap it up in a clean white 
cloth to exclude the air and keep it from 
freezing. The colder the better, provided it 
just escapes freezing. The continued change 
of temperature is what causes the change of 
flavor, while the presence of onions permeates 
the flesh, giving it an agreeable flavor which 
has not the slightest suspicion of garlic. 

While the fowls are roasting it is well to 
add 2 or 3 onions in the side of the dripping 
pan, adding more if the bird is of extra size. 
Even people who have an obstinate prejudice 
against onions have been known to praise 
poultry and game prepared in this way, giv- 














HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


341 


ing it the preference to the old-fashioned way 
of leaving out onions altogether. 

A quart of oysters add very much to the 
stuffing of roast turkey, while the liquor is 
sufficient wetting for the amount of bread 
necessary. 

Relish for Roast Duck.—Slice 6 oranges 
for 6 persons; grate the rind of i and add 
juice of i lemon, 3 tablespoons salad oil or 
melted butter, a pinch of cayenne pepper; 
mix and pour over the oranges. 

Stewed Pigeons.—After preparing the 
birds, cut them up and let them lie in salt 
water for y 2 an hour, then wash them well 
in clear water, place in saucepan with just 
enough water to cover them, cook till tender. 
Pour off some of the water and let them 
simmer quickly till dry; season with butter, 
salt and pepper to taste and serve with cream 
gravy. 

Quail on Toast.—Wash the birds and 
wipe dry, split them down the back and broil 
-over bright coals till done and browned 
lightly, turning often to prevent charring; 
season with butter, pepper and salt, lay on 
slices of buttered toast and serve imme¬ 
diately. 

Roast Quail or Woodcock.—After draw¬ 
ing the birds, wash out thoroughly with a 
little borax or soda in the water, wipe dry 
with a soft cloth and rub salt and pepper well 
inside and out. Allow one small onion and 
one small potato for each bird, with a few 
bread crumbs; mince them and add half a 
teaspoon of sage, with a tablespoon of melted 
butter. Sew up the bird with fine cotton to 
prevent tearing when taken out. Cover the 
front and back with a slice of salt pork, tie 
up well with grocer’s twine and place the 
birds in a frying-pan, which can be covered 
closely with an inverted pan. 

Pour some boiling hot water over each 
.bird and let them stew for about half an 


hour. Remove the cover after they are well 
steamed and allow them to brown nicely, 
giving them closer attention for another 30 
minutes. Use a little flour in thickening the 
gravy, and send around green peas and cur¬ 
rant jelly as a relish. Squabs are very fine 
eating when prepared in this way. 

Quail on Toast.--Clean nicely, cut open 
down the back, season and dredge with 
flour. Crush them flat and put in a pan with 
butter and a little water. Cover and put in 
a hot oven till nearly done. Then fry in hot 
butter till brown. Toast slices of white 
bread, butter lightly and place the quails on 
the toast. Dish each separately; thicken 
the gravy in the pan with flour browned a 
little and pour over the quails and toast. 
Serve very hot. Delicious. 

Pheasants, Partridges and Quails.— 
Clean and wash in several waters, putting a 
little soda in the last water, dry with a towel, 
stuff with dressing same as for chicken or 
turkey, sew up tight, tie down legs and 
wings; steam them over hot water for an 
hour or until done, then put them in a pan 
in the oven with a little butter and water. 
Baste frequently; they will brown nicely in 
15 or 20 minutes ; place them on a platter 
and garnish with parsley and jelly. 

Pigeon Pie.—Prepare the pigeons as for 
roasting and put a lump of butter in each 
one ; border a pudding dish with puff-paste, 
lay veal cutlet or a cut of tenderloin steak in 
the bottom of the dish. Place a layer of 
pigeons, breast downward, in the dish. Chop 
5 hard-boiled eggs and cover the pigeons 
with them. Put in a little veal broth en¬ 
riched with butter. Cover with a puff crust 
and bake slowly 1 y hours. 

Broiled Rabbit.—Broil slightly over the 
coals to give firmness to the flesh, then cover 
it with slices of fat pork from the neck to the 
legs. Then roast it for an hour. Remove 


16 



242 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


the flesh and cut it in strips. Afterward 
break the bones and cook them with some 
butter and flour, onions, salt, pepper and 


stock broth; boil them down to one-fourth,, 
and having strained the gravy, put the slices 
into it and serve it up without again boiling it. 


SAUCES FOR MEATS 


EW articles of cookery require 
more care in making than 
sauces. Most of them should 
be stirred constantly, and those 
containing eggs should never 
boil. The thickest stew-pans 
should be used for making 
sauces, and wooden or silver spoons for 
stirring them. 

ColonePs Roast Beef Sauce. —One small 
teacup vinegar, I teaspoon sugar, 2 tea¬ 
spoons mixed mustard, I tablespoon tomato 
catsup, i tablespoon Worcestershire sauce, I 
teaspoon salt, a little red pepper. Mix well. 

Mayonaise Dressing. —One teaspoon salt, 
I teaspoon dry mustard, ^ teaspoon red 
pepper, yolks of 4 eggs, 3 tablespoons vine¬ 
gar, 1 tablespoon lemon juice, 2 teacups 
olive oil. 

Chili Sauce. —Nine large ripe tomatoes, 1 
onion chopped fine, 4 hot peppers, 2 cups of 
vinegar, 1 tablespoon salt, 1 tablespoon 
sugar, 1 teaspoon ginger, 1 teaspoon cloves, 
I teaspoon allspice, I teaspoon cinnamon, 1 
teaspoon nutmeg. Boil 1 hour. 

Tomato Catsup. —Take the following in¬ 
gredients : Eight qts. strained tomato juice, 
6 tablespoons black pepper, the same quan¬ 
tity of salt, 4 tablespoons mustard, 1 table¬ 
spoon cloves, 1 qt. good vinegar, 1 cup brown 
sugar, 1 teaspoon red pepper and 1 grated 
nutmeg. This must be boiled slowly until 
it becomes thick. 

Cucumber Catsup.—Pare cucumbers and 
cut them into pieces the size of a pear, lay in 


a bowl as follows: a layer of cucumbers, then 
a layer of salt, etc. Allow them to stand 
until following day; drain off water and 
season with celery seed, white and black 
mustard seed, unground black pepper and a 
little chopped onion. Fill bottles more than 
half full of the cucumbers, then fill them up 
with good vinegar. 

Currant Sauce. —Five lbs. currants, 4 
lbs. sugar, 1 pt. vinegar, 4 teaspoons cinna¬ 
mon, 4 teaspoons cloves. Boil 3 hours; nice 
for meats. 

Bread Sauce. —Cut a large onion in quar¬ 
ters and boil it in milk till tender; drain off 
th( milk and pour it over grated bread 
crumbs ; cover them up and let stand for 
about an hour, then put in a stewpan with a 
piece of butter the size of an egg mixed with 
a little flour; boil up together, add a little 
cream and serve. This sauce is excellent 
with roast shoulder of mutton. 

Apple Sauce for Roast Goose. —Pare, 
core and slice some apples, stew till tender, 
and add a little butter and some brown 
sugar. 

Celery Sauce.— Take y 2 pt. boiling milk, 
5 tablespoons butter, 1 tablespoon flour, stir 
together. Cut two heads of celery fine, boil 
five minutes; stir the celery into the prepared 
mixture and boil a few minutes. Very nice 
for boiled fowl. 

Kgg Sauce.—Take 5 tablespoons drawn 
butter, the yolks of 2 hard-boiled eggs 
mashed fine; seasoning, 4 tablespoons vine¬ 
gar and 3 of salad oil, a little catsup if 







HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


243 


desired; stir well and boil for a few minutes. 
This is a nice fish sauce. 

Onion Sauce.— Boil the onions gently in 
milk and water till they are quite soft, tnen 
rub through a colander with a spoon, and 
boil them up with cream or the yolk of an 
egg beaten smooth with milk or melted 
butter. 

White Sauce for Boiled Fowl.— Put the 

peel of a lemon cut very fine into a pint of 
cream, with a little thyme and seasoning to 
taste; simmer it gently for a few minutes, 
then strain and thicken it with i tablespoon 
flour beaten up with y lb. butter, boil up 
and add the juice of the lemon and stir well. 
Mix the sauce with a little of the hot chicken 
gravy, but do not boil them together. 

Lemon Sauce.—Cut thin slices of lemon 
into small pieces and put them in melted 
butter; let it just come to a boil and pour 
over the fowl. 

Mint Sauce.-— Chop mint leaves with a 
sharp knife, and do it quickly or they will 
turn black; add a little brown sugar and 
some good vinegar. This is very nice with 
roast lamb or mutton. 

Horse-Radish Sauce. —Mixwell together 

1 oz. grated horse-radish, y 2 oz. salt, I table¬ 
spoon made mustard, 3 tablespoons brown 
sugar, the same quantity of vinegar, and 
milk and cream to make it the consistency of 
thick cream. 

Dutch Sauce for Meat or Fish.— Put 6 

tablespoons water and 4 of vinegar into a 
stewpan, heat and thicken with the yolks of 

2 eggs ; make it quite hot, but do not boil; 
squeeze in the juice of ^ a lemon, and strain 
it through a sieve. 

To Make Drawn Butter.— Put half a 
pint of milk in a perfectly clean stewpan and 
set over a moderate fire; put into a pint 
bowl a heaping tablespoon of wheat flour, y 
lb. sweet butter and a saltspoon of salt ; work 


these well together with the back of a spoon, 
then pour into ft, stirring it all the time, half 
a pint of boiling water; when it is smooth, 
stiv it into the boiling mnk, let it simmer for 
five minutes or more and it is done. 

Drawn butter made after this recipe will 
be found to be most excellent; it may be 
made less rich by using less butter. 

Melted Butter. —Put into a stewpan 4 oz. 
butter, melt a little, then add 2 tablespoons 
flour and stir well together; pour in y 2 pint 
hot water and boil a minute, stirring con¬ 
stantly and always in one direction. Milk 
used instead of water requires a little less 
butter and looks whiter. 

Melted Butter. —Mix a large teaspoon 
flour smoothly with 1 cup cold water and a 
pinch of salt; put this in a stewpan and add 
2 or 3 ozs. butter and stir constantly until it 
thickens, when it is done. 

To Clarify Butter. —Simmer it gently over 
a clear fire, and when melted take it off, skim 
and let the sediment settle. Pour the butter 
off clear into jars for use and set in a cool 
place. Do this in the fall and it will keep 
all winter. 

Curry Powder. —Two ozs. mustard, 2 of 
black pepper, 6 of coriander seed, 6 of 
tumeric, x / 2 oz. red pepper, 1 oz. cardamon, 
1 oz. cummin seed and cinnamon. Pound 
fine, put in a bottle, cork and keep for 
seasoning gravies. 

Boro-tartrate for Preserving Meat and 
Other Food. —Distilled water is aromatized 
with nutmeg in the proportion of 1 or 2 parts 
to 1000, and in this is dissolved 12 to 15 
parts of boro-tartrate obtained by melting 
together 2 parts of tartaric acid with 1 5 of 
boracic acid. This antiseptic fluid is injected 
into the arteries of the animal to be pre¬ 
served, which is then cut up, and the pieces, 
after the bones have been removed, are im¬ 
mersed in the fluid for several hours and then 





244 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


dried in the air. Small pieces require to be 
immersed only for a short time, or their sur¬ 
face simply sponged with the fluid. This 
will be found an excellent preservative. 


English Pickle for Meat. —Dissolve 300 
parts of common salt, 5 parts of saltpetre 
and 50 parts of sugar in 2000 parts of water. 
Boil the whole and remove the scum. 




VEGETABLES 


EGETABLES are a most use¬ 
ful accessory to our daily 
food, and their cookery 
should receive greater atten¬ 
tion than it usually does. It 
is considered a very simple 
thing to boil a pot of potatoes, yet their 
palatableness and digestibility depend very 
largely on the way it is done. Nearly all 
vegetables are much better put into boiling 
water, as the fine flavor is thus retained in 
the vegetable instead of being soaked out in 
the water. Care should be taken not to 
overcook them ; and when done they should 
be immediately prepared for the table and 
served at once, as they are spoiled by 
standing. 

Scalloped Potatoes. —Four large, cold, 
boiled potatoes, peeled and sliced, 2 table¬ 
spoons butter, 1 pt. hot milk, 2 tablespoons 
flour. Melt butter and add hot milk and 
flour, when thick add salt, pepper and 
parsley. Put a layer of mixture in bottom 
of baking dish, then a layer of potato and so 
on, milk coming last. Cover with cracker 
crumbs and bake 1 5 minutes. 

Potatoes a la Creme. —Put into a sauce¬ 
pan 3 tablespoons butter, a small handful of 
parsley chopped fine, salt and pepper to 
taste. Stir up well until hot, add a small 
teacup cream or rich milk, thicken with 2 
teaspoons flour and stir until it boils. Chop 
some cold, boiled potatoes, put into the mix¬ 
ture and boil up once before serving. 


Potatoes in Cases. —Bake potatoes of 
equal size, when done and still hot cut off a 
small piece from each potato, scoop out care¬ 
fully the inside, leaving the skin unbroken, 
mash the potato well, seasoning it with 
plenty of butter, pepper, salt and grated 
cheese; return it to potato skin with a spoon, 
allowing it to protrude about an inch above 
the skin. Leave the tops rough and return 
to oven to brown. 

Candied Potatoes. —Boil 3 large sweet 
potatoes until tender, slice and place in 
shallow baking dish, in layers, with sugar 
and butter liberally sprinkled between. 
Cover the top with sugar, then pour a tea¬ 
cup of boiling water thereon and set inside 
the oven to brown. 

Candied Sweet Potatoes. —Boil 6 small¬ 
sized sweet potatoes, peel them and lay on a 
shallow plate or pan. Put a teaspoon butter 
on each potato, sprinkle on them ^ cup of 
brown sugar, 2 tablespoons of water in pan, 
cook slowly and baste as you would meat. 
Cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and lemon peel 
improve the flavor. 

Macaroni. —Boil macaroni until tender, 
drain and place in dish alternate layers of 
macaroni and cheese, allowing plenty of the 
latter; season with salt; prepare a custard 
as for custard pie, omitting the sugar, pour 
this over the macaroni, bake in a slow oven. 

Potato Chips. —Pare the potatoes, shave 
them very thin, soak for y 2 hour in ice-cold 
salted water, drain in a colander and spread 











HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


245 


upon a dry towel; fry a few at a time in 
very hot fat, i minute being sufficient to cook 
and brown them properly, sprinkly lightly 
with salt, and when needed at table heat 
quickly in the oven. 

Sweet Potato Pone. —One quart sweet 
potatoes peeled and grated ; pour over the 
grated potato I pt. boiling water, stir it well; 
add i teacup brown sugar, 2 teacups mo- 
losses, 2 tablespoons butter, 1 heaping table¬ 
spoon powdered ginger, 1 teacup milk; pour 
into a baking dish and bake slowly for about 
2 hours. 

Green Corn Oysters. —One pint grated 
green corn, 1 tablespoon flour, 2 eggs, piece 
of butter the size of half an egg, a pinch of 
salt. Mix well and fry like pancakes. 

Boston Baked Beans.— These require a 
covered stone bean-pot. One qt. dry beans 
makes enough for a family of 6 or 7 persons. 
The beans should be looked over carefully 
and put to soak in plenty of soft water over 
night; skim them out of the water in the 
morning and put on cold fresh water enough 
to cover them when they have boiled ; put 
them in the bean-pot in the same water. 
Add 1 tablespoon molasses and a piece of 
corned beef, about y 2 lb., with considerable 
fat on it (we much prefer this to pork) and a 
very little salt. 

It is best to taste them when about half 
done, and if they are not salt enough add 
what more salt is needed. A little experience 
will soon teach one just howto season them. 
Bake 3 or 4 hours in a moderate oven, and 
see that there is water enough kept in them, 
by adding as it cooks out. There should 
always be water enough so you can see it by 
tipping the pot up sidewise. 

Green Tomatoes and Onions, —Slice 
green tomatoes without peeling, put into a 
hot skillet which has been buttered, add a 
layer of sliced onions, then tomatoes, etc., 


until the dish is filled. When all is cooked 
tender turn into a hot dish and serve. This 
is especially nice for lunch in the fall. 

Fried Tomatoes. —Slice large tomatoes 
into three slices, rub with flour, fry in hot 
butter, browning on both sides. Dress with 
a sauce made of cream, butter and season¬ 
ing. Serve hot. 

Tomato Toast.— Proceed as for stewed 
tomatoes, then run them through a colander, 
add a cup of cream and serve on toast. 

Tomato Relish. —One doz ripe tomatoes, 
3 onions, 2 small green peppers, 3 table¬ 
spoons sugar, % CU P vinegar, 1 table¬ 
spoon salt, boil gently 1 hour. 

Tomato Sauce. —Slice 2 large onion and 
boil until well done; add 1 can tomatoes, 3 
tablespoons sugar, pepper and salt to taste; 
cook well for 20 minutes, then strain; aftet 
straining let it come to a boil and add 1 tea- 
spoon corn starch wet with a little water, 
also a piece of butter the size of a walnut. 

Boiling Cabbage, to Keep Green.— 
Put 4 qts. hard water in a kettle and let k 
boil. Cut a good-sized cabbage into 2 or 4 
pieces, cut out the core, wash in clean cold 
water, then put in kettle of boiling water. 
Stir it down, put lid on till it boils fast, then 
take off the lid. Stir it occasionally till done r 
which will be in about 20 minutes. Strain 
in a colander. By so doing you will have a 
nice green cabbage. 

Asparagus.— Cut off the hard ends and tie 
in bunches, put into boiling water with a 
little salt and boil till tender. Mix together 
flour and butter in equal parts, beat to a 
cream, stir in hot water off the asparagus to 
make a sauce, boil together. Lay the 
asparagus on slices of toasted bread ; pour 
the sauce over all and serve hot. The 
asparagus may be dressed in the same man¬ 
ner without the toast, or may be dressed 
with seasoning only if preferred. 




246 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


Cauliflower.— Trim off the green leaves 
and soak an hour in cold water ; tie in a 
coarse white cloth and plunge into a kettle 
of boiling water, with a little salt; cook about 
y 2 hour or till tender. It is very nice served 
with either sweet cream or melted butter. 

Cauliflower Fried. —Soak a cauliflower 
in cold water for an hour, then boil in milk 
and water till tender, divide into small 
branches and set away to cool. Make a 
batter in the proportion of I tablespoon flour 
and 2 tablespoons milk to I egg. Heat some 
fresh butter in a frying pan, dip each branch 
in the batter and fry a light brown. 

Cauliflower Omelet.— Chop cold cauli¬ 
flower very fine and mix it with a sufficient 
quantity of beaten egg to make a stiff batter, 
then fry it in fresh butter and serve very 
hot. 

Stewed Celery. —Wash 4 heads and take 
off the green leaves. Cut into pieces 3 or 4 
in. long, put into a steW-pan with y 2 pint of 
meat broth, stew till tender. Add a little 
cream and seasoning, also a little flour and 
butter, and simmer together. 

Sauerkraut. —Slice or chop the cabbage. 
Put a layer of salt on the bottom of a barrel 


or tub, then a layer of ^aobage, and so ot? 
until the barrel is full. As each layer is put 
in it should be pounded. The top layer 
should be salt. When the barrel is full it 
should be covered with a cloth and a board 
to fit the barrel and a heavy weight on top. 
At the end of a few days it will begin to fer¬ 
ment. After it does, wash the cloth on the 
top every day until it begins to be clear. 
The crout will be ready for use in about 4 
weeks. Be sure to have a tight-fitting cover, 
so as to exclude the air. 

Stuffed Tomatoes. —Select large-sized, 
smooth and round tomatoes. Cut from the 
stem end a slice and lay aside; scoop all the 
inside of tomato out, being careful not to 
break through, add half as much cracker or 
bread crumbs, season highly with salt and 
pepper, add plenty of butter, a dash or two 
o; r cayenne, put on the stove, cook 10 
minutes. Now fill the hollow tomatoes with 
this dressing; when full add 4 or 6 whole 
cloves, putting them on top of the dressing 
—either pile up high or make level and put 
on the sliced top ; place tomatoes in a large 
baking-pan, with a little hot water to prevent 
sticking, and bake 15 minutes. 


<&— 


SALADS 


ABBAGE SLAW.— Heat 1 cup 
vinegar, yolk of 1 egg mixed 
with 1 tablespoon mustard, 2 
tablespoons sugar and a lump 
of butter the size of an egg, 
rolled in flour; cook a few 
minutes and pour over the cabbage, which 
must be cut up not too fine, with salt 
sprinkled over it. 

Celery Salad. —One qt. chopped celery, 
pt. almonds, browned in butter and salted, 


add mayonaise dressing. Serve on lettuce 
leaves. 

Potato Salad. —Take y 2 cup vinegar, y 
tablespoon mustard and 1 tablespoon butter, 
let them boil and then add 2 eggs beaten 
with y cup sugar, stir till it thickens ; when 
cold add y, cup sweet cream ; boil 6 fair¬ 
sized potatoes till tender, not mealy, and 
when cold cut in cubes and salt and turn the 
dressing over them, and over the top lay- 
sliced hard-boiled eggs. 









HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


247 


Cold Slaw.—One-half pint rich milk or - 
cream, y 2 pt. good vinegar, i small cup 
sugar, 3 eggs well beaten, a lump of butter 
size of an egg, i heaping teaspoon ground 
mustard, the same of celery seed, pepper and 
salt. Cook all together until the mixture 
thickens. When cool pour over cabbage cut 
very fine. 

Boiled Salad Dressing. —Three well- 
beaten eggs, 6 tablespoons vinegar, i table¬ 
spoon butter, i even teaspoon pepper (white 
pepper preferred), I teaspoon mustard, 2 
teaspoons salt, y, cup cup of cream whipped 
to a froth. Put the vinegar on to boil, when 
boiling add the beaten eggs and cook dll 
thickened, stirring all the time; when thick 
and smooth remove from the stove and add 
the butter. Work the pepper and mustard 
into the salt (dry to prevent lumping when 
added to the dressing), add the salt, pepper 
and mustard and put away into a cool place. 

When wanted for a salad add the whipped 
cream and a couple of tablespoons of salad 
oil if desired. For potato salad, add some 
finely minced parsley and onions. For 
chicken salad, use celery cut fine with a 
knife, not chopped. For any fish salad, 
always use salad oil in the above dressing. 
For celery salad, use as above. For cab¬ 
bage salad, omit the mustard and add a little 
sugar. 

Chicken Salad. —To I pair of chickens 
boiled and cut in small pieces add celery 
about same quantity as chicken, 2 small 
tablespoons salt, yolks of 4 hard boiled eggs, 
y 2 pt. vinegar, y teaspoon cayenne pepper 
(be careful with this), 3 small tablespoons 
mustard, y pt. sweet cream, 1 tablespoon 
flour, y 2 pt. oil (chicken oil, butter and salad 
oil mixed together to make y pt.), yolks of 
4 raw eggs. Put all together and let cook, 
thicken but not boil, then after corking well 
pour over chicken and celery. Very fine. 


Fruit Salad. —One box gelatine soaked in 
I pt. cold water until dissolved, 3 cups sugar, 
I qt. boiling water, boil 10 minutes, flavor 
with the juice of 2 lemons and a can of pine¬ 
apple juice, strain and let cool ; then stir in 
1 can of pineapple cut in small squares, 2 
oranges cut small, 2 bananas cut small. Put 
into moulds and cool. 

Sardine Salad. —Remove oil and outside 
skin from three boxes of imported sardines, 
take out as much bone as possible, cut fine, 
enough pickle to season, 4 hard boiled eggs 
and mix with sardines. 

Dressing for Same .—One cup vinegar, 1 
tablespoon sugar, 1 teaspoon salt, 1 tea¬ 
spoon each of mustard and pepper and 1 
egg well beaten. Let boil until thick, con¬ 
stantly stirring, and when cold pour over the 
sardines, then garnish with celery. 

Banana Salad. —Cut in slices lengthwise 
as thick as a dollar, arrange so the slices will 
form a semi-circle-and form a hollow center; 
pour over them 1 gill grape juice, sweet with 
sugar, into which you have put 1 teaspoon 
lemon juice. Let them get ice-cold, then 
fill center with whipped cream piled high. 

Beet Salad. —One quart raw cabbage 
chopped fine, 1 pt. boiled beets chopped fine, 
1 y cups granulated sugar, 1 tablespoon 
salt, 1 teaspoon pepper, 1 teacup horse¬ 
radish grated. Cover with cold vinegar and 
keep from the air. 

Cucumber Salad. —Take 2 dozen small 
cucumbers sliced thin, leaving rind, and salt 
well; let stand 3 hours, add one-quarter as 
many onions as cucumbers, let stand three 
hours, drain off liquor and mix well with the 
following salad dressing: y 2 cup sweet oil, 
y 2 cup white mustard seed, y 2 cup black 
mustard seed, I tablespoon celery seed, I 
qt. cider vinegar. 

Lobster Salad. —Cut the meat of the 
lobster into small pieces or dice, make nests 



248 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


of three or four small crisp lettuce leaves and 
put one large spoonful of lobster in each one. 
Put a spoonful of salad dressing in each, or 
serve separately in a small pitcher or bowl. 

Salmon Salad. —One cup canned salmon, 
i cup crackers broke fine, I large onion 
chopped fine, salt and pepper to taste. 
Moisten well with vinegar and serve. 

Tomato Salad. —Scald and peel the 
tomatoes, then put on a dish a layer of sliced 
tomatoes and a layer of chopped celery until 
the dish is full; pour over all a French 
dressing of i tablespoon vinegar, 3 table¬ 
spoons olive oil, 1 saltspoon pepper and salt- 
spoon salt ; add a little cayenne if liked. 

Veal Salad. —Boil till tender, chop fine 
and proceed as in the above recipe. Garnish 
with sliced lemons. 

Orange Salad, —One tablespoon vinegar, 


]/ 2 teacup water, 1 teaspoon powdered sugar, 
a pinch of salt, a pinch of mustard, y 2 tea¬ 
spoon butter, yolks of 5 eggs. Mix sugar, 
butter, salt, pepper, mustard and vinegar, 
put on stove and heat through. Beat yolks 
light and stir in hot mixture on the stove„ 
beat fast until it gets thick. Peel and remove- 
the seeds from oranges, break into pieces, 
and pour mixture over them just before 
serving. 

Salad Dressing. —Beat the yolks of 2 
eggs to a cream, add 1 tablespoon sugar, a 
generous pinch of red pepper and scant tea¬ 
spoon mustard. Beat together and add y 2 
teacup vinegar, steam until it thickens, stir¬ 
ring all the time; add a pinch of celery seed. 
Just before using add 2 tablespoons thick 
cream. Do not dress salad until ready for 
use. 


• i 






Bread, Biscuit, 



EAST. —Twelve large potatoes, 
y 2 cup of sugar, 2 yeast cakes, 
y cup of salt, handful of hops. 
Boil potatoes, strain water off 
and set aside to cool. Mash 
potatoes to cream, add sugar 
and salt. Boil hops five minutes, when cool 
strain the water into the yeast, soak yeast 
cakes in tepid water, add when potatoes are 
cool, set over night to rise. 

Potato Yeast. —Pare and grate 4 large 
raw potatoes, pour over them 1 qt. boiling 
water and set on the stove until it thickens; 
let it cool and then add 1 cup of well-raised 
sweet yeast and set it in a warm place to 
rise ; when quite light add I cup of sugar 
and y cup of salt. This will keep 2 or 3 
weeks in a cool place. 


Rolls, Cake, Etc. 

Hop Yeast.—To a handful of hops take 3 
pints of water and boil 15 minutes ; add I 
tablespoon salt. Strain the liquor, and while 
boiling pour over a handful of flour. Soak 
one yeast cake in a cup of lukewarm water 
until soft. After the liquor has become 
lukewarm add the yeast and set aside to rise. 
After it has risen work in enough meal to 
make it stiff; roll, cut into cakes and set to 
dry. 4 

Yeast That Will Keep All Summer.— 
Pare and grate 12 large potatoes, add 1 tea¬ 
cup sugar and cup salt. Boil 2 handfuls 
of hops in 1 gallon of water five minutes, 
and strain onto the other ingredients. Put 
the mixture into a tin pail and set in a kettle 
of boiling water and stir till it thickens. 
When cool add 1 pt. of good sweet yeast or 






HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


249 


4 fresh yeast cakes. Stir well, cover up 
tight and set in a warm place to rise. When 
light put into a stone or glass jar and set in 
a cool place in the cellar. Use y 2 cud of 
this yeast for two loaves of bread. 

Apple Yeast. —Six large apples, i pint 
flour, i pt. cornmeal, i cup sugar, ]/ 2 cup 
salt, i pt. hops, i gal. water. Simmer ap¬ 
ples, hops and water i hour, mash through 
a sieve, add other ingredients and let cool, 
then add i cup of yeast. Keep in a cool 
place and use as other yeast. 

The Very Best Baking Powder. —Get y 2 
lb. bicarbonate of soda, I lb of pure cream of 
tartar and i oz. corn starch. Sift 2 or 3 
times. Use about 1 tablespoon for each lb. 
of flour. 

French Biscuit. —Beat together 1 cup of 
sugar, 1 egg, 1 cup of butter and y 2 cup of 
sour milk. Put in y 2 teaspoon soda. Use 
flour enough to mold. Roll on a board, cut 
into biscuits and bake in a quick oven. 

Quick Soda Biscuit. —Rub 1 teaspoon of 
soda and 2 teaspoons of cream tartar into 1 
qt. flour. Then rub into the flour 2 table¬ 
spoons butter. Pour in y 2 pt. sweet milk or 
cold water, add a little salt. Work the dough 
into shape as quickly as possible. It should 
be soft as you can handle. Roll and cut into 
biscuits y 2 inch thick and bake in a quick 
oven. They are delicious—light, flaky and 
white. Three teaspoons baking powder may 
be substituted for the soda and cream tartar. 

Breakfast Biscuit. —Take 1 qt. sweet milk, 
y, cup melted butter, a little salt, 2 table¬ 
spoons Royal Baking Powder, flour enough 
to make a stiff batter ; do not knead into 
dough, but drop in buttered tins from a 
spoon. Bake in a hot oven—unless it i? hot 
they will not be light and tender. 

Cream Biscuit. —Take y 2 cup of sour 
cream, 1 pt. sweet milk, 2 teaspoons cream 
tartar, 1 of soda and a little salt. Mix with 


sufficient flour to mold out smoothly, and 
bake in a quick oven. 

Graham Biscuit. —Take 1 pt. of Graham 
flour, 1 cup of white flour, 2 tablespoons of 
butter, 2 heaping teaspoons cream tartar, 1 
of soda, a little salt. Mix with sweet milk 
or water and bake in a quick oven. 

Rye Biscuit. —Take y 2 pt. rye meal, 1 y 
cups wheat flour, 4 tablespoons molasses, 1 
egg, a pinch of salt, y 2 pt. sour milk and 2'; 
scant teaspoons soda. Bake quick. 

Lemon Biscuit. —Take I cup butter, 2 y 2 
cups sugar, 4 eggs, 1 ^ pts. flour, 1 teaspoon 
baking powder, 1 teaspoon extract lemon.. 
Mix the butter, sugar and beaten eggs- 
smooth, add the flour, sifted with the powder 
and the extract. Flour the board, roll out 
dough y in. thick, and cut out with large,, 
round cutter; lay out on a greased tin, wasE 
over with milk and lay a thin slice of citrom 
on each. Bake in hot oven 10 minutes. 

Graham Gems. —Take 1 pt. sweet milk,. 
y 2 cup sugar, 1 teaspoon cream tartar, y> 
teaspoon soda. Mix with Graham flour to* 
a stiff batter. Drop into gem-pans and bake- 
quickly. 

Wheat Gems. —Two cups milk, 2 cups- 
flour, 2 tablespoons melted butter, 2 eggs 
beaten separately, y teaspoon baking soda. 
Have gem-pans very hot and bake in quick 
oven. 

Rye Gems. —One cup of rye flour, ^ cup 
Graham or white flour, y 2 cup molasses, 1 
cup or a little more sour milk, 1 teaspoon 
soda dissolved in the milk, small piece of 
melted butter, a little salt. Have the pans 
warm. 

Light Rolls. —When making light bread 
save enough for 2 loaves, add to it the white 
of 1 egg and about 2 tablespoons of butter. 
Mix well, roll out on a board and cut with a 
biscuit cutter; then grease the top, fold over 
and flatten a little with the hand. Put in a. 




250 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


warm place to rise, and when light bake in a 
moderate oven. 

Bakers’ Rolls. —Take 2 lbs. light dough, 
add 2 or 3 ozs. butter, 1 tablespoon sugar, 1 
egg and flour enough to knead into a smooth 
dough. Put in a warm place to rise, and 
when they are light cut into pieces about the 
size of a small egg and mold up round with 
the hands ; let them stand for 10 minutes, 
grease the tops, then with a small round stick 
or roll press in center of each roll quite hard; 
fold one side over the other, then press a 
little with the hands. Put on a tin in rows, 
let them rise and bake 15 minutes in a 
medium oven. 

French Rolls. —Take 1 qt. flour, y 2 cup 
hop yeast, y 2 teacup butter and water 
enough to wet. Mix well and let it rise 
over night. Roll out thin and cut in squares. 
Butter each and roll up. Set to rise. When 
light bake in a moderate oven for y 2 hour. 
They are very nice. 

New England Rolls. —Take about 4 lbs. 
flour, rub into it 3 oz. butter, make a hole in 
the flour and add 1 pt. cold milk, 1 gill yeast, 
3 oz. sugar, 1 egg and a little salt. Let this 
rise over night, then mix and let stand till 
noon ; make into rolls, let them get light 
and bake in a rather hot oven. 

Plain Muffins. —Take 2 lbs. raised dough, 
rub in y lb. butter, melted; then add y 2 
cup milk, 1 whole egg and 4 yolks, a little 
sugar, a little salt and y lb. flour. Beat 
well, till the batter is smooth, and let it rise 
for awhile; then set the muffin-rings on a 
buttered baking-pan, grease the rings and 
half fill them. Let rise y 2 hour and bake 
in a hot oven. 

London Crumpets. —Take 1 y 2 lbs. flour, 
1 qt. warm water, a cup of yeast, 1 table¬ 
spoon melted butter and 1 of syrup, 1 tea¬ 
spoon salt, mix all together. Set at night, 
or 6 hours before baking. Beat well. 


Corn Meal Muffins. —Take 1 y 2 cups of 
corn meal, 2 teaspoons baking powder, 1 y 2 
cups flour, 1 tablespoon sugar, y 2 teaspoon 
salt, tablespoon melted butter, 2 eggs, milk 
to make stiff batter. 

Sponge Cake. —Ten eggs, y 2 lb. flour, 1 
lb. pulverized sugar, 1 lemon, 1 small tea¬ 
spoon salt. Beat yolks separately and thor¬ 
oughly, add sugar and beat hard, add salt, 
lemon juice and grated peel. Beat whites to 
stiffness and add to the yolks, beating well 
together. Then cut the flour in slowly with 
a large knife and avoid beating after this. 
Bake in two deep, long, narrow pans, in slow 
oven, which is hot on the bottom. The 
secret of success is in the baking and in not 
beating the flour into the eggs. 

Old-Fashioned Plum Cake. —Three coffee 
cups sugar (soft brown the best), y 2 cup 
butter, 3 eggs, 2 cups sour milk, 2 tea¬ 
spoons soda, a little salt, flour enough to 
make it as stiff as pound cake, cloves, cin¬ 
namon and nutmeg to taste, 1 lb. raisins, 1 
cup currants, y lb. citron, juice of 1 orange. 
This makes a very large cake ; one-half the 
rule fills an ordinary pan. 

A Table of Weights and Measures.— 
Three level coffeecups sifted flour equal 1 
lb.; 2 level coffeecups pulverized sugar 

equal 1 lb.; 1 y level coffeecups granulated 
sugar equal 1 lb.; i 3 ,{ level coffeecups A 
sugar equal 1 lb.; 4 scant teacups sifted 
flour equal 1 lb.; 2 scant teacups soft butter, 
packed, equal 1 lb.; 2 scant teacups granu¬ 
lated sugar equal 1 lb.; 2 y scant teacups 
brown sugar ffiual 1 lb. 

Fruit Cake. —One qt. flour, finely sifted, 1 
qt. brown sugar, 2 cups butter, 12 eggs 
beaten separately, 2 lbs. raisins, 2 lbs. cur¬ 
rants, y lb. citron, 2 lbs. blanched almonds, 

1 cup molasses, 1 cup brandy or wine, 1 
teaspoon ground cloves, 1 teaspoon allspice, 

1 teaspoon nutmeg, 1 tablespoon cinnamon, 




HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


251 


i tablespoon ginger, i tablespoon soda dis¬ 
solved in water, about y cup water. Bake 
3 hours. 

Huckleberry Cakes. —Mix butter the size 
of an egg with 2 heaping tablespoons sugar; 
add 2 well beaten eggs, a little salt, i cup 
milk, 2 heaping cups flour, i teaspoon cream 
tartar in the flour, i cup berries. When 
using berries have the batter a little stiff. 
Lastly add y teaspoon soda in a little warm 
water. Bake immediately in small tins. 

Angels’ Food. —Whites of 12 eggs beaten 
stiff, i y 2 tumblers of granulated sugar, i 
tumbler of flour, 2 teaspoons cream tartar, 
i y teaspoons baking powder; sift flour with 
cream tartar and baking powder four times. 
Add sugar to eggs and beat until very light. 
Stir in flour, a little at a time, and bake in a 
loaf. 

Empress Cake. —Two cups bar sugai 
sifted, y cup butter, y cup sweet milk, 2 
cups sifted flour, 5 eggs beaten separately, 2 
level teaspoons baking powder, 1 table¬ 
spoon brandy, 1 tablespoon flavoring. Bake 
in slow oven and do not open oven door for 
1 5 minutes. 

Ice Cream Cake. —One-half cup butter, 
y cup sugar, y 2 cup milk, 2 cups flour, 3 
eggs, 1 teaspoon cream tartar, y, teaspoon 
soda. Beat the whites separately. 

White Cake. —One goblet butter, 2 gob¬ 
lets sugar, 3 goblets flour, 1 teaspoon baking 
powder, the whites of 15 eggs ; 8, 10 or 12 
eggs will answer, the larger quantity makes 
the nicer cake. 

White Cup Cake. —Take 1 y 2 cups sugar, 
1 cup butter, whites of 8 eggs, 1 cup sweet 
milk, I cup corn starch, 1 y cups flour, 2 
teaspoons baking powder. Flavor with rose 
water. 

Gold Cake. —After beating to a cream 
1 y 2 cups butter and 2 cups white sugar, stir 
in the well-whipped yolks of 12 eggs, 4 cups 


sifted flour, 1 teaspoon baking powder, flavor 
with lemon. Line pan with butter and 
paper; bake in a moderate oven 1 hour. 

Silver Cake. —Seven eggs, 2 cups pow¬ 
dered sugar, cup butter, 2 teaspoons 
baking powder, 1 teaspoon cream tartar, y 
teaspoon soda, 3 cups flour, 1 teaspoon 
vanilla or 4 drops of almond essence. Bake 
in a loaf for y hour. 

Caramel Cake. —One cup butter, 2 cups 
sugar, a scant cup milk, 1 y cups flour, 1 
cup corn starch, whites of 7 eggs, 3 tea¬ 
spoons baking powder in the flour, bake in a 
long pan. Take y lb. brown sugar, scant 
y lb. chocolate, y cup milk, butter size of 
an egg, 2 teaspoons vanilla; mix thoroughly 
and cook as syrup until stiff enough to 
spread; spread on cake and set in the oven 
to dry. 

Velvet Cake. —Two cups sugar, 4 cups 
flour, 1 cup butter, 1 cup cold water, 4 eggs, 
y 2 teaspoon soda, 1 teaspoon cream tartar. 
Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, dis¬ 
solve the soda in water, mix cream tartar in 
flour, beat the eggs separately, then add 
other ingredients. Flavor with 1 table¬ 
spoon lemon or almond. Bake 1 hour in a 
moderate oven. This quantity makes 2 
loaves. 

Zimmekuken (German Coffee Cake).— 

One pt. raised dough, 1 heaping cup white 
sugar, y cup butter, 2 tablespoons sweet 
cream, 3 eggs, 1 cup currants or raisins, a 
little cinnamon. Beat all together hard. 
Put in 1 long pan or 2 short ones, raise about 
20 minutes, then sprinkle sugar and cinna¬ 
mon on top, bake y 2 hour. Very nice with 
coffee in the morning. 

Cream Cake. —One cup sugar, 1 egg in 
a cup. fill it up with cream, 1 cups flour, 2 
teaspoons baking powder. Stir quickly and 
bake. 

Elba Cake.—Cream together 2 cups 




252 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


sugar and y 2 cup butter, add the whites of 
4 eggs beaten to a froth and beat thor¬ 
oughly ; 3 cups flour, 3 teaspoons baking 
powder, 1 cup milk, flavor to taste. 

Loaf Cake —Three eggs, 2 cups sugar, 1 
cup butter, 3 cups flour, 1 cup sweet milk, 2 
teaspoons baking powder. 

Coffee Cake.— One egg, 1 cup sugar, y 2 
cup butter, y 2 cup molasses, 1 teaspoon soda, 
I cup flour, 1 cup coffee, 1 cup raisins, spices. 

Blackberry Cake. —Three eggs, y cup 
butter, 1 cup brown sugar, 3 tablespoons 
milk (sweet or sour), 1 y 2 cups flour, 1 cup 
blackberry jam, 1 teaspoon soda. Bake in 
a square tin and frost the top. Very nice. 

Nut Cake.— Two cups sugar, 1 cup butter, 
3 cups flour, 1 cup milk, 4 eggs, 2 teaspoons 
baking powder, 1 cup nut meats cut fine 
(hickory nuts are very nice), y 2 teaspoon 
extract almond. 

Strawberry Short-cake. —Make a rule 
of baking powder biscuit, with the exception 
of a little more shortening; divide the dough 


in half; lay one-half on the moulding board 
(half the dough makes one short-cake), 
divide this half again and roll each piece large 
' enough to cover a biscuit tin or a large sized 
pie tin; spread soft butter over the lower 
one, and place the other on top of that; 
proceed with the other lump of dough the 
same, by cutting it in halves and putting on 
another tin. Set them in the oven ; when 
sufficiently baked take them out, separate 
each one by running a large knife through 
where the cold soft butter was spread. Then 
butter plentifully each crust, lay the bottom 
of each on earthen platters or dining plates ; 
cover thickly with a quart of strawberries 
that have been previously prepared with 
sugar, lay the top crusts on the fruit. If 
there is any juice left, pour it around the 
cake. This makes a delicious short-cake. 

Peaches, raspberries, blackberries and 
huckleberries can be substituted for straw¬ 
berries. Always send to the table with a 
pitcher of sweet cream. 


RECEIPTS FOR 

s Renovating Clothing 




O Wash Satin, Silk Ribbons, 
Brocade and Silk Damask. 
—Rub the materials to be 
cleaned either with yolk of 
egg or Venetian soap, wash 
them in tepid water, then rinse 
and dry. Now dissolve good 
gum-tragacanth in equal parts of wine- 
vinegar and spring water, and strain the 
solution through a cloth; it should not be 
too thick. Dip the fabric in this solution so 
that it is uniformly moistened, then squeeze 



out the gum water, and by means of a brush 
spread the fabric upon a smooth board and 
let it dry quickly in the sun or near the stove. 
But ribbons should be ironed dry. 

To Wash Silk Ribbons Mixed with 
Gold and Silver Threads.—Before wash¬ 
ing brush the ribbons with honey water to 
protect the colors. Then wash in a solution 
of beef’s gall and soap ; manipulate the rib¬ 
bon with one hand while pouring rain water 
over it with the other hand. After washing 
dip them in clear gum water, wrap them 




HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


253 


between two cloths around a mangle roller, 

\ 

and mangle them for a short time; then 
fasten some weight to one end of the ribbons 
and hang them up to dry. 

To Remove Grease from Silk. —Lay the 
silk on a table on a clean white cloth. Cover 
the damage thickly with powdered French 
chalk. On this lay a sheet of blotting paper 
and on the top a hot iron. If the grease 
does not disappear at once, repeat the 
process. 

To Remove Port Wine Stains. —If a 

glass of port wine is spilt on a dress or table¬ 
cloth, immediately dash all over it a glass of 
sherry. Rub vigorously with dry soft 
cloths. No stains will be left. 

To Clean Ladies’ Kid Boots. —Dip a 
rag in almond oil and remove all the mud 
from the boot, a piece at a time, drying as 
you go, and never leaving the leather moist. 
Polish with clean rag and more oil. If you 
dislike the dulness this process leaves, when 
quite dry polish with the palm of the hand. 
Kid is thus both cleaned and preserved. 

To Clean Colored Fabrics. —Nearly all 
colored fabrics stain the lather used to clean 
them, and that without losing their own 
brightness in any way. No article of a dif¬ 
ferent color must be plunged into a wash or 
rinse so stained, but must have fresh ones ; 
and no colored article must be rinsed in a 
blued lather. Scarlet is particularly prone 
to color a wash. 

Different colors are improved by different 
substances being used in the wash or rinse ; 
sugar of lead has the credit of fixing all 
colors when first cleaned, and may be used 
to those likely to run. To brighten colors, 
mix some ox-gall, say two pennyworth ; but 
of course the quantity must be regulated by 
the quantity of suds in the wash and rinse. 
For buff and cream-colored alpaca or cash- 
mere, mix in the wash and rinse two penny¬ 


worth of friar’s balsam for one skirt. For 
black materials, for one dress, two penny¬ 
worth of ammonia in the wash and rinse. 
For violet, ammonia or a small quantity of 
soda in the rinsing water. There are some 
violets and mauves that fade in soda. For 
green, vinegar in the rinse, in the proportion 
of two tablespoonfuls of vinegar to a quart 
of rinse. For blue, to one dress, a good 
handful of common salt in the rinse. For 
brown and gray, ox-gall. For white, blue 
the water with laundry blue. 

Dresses, mantles, shawls, opera-cloaks, 
under-skirts, waists, etc., of all sorts (the 
latter and such small articles need not be 
unpicked if the trimming is removed), articles 
embroidered with silk, self-colored or chintz- 
colored, damask curtaining, moreen and other 
woollen curtaining, may all be cleansed as 
specified so fai. 

Blankets should be cleaned in the same 
way. Pull them out well, whilst wet, at both 
sides and both ends, between two persons. 
When half dry it is a good plan to take them 
off the line and pull them again; when quite 
dry, just give them a little more pulling out. 
This keeps them open and soft. Blankets 
are not blued so much as flannels, presently 
described. Never use soda to them, and 
never rinse them in plain water or rub on 
soap. 

The dyers and cleaners have a mode of 
pressing articles which gives to many of 
them, such as damask and moreen curtaining 
and Paisley shawls, a superior appearance to 
anything that can be achieved at home ; but 
some of them will press articles at a fixed 
price for persons cleaning them at home. 

Worsted braids and fancy trimmings can 
be cleaned the same way. 

Muslin dresses, even of the most delicate 
colors, can be cleaned in ten minutes or a 
quarter of an hour, without losing their color 





254 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


Melt half a pound of soap in a gallon of 
water, empty it in a washing tub, place near 
two other large tubs of clean water, and stir 
into it one quart of bran. Put the muslin in 
the soap, turn it over and knead it for a few 
minutes; squeeze it out well, but do not 
wring it lest it get torn ; rinse it about quickly 
in the bran for a couple of minutes. Rinse 
again well for a couple of minutes in clean 
water. Squeeze out dry and hang it between 
two lines. A clear dry day should be chosen 
to wash muslin dresses; half a dozen may be 
done in this way in half an hour. The last 
rinse may be prepared the same way as the 
rinses for woollen fabrics. A colored pattern 
on a white ground must not be blued. The 
bran may here be dispensed with. 

When the dress is dry make the starch; 
for a colored muslin, white starch, and un¬ 
boiled, but made with boiling water, is best 
for muslin dresses. Stir the starch with the 
end of a wax candle. Dip the dress. Hang 
it again to dry. When dry, rinse it quickly 
and thoroughly in clear water. Hang it to 
dry again. Sprinkle and roll it up; after¬ 
wards iron it with very hot irons. Hot irons 
keep the starch stiff. This rinsing after 
starching is called clear-starching; none of 
the stiffness but much of the unsightliness of 
the starch is removed in this way. 

All kinds of white muslins, lace curtains, 
cravats, etc., maybe washed in a thick lye of 
soap, as described, well rinsed, blued and 
starched, like the muslin dresses above 
named. Use blue starch to white. White 
muslin waists should be very slightly 
blued, and the same may be observed of 
book-muslin dresses and cravats, as blue¬ 
looking muslin is very unbecoming to the 
complexion ; a slight creamy tinge is pre¬ 
ferable. 

Morning cambric dresses may be washed 
the same way as muslin dresses ; but they do 


not generally clean quite so readily, and per¬ 
haps may need rubbing a little in places that 
are soiled. 

The advantage of thus cleaning dresses in¬ 
stead of washing them is, first, if colored, the 
process is so rapid that there is not time for 
the colors to run. Secondly, the fabric is 
not rubbed, and therefore not strained and 
worn out. Thirdly, the process saves nearly 
all labor, and is so quickly done that any 
lady may manage it for herself in the absence 
of a laundry maid or a lady’s maid. 

Many ladies make a strong solution of 
sugar of lead—some put two pennyworth in 
enough cold water for one dress ; stir it well 
when dissolved, and let the dress, muslin or 
cotton, soak a couple of hours to set the 
colors before washing it the first time. It 
does not need to be repeated. Those using 
sugar of lead should be careful not to do so 
if they have any scratches, abrasions or 
wounds about their hands. 

Chintz may be cleaned in the same way as 
muslin and print dresses. 

To Clean Black Silk with Very Little 
Trouble and Expense. —Take entirely to 
pieces the dress, jacket, etc., and well shake 
each piece; then spread over a table a news¬ 
paper, or sheet of clean paper, and on it lay 
a breadth of the silk. Brush it well both 
sides with a fine soft brush—a hat brush 
would very well answer the purpose. Shake 
it again; fold together in half, and place it 
on one side of the table. In the same man¬ 
ner shake, brush and shake again each piece 
of the silk. Remove the paper and place on 
the table a clean newspaper or sheet of paper. 
Newspapers answer best; they are large and 
smooth, and probably at hand. On the 
paper again place a breadth of the silk, and 
into a clean quart pudding-basin pour a half 
pint of cold water, adding half a pint of good 
sweetened gin, which is better for the pur- 




HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


255 


pose than unsweetened, as the sugar stiffens 
the silk. These are the proportions for any 
quantity required. 

Have ready a piece of black crape or 
black merino about half a yard square ; dip 
it well into the liquid, and thoroughly wash 
jpver the best side of the silk. Be careful that 
it is well cleaned, and if possible wash it from 
edge to edge and wet it well all over. Then 
fold over the silk in half; then again, till the 
folds are the width of those of new silk. 
Place it in a clean towel, and clean each piece 
of the silk in the same manner, laying one 
piece on the other, and remembering by a 
mark which is the last piece done, as that 
this must be the last ironed. 

Let the silk lie folded in the towel until a 
large iron is well heated; but be careful that 
it is not too hot; try it first on paper, or a 
piece of old damped silk. Use two irons. 
Open the towel when the iron is ready, and 
place the piece of silk that was first cleaned 
on an old tablecloth or sheet folded thick; 
iron the wrong side quickly, from edge to 
edge, until dry. Fold the silk over lightly 
to the width of new silk, and place it on one 
end of the table until all is done. This sim¬ 
ple process stiffens, cleans and makes the 
silk look new. 

Directions for Cleaning Black Merino, 
or any Woolen Stuff, Black Cloth Jack¬ 
ets, Cloaks, or Gentlemen’s Clothes, etc. 

—Purchase at a chemist’s five cents’ worth of 
carbonate of ammonia. Place it in a clean 
quart pudding basin and pour upon it a pint 
of boiling water; cover it over with a clean 
plate and let it stand to get cold. Having 
taken entirely to pieces the dress, jacket or 
cloak, shake each piece well ; then spread a 
large newspaper over a deal table, place one 
breadth of the material upon it, and brush it 
well on both sides with a fine hard brush; 
shake it again and place it on one side of the 


table, folded in half. Brush and shake in 
the same manner each piece, folding and 
placing one piece on the other at the end of 
the table. When all are brushed, remove 
the paper and replace it with a fresh one, 
upon which place another, if thin. Lay 
upon the paper one breadth of the stuff, 
quite smooth and flat, the wrong side next 
the paper; then take a piece of black 
merino, about half a yard square ; dip it in 
the carbonate of ammonia and water (cold) 
well wet it, and wash over the stuff or 
cloth. If cloth, care must be taken to wash 
it the right way, so as to keep it smooth; 
when well washed over, fold the material in 
half, and place it in a clean towel, laying 
one piece over the other, until all are done. 
Mark the last, as that will be the last to be 
ironed. 

Let the merino, or cloth, rest in the towel 
for about an hour; then iron the wrong side, 
after placing it on a thickly folded blanket, 
or sheet, with a thin sheet of paper, old 
glazed lining out of the dress, or piece of 
linen, over the blanket or sheet. Iron each 
piece on the wrong side until quite dry, and 
have two heavy irons, one heating while the 
other is in use. Fold over the pieces, the 
width of the new merino, but be careful not 
to fold it so as to mark it sharply, especially 
cloth. Gentlemen’s clothes can thus be 
cleaned without taking to pieces, or ironing, 
unless quite convenient. Vest and coat 
collars are thus easily renovated, the collar 
is revived, grease spots and white seams 
removed. 

To Renovate Crape.— Brush the crape 
well with a soft brush, and over a wide¬ 
mouthed dish of boiling water hold tightly 
the crape, gradually stretching it over the 
dish of boiling water. If a strip of crape, it 
is very easily held tightly over the water, 
letting the piece done fall over the dish until 




256 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


all is completed. The crape will become 
firm and fit for use, every mark and fold 
being removed. White or colored crape may 
be washed and pinned over a newspaper, or 
towel, on the outside of a bed, until dry. 

Crape that has been exposed to rain or 
damp—veils especially—may be saved from 
spoiling by being stretched tightly on the 
outside of the bed with pins, until dry; and 
no crape should be left to dry without 
having been pulled into proper form. If 
black crape, lace or net is faded or turned 
brown, it may be dipped into water, colored 
with the blue bag, adding a lump of loaf- 
sugar to stiffen, and pinned onto a newspaper 
■ on a bed. 

Washing Clothes.—If pipe-clay is dis¬ 
solved in the water, the linen is thoroughly 
cleansed with half the labor and fully a 
saving of one-fourth of soap; and the 
clothes will be improved in color equally as 
if bleached. The pipe-clay softens the 
hardest water. A cent’s worth to four gal¬ 
lons of water. 

To Keep Moths from Fur and Woolen 
Clothes-—In May brush fur and woolen 
clothes, wrap them tightly up in linen, and 
put them away in drawers. Pepper or red 
cedar chips are good preservatives from 
moths, but camphor is the best. 

Washing Chintzes.—These should always 
be washed in dry weather, but if it is very 
cold it is better to dry them by the fire than 
risk spoiling the colors from freezing in the 
open air. It is better, if possible, to defer 
their washing till the weather is suitable. 

To Clean Paint.—Simmer together in a 
pipkin one pound of soft soap, two ounces 
soft pearlash, one pint of sand, and one pint 
•of table beer; to be used as soap. 

Another Way.—Grate to a fine pulp four 
potatoes to every quart of water; stir it; 
then let it settle, and pour off the liquor. 


To Wash Point Lace.—Fix the lace in 2 
frame, draw it tight and straight, make a 
warm suds of Castile soap and apply it gently 
to the lace with a fine brush; when clean on 
one side wash the other in the same manner. 
Then rinse by throwing clean water on it in 
which some alum has been dissolved. Then 
make some thin starch, apply it to the wrong 
side of the lace, and when dry, iron it on the 
same side, and pick it out with the fingers or 
a bodkin. To clean the lace, if not very dirty, 
without washing, fix it in the frame as above 
and go over it with fine bread-crumbs, and 
when done, dust out the crumbs. 

To Whiten Lace.—Iron the lace slightly, 
then fold it and sew it in a clean linen bag, 
and place this for 24 hours in pure olive oil. 
Then boil the bag in a solution of soap and 
water for 15 minutes, rinse in lukewarm 
water, and finally dip in water containing a 
small quantity of starch. Then take the lace 
from the bag and dry it stretched on pins. 

To Cleanse Feathers.—Take for every 
gallon of clean water 1 lb. of quicklime, mix 
them well together, and when the undissolved 
lime is precipitated in a fine powder pour off 
the clear lime water for use. Put the feathers 
to be cleansed in another tub and add to 
them a quantity of the clear lime water suf¬ 
ficient to cover the feathers about 3 inches 
when well immersed and stirred about 
therein. The feathers when thoroughly 
moistened will sink down and should remain 
in the lime water 3 or 4 days, after which the 
foul liquor is drawn off, the feathers rinsed 
with clean water and then dried. 

To Wash Dresses of Fast-colored Silk. 
—I. Mix 1 quart of liquid ammonia in 2*4 
gallons of soft water with sufficient soap. 
Wash the dress thoroughly in this solution 
and rinse it in running water if possible. 

II. Rub the dress with yolk of egg and 
wash it in clean lukewarm water, rinse in cold 





HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


257 


water and dry at an ordinary temperature. 
Soak for 12 hours yfc ounce gum tragacanth 
and fleabane in water; then boil to a thin 
starch, through which draw the dress, and 
iron it between two cloths until dry. 

To Make Washed Silk Glossy. —Dis¬ 
solve i ounce of gum Arabic in y gallon of 
water, and add 2 tablespoonfuls of beef’s gall 
-and ounce of fleabane seed. Boil the 
whole for a quarter of an hour, and when 
cold spread a thin coat of it on the silk with 
a sponge and smooth with a linen cloth. 

To Restore the Color of Fabrics.— 
Sponge the silk or woolen fabric with a solu¬ 
tion of sal-ammoniac in half its quantity of 
water. Then with a piece of the same 
material rub the stains until they are dry, and 
the color will be restored. 

Clark’s Wash for Carpets. —Solution I. 
Dissolve io parts of soap in 20 of water, and 
add 3/4 parts of soda and l /> each of liquid 
ammonia and spirits of wine. 

Solution IE, which is the actual cleansing 
liquid , consists of 4 parts of liquid ammonia 
and 3 of alcohol diluted with water. 

The last solution is first used, and when 
the dirt loosened by it has been removed the 
soap solution is applied. Carpets thus treated 
retrain their original colors in all their fresh- 
ness, the entire operation of washing and 
drying a large carpet requiring but 2 hours, 
and the carpet need not be taken up. 

To Remove Stains from Woollen 
Dresses. —Make a thick rubbing of soap on 
a damp nail-brush. Spread the stained part 
on a deal table. Scrub with the brush and 
a sprinkling of water till quite removed. 
Take a wet cloth and wipe off the soap. 

To Remove Ink Stains. —If spilt on a 
table-cloth or carpet, take up quickly all you 
can into a spoon, and throw it in a plate or 
saucer, or any china article which will wash 
clean, or even in emergency on stout double 

17 


brown paper. Take a rag or coarse cloth, 
dip it in cold water, and squeeze it out. 
Rub the stain with it, and beyond the stain 
on all sides, quickly and. plentifully, till every 
mark of the ink has disappeared. If very 
promptly done, no trace will remain. A 
second wet cloth may be used to finish with. 
Cloth table-covers are generally recovered 
this way. Almost any stain falling on a 
table-cloth, carpet or hearth-rug can thus be 
removed by prompt measures. 

Ink on Linen, Calico or White Muslin. 
—Immediately lay the damaged part of the 
article in plenty of milk. Immerse it well. 
Let it lie. Then rub it well. Let it lie and 
rub it alternately all day. Only very hard 
rubbing will get it out, but every vestige 
may be removed. 

To Wash Velvet.— Boil, with constant 
stirring, 2 beef-galls with some soap and 
honey in a sufficient quantity of water. 
Place the velvet upon a clean damp board 
and freely apply the above mixture with a 
rag. Then wrap the velvet around a mang¬ 
ling roller and mangle it until the dirt has 
disappeared; then draw it through clean 
water, mangle again, and then hang up. 
When half dry moisten the velvet with isin¬ 
glass dissolved in water, wrap it in a cloth, 
mangle it until dry, and raise the pile by 
rubbing with a cloth. 

Velvet , which has become hard and rough 
by rain or mud, is made soft in the following 
manner : Moisten the back of the velvet. 
Secure a hot iron with the flat smoothing 
part up and draw the moist velvet across it. 
The heat converts the water into steam 
which penetrates through the pile of the 
velvet and separates the tangled threads. 

Several Receipts for Liquid Washing 
Blue. —I. Dissolve I part of indigo-carmine 
in 10 of water and then add y 2 of gum- 
Arabic. 





253 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


II. Concentrated Liquid Washing Blue. 
Bengal indigo 2 parts, fuming sulphuric acid 
9, gum-Arabic 4, water 50. 

III. Ordinary Liqidd Washing Blue .— 
Dissolve 2 parts of indigo in 9 of fuming 
sulphuric acid and mix the solution with 350 
parts of water and 8 of gum-Arabic. 

Washing Powders.— Washing Crystal is a 
solution of borax and soda in water. 


Lustrine Alsacienne (Starch Glass).— 

consists of spermaceti, gum-Arabic, and borax 
each 1 ounces, glycerine 4 ounces > dis¬ 
tilled water 1 y 2 pints, and some sweet-scented 
essence. The mixture is used with or with¬ 
out an addition of starch. If it is to be 
mixed with starch add 4 teaspoonfuls of 
lustrine to 4 y 2 ounces of boiling starchy 
This is a standard compound. 



"j^URNITURE VARNISH.— 

j . Heat gently, with constant 
^ stirring, 8 parts of white wax, 
' 2 of rosin, and ]/ 2 of Venetian 

turpentine ; pour the mixture 
) into a glazed stone pot and 
add, while it is yet warm, 
3500 parts of rectified oil of 
turpentine. After standing for 24 hours the 
mass forms a soft, buttery substance, and is 
ready for use. The articles to be varnished 
must be carefully cleansed with soap and 
water and then dried before applying the 
varnish. The polish obtained is not quite 
as brilliant as that obtained by shellac var¬ 
nish/but has a peculiar, chaste appearance. 

Furniture Renovator. —Mix thoroughly 
olive oil, 1 pound; refined oil of amber, 1 
pound, and tincture of henna, 1 ounce. 
Keep the mixture in a well-stoppered glass 
bottle. For renovating the polish of furni- 
niture apply the mixture with a tuft of raw 
cotton and rub dry with a cotton rag. 


Liquid Polish for Silver-plated Ware. 

—Dissolve 3 to 4 drachms of cyanide of 
potassium and 8 to 10 grains of nitrate of 
silver in 4 ounces of water. Apply with a 
soft tooth-brush, wash the object thoroughly 
with water, dry with a soft linen cloth, and 
polish with a chamois skin. Neither whiting 
nor powder of any kind should be used for 
cleaning and polishing ; they only wear out 
or scratch the silver In the case of solid 
silver some precipitated chalk is allowable in. 
the solution. 

For preserving the lustre of silver or 
plated ware, when not needed for actual use 
for a considerable time, a coating of collo¬ 
dion may be employed to great advantage. 
The articles are heated and the collodion is 
carefully applied by means of a brush, so as 
to cover the surface thoroughly and uni¬ 
formly. It is used most conveniently when 
diluted with alcohol, as for photographic 
purposes. 

New Polish for Wood. — Dissolve 6 











HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


259 


pounds of shellac in about 4 to 5 gallons of 
pure alcohol. Then pour 3 y 2 ounces of 
high-grade sulphuric ether over y / 2 ounces 
of collodion cotton in a bottle, add 1 y 
ounces of camphor, stir thoroughly and add 
96 per cent, alcohol enough to completely 
dissolve the cotton. 

Then pour both solutions together and 
shake well. The polish is then rubbed in 
with an oil prepared as follows : Prepare a 
saturated solution of camphor in good oil of 
rosemary and add 1 ^ ounces of this to 2 
pounds 3 ounces of pure linseed-oil. For 
finishing, dissolve benzole in alcohol and 
dilute at pleasure, taking care to apply the 
solution as weak as practicable. 

Good Furniture Glue. —Boil the acTred 
quantity of glue with water. When suffi¬ 
ciently boiled pour it into a porcelain dish 
and rub with a pestle into a thick paste free 
from lumps. Then pour it into an earthen¬ 
ware dish, let it cool and cut it into pieces of 
desired size. When it is to be used dissolve 
2 parts of the prepared glue in 1 of ordinary 
whiskey diluted with 2 of water, and let it 
boil up once. The glue is now ready for 
use and can be kept for some time. It 
possesses extraordinary adhesive power. 

Glue for Books. —Dissolve over a mod¬ 
erate fire 12 parts of glue to 8 of water, add 
8 parts of shavings of white soap, and when 
all are dissolved, 6 of powdered alum, stir¬ 
ring the mass constantly. The' sheets of 
paper may be either dipped into this fluid or 
it is applied with a sponge. 

To Cleanse Marble Busts. —First free 
them from all dust and then wash them with 
very weak hydrochloric acid. Soap injures 
the color of the marble. 

To Cleanse Alabaster. —Rub the ala¬ 
baster carefully with shave-grass and then 
with Venetian soap and chalk, stirred into a 
paste with water. 


To Cleanse Precious Stones. —Apply 
precipitated sulphur moistened with spirit of 
wine, and rub with a very soft brush. 

To Cleanse and Beautify Old Oak 
Furniture.—I. Wash the furniture, in case 
it has any grease stains, with warm beer. 

II. Boil wax and sugar in beer and rub 
the furniture with this by means of a brush. 
When dry rub until the article shows the 
desired lustre. 

Brass —Is cleansed by rubbing it with 
spirits of ammonia and vinegar, and then with 
blotting paper soaked in spirit of wine. 

Silver —Is cleansed by placing the articles 
for a few minutes in a boiling hot solution of 
tartar, and then rubbing them with soft 
leather. 

Polishing Powder for Silverware, etc. 

—Mix intimately 4 parts of washed pipe¬ 
clay and 1 of purified tartar. 

Gold —Is cleansed with Paris red and soft 
leather. 

To Polish Slate (Magnus’ Patent).— 
Mix intimately 7 parts of linseed oil, 1 of 
ground ochre, 3 of tar oil. and 1 of asphal 
turn. Apply the mixture to the surface of 
the slate by means of a brush, then submit 
the article to a heat of about 200° F., when 
it is cooled off and polished with pumice stone 
and tripoli. 

To Clean Dirty or Stained Furniture. 

—If the furniture is in a bad state, but not 
stained, it will be sufficient to cleanse it by 
well washing with spirits of turpentine, and 
afterward polishing with linseed oil colored 
with alkanet root. When, however, the fur¬ 
niture is stained or inky, it should be washed 
with sour beer or vinegar, warm ; afterward 
rubbing the stains with spirit of salts rubbed 
on with a piece of rag. The wood may then 
be polished with linseed oil colored with 
alkanet root, or with beeswax dissolved in 
turpentine, with a little copal varnish or resin. 






260 


HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


To Render New Mahogany Like Old.— 

This is of service in the cases of furniture 
repaired, or when lacquered handles have 
been changed for mahogany ones. Soap and 
water will darken to some extent; but if 
darker is required, use oil; or for very dark, 


lime-water. This makes old furniture look 
like new. 

To Clean Lacquered Brass-work of Fur¬ 
niture.—Wash in warm water, using a soft 
rag. If the work will not clean by this means, 
it mus>t be relacquered. 



HE COMPLEXION.— A daily 
bath is an adjunct to the beauty 
of the skin, and so is every¬ 
thing that conduces to health, 
such as early hours, avoid¬ 
ance of close, crowded rooms, 
a daily walk, pure air and 
suitable diet. Too poor and too rich diet 
injure the skin equally. 

Care should be taken not to tan or freckle 
the skin. A black veil should not be worn 
in sunny weather. It is well not to wash 
the face too frequently; it should be made 
clean before retiring to rest at night, that 
nothing may obstruct the free action of the 
perspiration, and that, with the morning 
ablutions, should suffice. Of one thing be 
very careful; never wash the face when you 
are heated, or soon after walking or dancing, 
especially in cold water. Drinking cold 
water, also, at such times, is greatly injurious. 
Doing either is well known to cause a per¬ 
manent discoloration of a frightful descrip¬ 
tion. Tight lacing and tight boots are also 
sometimes the cause of a red nose or a skin 
disease. 

Rose water is harmless to the skin, and 
sulphur is frequently beneficial. A wash of 
rose water and flowers of sulphur may be 
used when there is any disfigurement of the 


skin, such as we have just indicated. First 
wash the face clean, shake the bottle, and 
bathe the face at night for ten minutes. Let 
it dry unwiped. But unless there is any 
cause do not use any preparation ; let well 
alone. 

It is pleasant, after all, to think that the 
finest beautifiers are within the reach ot 
every one, and are such simple cosmetics as 
cold water, fresh air, and temperate habits. 

In proportion as we have endeavored to 
prove how small a part the features in them¬ 
selves play as to the higher purposes of a 
face—namely, its identity and moral charac¬ 
ter—we have increased the responsibility of 
every one who carries a face as to the impres> 
sion it ought to create. This responsibility 
of course, extends equally to man as to 
woman; but a larger sphere of it belongs to 
the latter. With her is associated a separate 
idea, that as beauty is proper to her, the 
loves and the graces are felt to reside natur¬ 
ally in a woman’s countenance, but to be 
quite out of place in a man’s. His face is 
formed to be clean, and may be allowed to be 
picturesque—but it is a woman’s place to be 
beautiful. 

Beauty of some kind is so much the attri¬ 
bute of the sex, that a woman can hardly 
be said to feel herself a woman who has not, 






HELPS FOR THE HOUSEKEEPER. 


at one time of her life at all events, felt her¬ 
self to be fair. Beauty confers an education 
of its own, and that always a feminine one. 
Most celebrated beauties have owed their 
highest charms to the refining education 
which their native ones have given them. 
It was the wisdom as well as the poetry of 
the age of chivalry that it supposed all 
women to be beautiful, and treated them as 
such. 

A woman is not fully furnished for her 
part in life whose heart has not occasionally 
swelled with the sense of possessing some 
natural abilities in the great art of pleasing, 
opening to her knowledge secrets of strength, 
wonderfully intended to balance her muscu¬ 
lar, or—if it may be—her general weakness. 
And herein we see how truly this attribute 
belongs to woman alone. Man does not 
need such a consciousness, and seldom has it 
without rendering himself extremely ridicu- 
jbus; while to a woman it is one of the 
chief weapons in her armory. 

Eau de Cologne.—An excellent form of 
eau de Cologne may be thus prepared: Take 
two drachms of the seeds of the lesser car¬ 
damon, and put them into a still with two 
quarts of rectified spirits of wine, and add 
twenty-four drops of each of the following 
oils: bergamot, lemon, orange, neroli, rose¬ 
mary and cedrat; allow them to remain for 
a few days, and then distill three pints of 
perfume. Sometimes a stronger preparation 
is made by employing half the quantity of 
spirit to the same quantity of materials. This 
preparation may also be made by omitting 
the seeds, and dissolving the oils in the spirit 
without distillation. In this case the perfume 
will be improved by allowing the eau de 
Cologne , when made, to remain at rest in a 


2(51 

cool place, such as a dry wine-cellar, for two 
or three months before being used. 

Cosmetic Wash Powder.—Mix 400 parts 
of pulverized Castile soap, 33 of dry carbon¬ 
ate of sodium, 133 of orris root, 200 of bran 
of almonds, 3 of oil of bergamot, 1 of oil of 
lemon and ^ of oil of cloves. A small 
quantity of this powder added to water gives 
to it a lather of an agreeable odor which 
cleanses and softens the skin. 

Held’s Washing Powder for the Hands* 
—Mix intimately fine wheat flour 500 parts, 
ordinary pulverized soap 125, finely pulver¬ 
ized orris root 33, oil of bergamot 23^, and 
keep this mixture in a well-closed jar. 

In using it take 1 or 2 spoonfuls of the 
powder, mix it to a thin paste with water and 
rub the hands with this for some time, then 
wash them in clean water and dry them 
thoroughly. 

Oriental Rouge.—Stir finely pulverized 
orris root into water and strain it several 
times through fine linen. The powder re¬ 
maining in the linen is dried and preserved 
in a glass jar. In using the powder apply a 
little of it to the part to be rouged and rub 
it in with the hand for a few minutes. The 
skin will become red during the process, ac¬ 
companied with a burning sensation, but this 
ceases in a short time. 

Paris Powderfor Beautifying the Com¬ 
plexion.—Steep a quantity of rice in pure 
clean water. Change the water every day 
for fourteen days until the rice is so soft that 
it can be easily crushed. Then pour off all 
the water and stir the rice into a white, milky 
fluid. Strain this through a hair sieve or a 
coarse cloth, let the fluid settle and dry the 
fine flour gained in this manner, and finally 
mix it with some pulverized soda. 







Good Health 


AND 



How to Preserve It 




EGARD your health as 
something of vital 
importance. To 
maintain it is not 
only essential t o 
long life and happi¬ 
ness, but also to a 
high order of mind and morals. 
An Arabian proverb says : “He 
who has health has hope ; and 
he who has hope has every¬ 


thing. 


“ If strong is the frame 


of the mother,” says another 
proverb, “ the son will give 
laws to the people.” Emerson 
says, “the first wealth is 
health.” It is easier to prevent disease than 
to cure it. To this end we must, of course, 
know the conditions necessary for the posses¬ 
sion and preservation of health. 

The agencies and influences to be spoken 
of in this connection are air, water, food, 
light, and the other forms of force and 
matter which determine the change of tissue 
in the human system. Beside these is the 
influence of environment, varied by indi¬ 
vidual circumstances, such as climate, soil, 
weather, habitation, occupation and clothing. 

Health as well as disease may be inherited 
by children from their parents. The import¬ 
ance of conforming to the rules of hygiene 
must not, therefore, be judged merely from 
the individual standpoint. Such conformity 
262 



will be valuable not only to parents, but also 
to their offspring for generations, and, if 
universal, will enable us, we may claim, 
gradually to improve the whole human race. 

The first important principle by which he 
must be governed, who wishes to enjoy a 
long and healthful life, is that cf securing a 
normal and regular continuance of tissue- 
change throughout his body. This tissue 
metamorphosis, as it is called, consists in 
the constantly proceeding waste of tissue 
and its regeneration. That these may pro¬ 
gress freely, the following rules must be 
complied with : 

Wholesome Food and Air. 

To furnish a sufficient supply of normal, 
healthy blood, the food taken must be 
wholesome and abundant, and the air inhaled 
must contain the required amount of oxygen, 
while those constituents of the blood which 
represent the unavoidable tissue waste must 
be readily and constantly eliminated. 

The circulation of the blood must be free 
and rapid, so that it may constantly pass 
through all parts of the body, in order that 
tissue waste may be eliminated, and that 
new matter may be distributed to the tissues 
in need of it, where new constituents are 
ready to be taken up. 

Activity must alternate with rest in order 
to maintain tissue change and regeneration 
at the proper standard. 









HEALTH AND BEAUTY 


































































































































































































































































































264 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 



OUR house should be so situ¬ 
ated that there is an outfall for 
the waste water and sewage ; 
and it should also be exposed 
fairly to the sun. The neces¬ 
sity for the first is obvious ; a 
word about the latter may not be out of 
place. The effects of cutting off the light 
are seen in the blanched condition of vege¬ 
tables deprived of light, or even more still in 
the debilitated appearance of those parts of a 
plant which are removed from it. What is 
more to the point is the effect of sunlight 
upon the human frame. 

This has been seen in the effects upon the 
health of residents in different portions of the 
same barracks. The largest portion of ill- 
health was always found in those sections 
which were furthest removed from light and 



sunshine. The companies were changed 
back and forwards, but the illness always 
stuck to the dark and shaded barracks. The 
effect of the glancing sunlight is well seen in 
the convalescent, who seems positively to 
absorb strength and spirit by being bathed 
in the invigorating light. 

The next matter of importance in the 
selection of a site is with regard to the nature 
of the soil. This is important from several 
points of view. It has been abundantly 
demonstrated that “ dampness of soil is an 
important cause of phthisis to the population 
living on the soil,” and the improvement 
produced by draining the subsoil in lessening 
the amount of consumption is marked. 
Where the soil is too damp this must be met, 
as far as possible, by careful drainage of the 
house and surroundings. On sand or gravel 
a house stands dry and warm, provided this 
subsoil drainage be efficient. On clay soils 


it is more difficult to avoid dampness, on 
account of the lack of absorption. 

Another point to be attended to is that of 
the actual warmth of different soils. Some 
absorb heat much more readily than others, 
and are drier and consequently warmer to 
the feet. Soils give off their heat much more 
rapidly than they absorb it, and so cool at 
night very markedly. Sand, with some lime, 
forms the soil which absorbs heat most per¬ 
fectly, then sand alone, and lastly clay—the 
heavier the colder. Thus in cold countries 
clay soils induce catarrhs, rheumatism, 
phthisis, etc., and sandy sails are much to be 
preferred. In hot countries sands are too 
warm for health and comfort unless covered 
with grass. 


Rubbisn and Disease. 

Of all the horrible insanitary arrangements 
devised for the direct production of disease 
and ill-health the most diabolical are rubbish 
foundations. “Rubbish shot here” is the 
herald of disease and death. It is a flagrant 
violation of all sanitation. The rubbish 
consists in every case, more or less, of decay - 
ing organic matter, animal and vegetable. 
This decomposes, and in doing so either 
evolves directly active poisons, or forms a 
capital breeding-place for them. The houses 
are notoriously unhealthy, for when they are 
built upon rubbish the engendering of disease 
is converted from a probability to a certainty. 

Not only is it most unwise to actually 
bring poison-bearing rubbish to form founda¬ 
tions for houses, but every old drain, cess¬ 
pool, and pit should be carefully cleared 
away. In the midst of stately piles of build¬ 
ings certain houses have been known to be 
infested with typhoid fever as it were smittea 




GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


265 


with pestilence, where old unremoved cess¬ 
pools remaining and poisoning the inmates 
have been discovered, and their removal has 
been followed by the cessation of the local 
plague. It is of vital importance that the 
I foundation of the house be free from poison¬ 
ous material. 

Pipes and Ventilation. 

Having seen that the site is not infected 
with the material for a future host of doctors’ 
and undertakers’ bills, it is important to 
attend to the removal of the refuse and waste 
from the house, and to protect it from damp. 
Drains should not, if possible, traverse a 
house, and when this is unavoidable, glazed 
earthenware pipes, laid in concrete or cement, 
carefully sealed up at the joints, and then 
covered by cement, should be used; and 
protected at the walls by relieving arches, to 
secure them from the effect of settlement. 
Ventilation of them should be provided at 
their entrance and exit, and access pipes 
should admit of ready entrance to them. 
They should also be periodically flushed, so 
as to secure them against accumulations in 
their interior. 

To protect the house against damp it is 
necessary that a damp-proof course be laid 
over the whole of the foundation. This 
should consist of hard-glazed earthenware 
tiles, or slate laid in cement. In addition to 
this a dry area around the main wall is 
highly desirable. This is furnished by hav¬ 
ing an outer wall around the main wall, 
leaving a space betwixt them. 

Having so secured the foundation, the 
outer walls may be protected against the 
damp produced by driving rain either by 
covering them with slate, or a waterproof 
composition. Much of the damp-absorbing 
power of walls depends upon the nature of 
the materials used in their erection, and soft 


porous materials are most objectionable. 
The same may be said of floors ; which 
should always be of wood. 

Good Drainage. 

The walls of the houses should be sub¬ 
stantial, and stout enough to protect the 
dweller against external damp; in which 
respect houses being built in towns and 
suburbs are lamentably defective. The roof 
should be well united, and the rain should 
be collected into sufficient and well-jointed 
spouting, and carefully carried off either into 
cisterns or drains. If the former they should 
be efficiently drained, so as to secure the 
removal of the surplus water. Defective 
spouts and the saturation of walls with rain¬ 
water are efficient factors in the production 
of disease ; and a damp house is inimical to 
health. 

The spouting should converge to one or 
more down-pipes which run from the roof 
into the drains. These down-pipes serve 
also another useful purpose. They serve to 
ventilate the drains and carry the sewer gas 
away from the house, and out into the air; 
so relieving the house from the danger of 
sewer-gas escaping from the water-closets, 
etc., and poisoning the house. 

Workingmen often fall sick because they 
do not live rationally and do not breathe 
sufficiently pure air. Their homes are in 
many instances unhealthy, they are apt to 
neglect cleanliness, and for the most part 
they do not eat proper food. A workingman 
who follows out sensibly the rules we have 
given will find himself better off, without any 
additional expense, than his fellows. 

The most healthful occupations are those 
which require an outdoor life, or which are 
followed at least in a fresh, pure air. Pre¬ 
eminent among these may be named garden¬ 
ing, farming and cattle-raising. Of course 








M 9lm 

;; gr-tH'j 


' MB 



READY FOR THE TENNIS COURT 



























































































































































GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


267 


such a rule has some exceptions, and espe¬ 
cially in a country like ours, where thousands 
of acres of virgin soil are broken every year, 


the exhalations from the ground, to which 
we trace fevers, cannot be avoided. Yet 
prevention is always better than cure. 




Abupdapce 

S HE next point to consider about 

the house is its air supply. 
This is a point of no second¬ 
ary importance. A free sup- 
- ply of air is necessary to the 
wants of the system, and that 
” air must possess several re¬ 

quisites : it must be pure and free from hurt¬ 
ful constituents, and be furnisned in good 
quantity. 

Air is a mechanical composition of nitro¬ 
gen and oxygen, the oxygen being about 21 
^>er cent, by volume, and in addition to this 
3 parts per thousand of carbonic acid gas. 
Water in the form of vapor, and traces of 
ammonia, may almost be regarded as nor¬ 
mal constituents of the atmosphere. The 
oxygen is the essential element. 

Oxygen in an active condition is termed 
ozone. The consumption of this ozone by 
the respiration of animated creatures and the 
combustion of fires and flames, renders the 
air of towns much less invigorating than that 
of the open country or the ocean. Re¬ 
breathed air in close ill-ventilated rooms 
leads to a sense of lethargy and depression, 
not unfrequently combined with headache, 
as consequences of the imperfect removal 
of the carbonic acid, etc., and the absence of 
active oxygen. The quantity of oxygen is 
sensibly diminished in the air of towns. 
The amount of carbonic acid varies under 
different circumstances, but not very mark¬ 
edly in the open air, where it never reaches 
i per cent. 


o j" Fresl) Air 

Air to be pure must contain a normal 
proportion of its constituents ; it ceases to 
be so when some are present in excess or 
are deficient. It becomes impure by the 
addition of foreign matters, either sclid and 
merely suspended in the air, or gaseous and 
diffused through it. The suspended matters 
borne by the air by which we are chiefly 
disturbed are the products of imperfect com¬ 
bustion, or smuts. They are the nuisance 
of every large town, especially in dark, dull 
weather. They blow in through the finest 
crevices, and settle everywhere. 

Rank Impurities. 

In certain states of the weather, the pro¬ 
ducts of imperfect combustion form fogs, 
which are smoke clouds. The presence of 
these smuts in a condition of the finest sub¬ 
division is then readily demonstrated by the 
expectoration ; the expectorated mucus is 
dark and inky from the particles arrested and 
detained by the mucous lining of the air 
tubes, and drawn in by the respiration. 
Through the fog the noon-day sun appears 
as through a piece of smoked glass ; it is 
really seen though a smoke-laden atmos¬ 
phere. 

But in addition there are vegetable seeds, 
spores, and germs ; low forms of animal 
life, as bacteria ; products of animal life and 
pus-cells, especially in the air of hospital 
wards ; particles of fabrics, cotton and wool; 
and at times mineral matter, as sand, form¬ 
ing in certain regions and clouds, the deadly 








2(58 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


simoom which the Arabs dread. Conta¬ 
gious particles, though too minute to be 
recognizable by the most powerful micro¬ 
scope, or detected by the subtlest analysis, 
are borne in the air, and their presence de¬ 
monstrated by their effects. 

The odor of plants is due to minute par¬ 
ticles of solid matter which are wafted off the 
plants, and bear the characteristics of each. 
The rose has its odor, and so have the 
violet and the woodbine, they are distinct 
and recognizable ; but they have never been 
seen by the microscope, any more than has 
scarlatinal poison ; no chemistry can deter¬ 
mine their composition, which is as unknown 
as that of the poison of typhoid fever. 

Malarial or marsh poison cannot with cer¬ 
tainty be referred to the class of suspended 
agents, possibly it belongs to the gaseous 
division. Organic matter has been found in 
the dew in the malarial districts. But there 
exists no doubt as to the existence of ma¬ 
larial poison, and much is known about it, 
though its presence has never been demon¬ 
strated by any other means than its results. 
Probably fever-poisons are not gaseous but 
solid. 

The gaseous impurities of air arise var¬ 
iously from the body itself, from the earth, 
and from manufactories. The carbonic acid 
which is given off by respiration is a com¬ 


Best Ale bloods 

HE amount of air which each 
person requires is that amount 
which shall not allow of an 
accumulation of carbonic acid 
beyond a certain point. This 
gas exists normally in the 
air, but below four parts per 
thousand; an atmosphere containing i per 



mon cause of air-contamination. Its excess 
in the body is always accompanied by a 
deficiency of oxygen, and the effects of each 
are with difficulty separated. 

In “the black-hole of Calcutta” and the 
well known case of the “ Londonderry,” 
these two were combined, and the mortality 
in each case was fearful; in the first 123 
died out of a total of 146, in the latter out 
of a total of 150 no less than 70 perished, 
simply from lack of pure air. The amount 
of oxygen may be reduced from 23 per 
cent, to 20, in close ill-ventilated places; 
and such diminution is not only deleterious 
and dangerous if carried too far, but if only 
existing to a lesser degree, it is baneful and 
injurious to the health ; causing great loss 
of vital force and leaving the person predis¬ 
posed to disease. 

Emanations from the earth of an injurious 
character generally take their origin in de¬ 
caying organic matter, and form zymotic 
poisons, to be considered hereafter; but 
sometimes gases are exhaled, as the choke 
damp of mines, sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
carbonic acid. Earth itself is a good disin¬ 
fectant, and organic matter efficiently buried 
rarely causes any troublesome consequences. 

Air is extensively contaminated by manu¬ 
factories and chemical works, and in more 
limited areas by fumes in certain trades. 


or Yepbilabioi) 

cent, is odious and instinctively avoided. The 
sick require more air than the healthy, and 
in hospitals even 3500 cubic feet per hour 
per head has not proved sufficient to prevent 
the peculiar offensive odor. 

Now it is obvious that the mere cubic 
space afforded to each person will not in 
itself meet the question. The rate at which 









GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


209 


the air is renewed is a most important factor. 
If there are 200 cubic feet of space for each 
person, it is obvious that the air must be 
renewed ten times per hour in order to afford 
each person 2000 cubic feet of air in that 
time. If the space for each person kg 400 
feet, the air need only be renewed five times 
per hour. 

The rate with which air passes into and 
through a room involves the question of 
draughts. In order to keep a small room 
efficiently ventilated, the movement of air 
must be so rapid as to cause a draught, and 
draughts are common exciting causes of ill¬ 
ness. Large rooms are better than small 
ones, because the air has not to be so fre¬ 
quently renewed, and draughts are thus 
avoided; the number of persons being alike 
in each case. When the rate of change of 
air in a room exceeds three or four times per 
hour it becomes disagreeable, and warmed 
air is requisite. 

Natural Ventilation. 

This is achieved by the readiness with 
which gases diffuse themselves through the 
atmosphere by winds and the circulation of 
air currents. Currents are largely produced 
by changes of temperatures : as seen in the 
sea breeze of the morning and the land 
breeze at night, the air coming off the heated 
land in the evening and returning again when 
the land has been cooled by night. Artificial 
currents exist betwixt the heated room and 
the cold air outside ; the hot air escaping out 
and the cold air coming in. The rushing of 
the heated air up the chimney or stove causes 
a draught to the fire and consequently venti¬ 
lation of the room. 

The efficient ventilation of a room is so 
commonly productive of cold draughts, that 
various contrivances have been devised to 
obviate these unpleasant consequences. Yen- j 


tilators have been put in the roof or ceiling, 
from the known tendency of heated air to 
escape upwards, and form the usual and 
common means of securing a change of air 
in apartments. These ventilators often form 
shafts passing through the upper stories and 
emerging at the roof. These ventilators are 
good when they are efficient ; but it is not 
always easy to know when the ventilation 
through them is active. 

How to Detect an Air Current. 

The plan of having a strip of paper or 
rag so hung as to be visible, and by its flut¬ 
tering telling of an air current, and by its 
motionless condition informing us when the 
air current is arrested, is one which might be 
more generally adopted. The incoming cur¬ 
rent of air is and should be always directed 
upward toward the ceiling, so that the cold 
draught may not strike the inmates. 

There are many plans in vogue for the 
production of this end. One is to have either 
a glass louvre inserted instead of the top 
centre pane, or to have the pane cut into 
strips, which may be separated or closed by 
a cord. Another plan is to have the panes 
doubled, the incoming air being warmed in 
the spaces betwixt the panes, the course of 
the current being also thereby broken. A 
third plan is to have a wire screen at the top 
of the window, which takes the place of the 
window when it is drawn down. 

But no plan will ever be so effective with 
single windows as are those where the win¬ 
dows are double. This is a luxury to which 
most people are averse, and yet the double 
windows deaden sound, as well as permit of 
an ample space where the air can be warmed 
and its current broken betwixt the windows. 
A pane can be divided into slips in the outer 
window at the bottom, and a louvre put in 
instead of a pane at the top of the inner win- 






27a 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


dow, and then the rate of entrance can be 
thoroughly regulated, and a perfect ventila¬ 
tion be established without draughts of cold 
air. 

The effect of double windows is well seen 
in hospitals, and for the sake of this improved 
ventilation and the deadening of sound they 
should be introduced into banks, business 
houses and hospitals—the last especially— ' 


the open air. At other times the ventilator 
can be carried through a shaft to the roof, 
and then the shaft can be surmounted by a 
wire cap. A proper cap rotates and turns its 
back to the wind and the rain> and in order 
that it may do so, it should be well balanced 
and rotate easily. 

It is almost impossible to consider the 
two subjects separately, as fire is used for 



A HOME ADMIRABLY ADAPTED FOR VENTILATION, DRAINAGE AND HEALTH. 


as well as into private houses ; and their 
introduction would be conducive to health 
and comfort. 

An excellent plan of ventilation is to have 
the interspace betwixt the ceiling of one floor 
and the flooring of the story above, itself well 
ventilated; and to allow the air carried out 
of a room by a ventilation in the ceiling to 
pass into this interspace, and thence out into 


both purposes—indeed, cannot very easily be 
used for one without involving the other. 
The combustion of the fire draws a current 
of air towards it in addition to the action of 
the shaft or chimney, and by their combined 
action a good change of air is maintained. 

The open fire is much more efficient as a 
ventilating than as a warming agent, and is 
almost the reverse of the stove, with its heat>= 






































GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


271 


giving surface. The chimney acts as a ven¬ 
tilating shaft, even when the fire is not burn¬ 
ing, though the ventilation is not unobjec¬ 
tionable when the air current comes down 
the chimney. 

Great Waste of Heat. 

In an ordinary fireplace the waste of heat 
is enormous, and the statement that the ac¬ 
tual waste of fuel is greatest in private houses 
is well founded. No less than seven-eighths 
of the heat passes up the chimney; and even 
with reflecting backs, etc., the waste is ex¬ 
cessive. At the same time such a fireplace 
and chimney will ventilate a room capable of 
holding from three to six persons, as the 
quantity of air passing up it is equal to from 
6000 to 20,000 cubic feet per hour. If the 
room is small and the fire brisk, the passage 
of the air through the room is keenly felt; 
and you are roasted on the side turned to the 
fire while the other is chilled by the cold air 
which rushes in behind. 

Large rooms, with an equal amount of fire, 
are much more comfortable than small ones ; 
provided that the large rooms are not un¬ 
necessarily airy and draughty. With the 
ordinary fireplace then the room is rather 
ventilated than warmed; and when the room 
is too well closed against the entrance of the 
cold air by chinks in the doorways and win¬ 
dows, the chimney has down draughts, and 
the cold air rushes dowm as well as the heated 
air mounts. The diffusion will take place 
somehow. 

Many have been the inventions to render 
fires more useful as warming agents. One 
of the best contains an air chamber at the 
back, through which the air enters the 
room, and is at the same time so heated as 
to no longer cause a cold draught. Another 
is a cottage grate of fire clay, also with an 
air chamber. Less complicated plans of 


causing the back of the grate to lean forward 
and so throw back the heat into the room, 
have been more or less adopted. The de¬ 
sirable fireplace, of simple yet effective con¬ 
struction, has still to be discovered. 

Several forms of stoves have been in¬ 
vented to economize fuel, or to utilize the 
heat produced. Two favorite forms have 
the air introduced beneath the stove and 
then given off, warm flanges of metal heat¬ 
ing the air as it passes off. A dish of water 
gives to the heated air the requisite and 
desirable moisture. 

The “ Sun-Burner.” 

Some gas stoves warm the air ere giving 
it off into the room, moisture being furnished 
by a water dish. But all stoves are objec¬ 
tionable, for while heating the air, they give 
it an unwholesome dryness. The same may 
be said of furnaces. 

Another method of utilizing flame as a 
ventilator is to have the gas lights so 
arranged in the ceiling as to form the “sun- 
burner,” and by adding a shaft to this 
burner the already respired and vitiated air 
is drawn towards the shaft and passes away 
out. This forms an efficient ventilator. 

But gas is an objectionable heating agent; 
and the arrangement must be very perfect 
to admit of its being used without actual 
detriment. The products of gas consump¬ 
tion are very disagreeable as well as dele¬ 
terious, as every one knows who has been 
where gas is largely burned either as gas¬ 
light, or in the “ clinker made-up grates,” 
which, when red hot, somewhat resemble an 
ordinary fire. The air is heavy, unplesant, 
and laden with the products of combustion 
unless the ventilation be very perfect. 

Another plan of producing warmth and 
ventilation is that of combined hot water 
pipes and air shafts. The plan of warming 







272 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


a room with hot water pipes has long been 
in vogue, and in many instances it is an 
excellent and efficient mode ; and it has also 
been proposed to have around the water 
pipes air shafts, so that the air might be 
heated by the contact with the hot water pipe. 

This air shaft along the hot water pipe 
would surround the room, and by many 
minute perforations admit of the warmed air 
entering the chamber. Then, by means of 
propulsion, the air could be forced into the 
room at a fixed rate; and by a modification 
of the machinery its rate of entrance could 
be checked when desirable. Propulsion of 
air into rooms dates back to the year 1734, 
and the idea of warming it ere its introduc¬ 
tion into the room has existed since 1713. 


Extraction of air by a fan is used in some 
large buildings to maintain a practically 
sufficient ventilation. Whenever hot pipes 
are used to warm rooms it must not be for- 
, gotten that there is no longer the air current 
established and maintained by an open flame ; 
and special means must be taken to main¬ 
tain the ventilation. The tendency to ex¬ 
clude fresh air from rooms is only too deep- 
rooted, and the more effectually most of the 
chinks in the room are closed the more 
active will be the draught from the unclosed 

N 

chinks. If all the chinks are closed the 
atmosphere of the room will become very 
vitiated; and all the consequences of bad 
ventilation will be artifically secured. Sick¬ 
ness is sure to result. 




Tl)e Water 



E will now proceed to ex¬ 
amine the question of 
water supply: a question 
not less important than 
those hitherto discussed. 
Water, which consists of 
a chemical combination of 
hydrogen and oxygen, is essential to the life 
of every living thing, animal and vegetable. 
The circulation of water, bearing certain 
matters with it, is as important to the life 
and growth of vegetables as it is to animals ; 
and both alike die if deprived of it. Its sup¬ 
ply to crowded populations in towns has been 
ever most important; and magnificent sys¬ 
tems of water supply characterized many 
extinct civilizations, as well as forming one 
of the most important subjects which engage 
our attention at the present. 

The aqueducts of ancient Rome and Peru 
put in the shade the punier efforts of more 


recent times. The dark ages were dark 
indeed, and the darkness was most marked 
in matters sanitary; and we are but slowly 
recognizing the importance of our water 
supply. 

The amount of water required by each 
individual per diem varies from seventy to 
a hundred ounces: one third of which is 
contained in our articles of food. From 
half a gallon to a gallon daily is further 
required for cooking purposes. 

A varying quantity is consumed by differ¬ 
ent individuals for the purposes of abultion ; 
more especially among those who have their 
cold tub every morning. Another quantity 
is consumed for the water-closet. The cab 
culation made for towns is usually that of 
thirty gallons per head ; ten for personal and 
domestic purposes ; ten for municipal pur¬ 
poses ; and ten for trade and manufacturing 
purposes. If the water supply exceed this 







GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


273 


it is almost profuse; if it fall much below it, 
it is insufficient. 

There is much difference in the water 
derived from various sources ; and it requires 
different treatment accordingly to make it 
wholesome. Rain-water requires to be 
stored in cisterns, covered in and protected 
from heat and cold. Being fairly pure and 
soft, it should not be stored in leaden cisterns. 
The waste water pipe of cisterns should 
never pass from the cistern to the drain, or 
sewer, unbroken. 

Best Sources of Water. 

River water is more or less pure, ac¬ 
cording to the soil and watershed from 
which it is derived. If from mountains, it 
is usually clear and fairly pure. It be¬ 
comes muddy after heavy rains, especially 
in arable districts; and more in spring and 
autumn, when the surface is disturbed by 
the plough. The water which falls as rain 
and percolates through the earth becomes 
highly charged with carbonic acid, which 
makes it fresh and sparkling. Where it 
runs over lime or chalk it becomes ex¬ 
tremely hard by taking up carbonate of 
lime. This hardness is removed by boil¬ 
ing, the lime salts encrusting the kettle or 
pan; and in persons liable to vesical cal¬ 
culus and gravel, such boiling is very 
desirable. Exposure to air also relieves 
hardness and is always desirable. 

Lake water is usually pure, and from the 
-exposure to the air the water is soft. When 
the washings of certain districts pass into it, 
it may be highly charged with organic mat¬ 
ter, especially when it comes from mossy 
moorland or bogs. 

In mountainous districts of the older geo¬ 
logical formations the water is commonly 
very pure. 

From wherever water is collected, it is 


usually conducted into large waterworks, and 
there exposed to the air in settling ponds, 
where any impurities of a solid character may 
fall; after which it should be filtered through 
filtering beds, and then distributed through 
pipes to the different divisions of towns. 
According to the original water, and the care 
with which it is manipulated, is the purity of 
the product. The softer and purer it is, the 


more deleteriously does water act upon lead, 
either in pipes or cisterns. 

Water varies in purity according to its 
source and the geological formation from 
which it is derived. 

From granite and metamorphic rocks it is 
good and pure. From soft sandstone it 
varies much, and maybe very impure. From 
sand it varies much, as does also water from 
gravel. From chalk it is good but hard, and 



18 


























































































274 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


improves by boiling. From clay it is usually 
surface water and impure. From surface 
and subsoil it is often objectionable. From 
marshes it is highly charged with organic 
matter. Accordingly as these different 
waters meet, will be the river water which 
forms the sum total. 

Water is also derived from springs and 
wells, and varies according to the position 
of the springs and wells and the geological 
formations with which they are connected. 

Failure of Artesian Wells. 

Artesian wells are wells sunk to a great 
depth ; that of Grenelle in Paris is 1800 feet 
deep, and that of Kissingen in Bavaria is 
1878 feet in depth. The water from these 
wells varies much in quality, and in some 
districts the quantity is affected by drought. 
As a source of water supply for large towns 
they are now abandoned, being fc nd in¬ 
sufficient. 

Water is also procured by distillation, and 
by this means is produced in the purest state. 
It is, though bright to the eye, not palatable, 
but it is indispensable for chemical and med¬ 
ical purposes. On a large scale fresh water 
is now distilled from sea water for the use of 
ships and troops, especially where the coast 
water is very bad. The water from the con¬ 
densing apparatus of engines is very pure 
and soft, capital for ablution, but not a pleas¬ 
ant beverage. 

There are various methods for the purifica¬ 
tion of water. The chief are distillation, 
boiling, subsidence and filtration. 

Distillation means the conversion of water 
into steam, and then recondensation by cool¬ 
ing, the impurities being left behind. It is 
efficient; and, as we have just seen, useful 
for some purposes. 

Boiling is requisite to destroy minute 
organisms and germs ; and it destroys those 


dangerous and active poisons on which many 
of our fevers depend. It also precipitates, 
lime, for which purpose it is much used. 

Subsidence permits of the settling down of 
impurities, and is often useful. By the ex¬ 
posure to air water is much softened, and 
the settling-bed serves two ends. 

Water Should be Filtered. 

Filtration is far the most important matter 
from a sanitary point of view, and is the 
favorite method for purifying water for use. 
Water may be both boiled and filtered, after 
which it is very pure, and free from all con¬ 
tamination and source of danger. Filtration 
is carried on on a large scale by many water 
companies, and their filter beds are elabor¬ 
ately prepared. The rate of descent should 
not be more than six inches per hour, nor 
the filtration exceed 700 gallons per square 
yard each twenty-four hours. But this rate 
is often exceeded. There are always spare 
filter beds to admit of the beds being cleaned 
and renewed. 

Filtration on a small scale is now the rule 
in most well-managed establishments, and 
private manipulation is not superfluous with 
the best water. It is very useful in the 
country, where the water is not of first-class, 
quality ; and that means very generally. 

Filters, however, like most things, will 
not go on forever, and attention from time 
to time is requisite. All filters, after a time, 
become clogged up, and have, therefore, to 
be taken to pieces and thoroughly cleansed ; 
or, if this cannot easily be done, they may 
be purified by passing through them a solu¬ 
tion of potassium permanganate, with the 
addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid, 
and, afterwards, two or three gallons of pure 
or distilled water, acidulated with hydro¬ 
chloric acid. The charcoal in a filter may 
also be purified by exposing it to sun and air.. 






GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


275 


The readiness with which water conveys 
the germs of disease has long been known 
and this is one of the problems closely 


studied by the medical profession. Water 
has in it either life or death, according as it 
is pure or impure. 




Use of Disinfectants 


ISINFECTION is to be accom¬ 
plished by means of antisep¬ 
tics, notably fire, boiling water, 
chloride of lime in solution, 
corrosive sublimate, sulphu¬ 
rous acid, green and blue 
vitriol, carbolic acid, chloride 
of zinc, the mineral acids, and chlorine. It 
is best to use one of the first mentioned, 
following it up with one of the others. Car¬ 
bolic acid Koch has found capable of stop¬ 
ping the development of micro-organisms 
when diluted with four hundred parts of 
water, and corrosive sublimate in a solution 
of the strength of one to three hundred 
thousand. The former, a product of coal- 
tar, is a clear, colorless, oily liquid which 
blisters the skin severely in a few moments, is 
extremely poisonous, and rapidly proves fatal. 

The fact is to be noted that pure carbolic 
acid is not so good a disinfectant, and does 
not destoy bacteria with the same certainty, 
as when diluted with water ; and, farther- 
more, that it displays its disinfecting proper¬ 
ties to best advantage when in combination 
with water in the proportion of ten parts in 
the hundred. 

Corrosive sublimate in concentrated form 
is also a violent poison, and it may be reck¬ 
oned a great blessing to mankind that it 
suffices to destroy bacterial life in so attenu¬ 
ated a solution as to threaten no danger to 
the human organism. A sublimate solution 
of one in five thousand, which will infallibly 
destroy bacilli, and which fully suffices for 
most purposes of disinfection, is nevertheless, 


less poisonous than a five per cent, carbolic 
solution. 

Articles to be disinfected must be spread 
out, not left packed up in a bundle. Cor¬ 
rosive sublimate attacks most metals in 
common use, and must therefore not be 
poured into leaden pipes. A concentrated 
solution of corrosive sublimate contains four 
ounces of the chemical in a gallon of water. 
By adding ten grains of permanganate of 
potash or a pound of blue vitriol the solution 
is colored and rendered recognizable. This 
solution should be left to act for about two 
hours. Sulphurous acid is most efficacious in 
damp air. 

Danger from Damp Rooms. 

It is always harmful to live for any length 
of time in rooms that are damp or cold, 
rooms having walls dripping with dampness 
or floors wet from scrubbing, and rooms 
where clothes are hung to dry. The more 
moisture the air contains, the less capable is it 
of absorbing the vapors of our breath and with 
them the disease-germs we sometimes exhale. 
These are then partially retained, and impede 
the inhalation of pure air rich in oxygen. 

This interference with evaporation from 
the lungs and skin is very hurtful. It renders 
difficult the cooling-off process which our 
bodies constantly require, it almost arrests 
and quite neutralizes the activity of our skin, 
and interferes with the purification of the 
blood. The best proof of these statements 
is found in the distressing influence of so- 
called “ muggy weather ” when the tern- 








27 G 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


perature of the air is not excessive, but the 
humidity of the atmosphere is considerable. 
Dry heat at from ninety to one hundred 
degrees Fahrenheit is easier borne than tem¬ 
peratures below ninety degrees when the 
humidity is at the point of saturation. 

Damp air which is at the same time cold 
is more objectionable than damp warm air. 
On the other hand very dry air in living- 
rooms is very unhealthy. This condition is 
particularly found in rooms heated by steam, 
by hot water pipes, or in those heated by 
means of a furnace, a heater, or even a com¬ 
mon stove. A vessel containing water should 
be kept in every such room upon the stove 
or near the register. The air heated by a 
furnace should pass over water before enter¬ 
ing the room. 

Treatment of Carpets. 

The carpets of a house claim a special mem- 
tion from us. The plan of carpeting floors 
to which we are accustomed is a decidedly 
unhealthy one. When the carpets are nailed 
to the floor in such a way that every portion 
is covered, the dust which settles upon them 
can only be partially removed by sweeping, 
and accumulates in increasing quantity upon 
the planking below as well as in the meshes 
of the carpet itself. This dust, continually 
raised by every footstep, inevitably renders 
the air unhealthy ; and the evil is increased 
by the layers of thick paper and cotton wad¬ 
ding usually interposed between the floor and 
the carpet by way of lining. 

The floor should be inlaid, or at any rate 
laid in hard woods, and should be frequently 
polished with wax. One large carpet is 
used to cover the greater part of the room, 
or perhaps rugs are spread in different places, 
beneath tables, and before sofas, pianos, book¬ 
cases, and other articles of furniture, much 
as we are accustomed to lay them upon our 


carpets. This insures much greater cleanli¬ 
ness and a remakable absence of dust. 

Special attention is called to those anti¬ 
septics, the free use of which has so much 
to do with arresting disease in. the patient 
and preventing its spread to others. 

Excellent Purifiers. 

Some of these, and the most active, too, 
are produced by disengaging fumes, thus we 
have : 

Sulphurous acid , given off by burning 
sulphur ; good for disinfecting rooms after 
the removal of the sick, or dead persons. 

Chlorine, is an energetic gas, and can be 
readily produced by adding a little muriatic 
acid to a wineglassful of Condy’s fluid, or to 
crystals of chlorate of potash. 

Nitrous acid f 7 Lines are given off when 
strong nitric acid is added to copper filings. 
They are very powerful. 

Iodine is a violet fume produced by throw¬ 
ing some scales of iodine upon a hot plate. 
It is penetrating and powerful, and even 
dangerous, and apt to produce affections of 
the respiratory organs if respired in any 
quantity. These fumes are adapted for 
empty rooms, dead houses, hearses, etc. 

Carbolic acid. A very cheap and excellent 
agent; it cleanses air ladened with putrefac¬ 
tive matters, or with the germs of lowly 
organisms ; it disinfects faeces and sewers ; 
it destroys fever poisons ; and is an excellent 
application in surgical injuries and accidents. 
It can be used to scrub floors, to add to 
water for the steeping of infected clothing, 
and to place in utensils to receive excreta. 
It can be used for outbuildings, urinals, cess¬ 
pools and latrines. It is extremely pois¬ 
onous, and consequently it is safest in the 
form of powder. 

Chi or alum is cheap, active and inodorous, 
but does not give off gases. It is useless tc 




GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


277 


clear air, but disinfects fluids, sewers, etc., 
and does excellently for washing and scour- 
in cr 

Chloride of lime is odorous and its smell 
is offensive; it is a good but unpleasant dis¬ 
infectant. 

Chlorozone is cheap and useful; it gives off 
chlorine and oxygen, and is useful for all 
disinfecting purposes. 

Chloride of zinc (Burnett’s solution) is a 
powerful disinfectant. 

Sulphate of iron is a good and cheap dis¬ 
infectant for sewers, cesspools, etc., and any¬ 
thing needing flooding. It is readily soluble 
in water. 

Having gone over disinfectants and their 
properties, we come to Practical Disinfection , 
which can be advantageously combined with 
hygienic precautions. 

How to Use Disinfectants. 

When there is an outbreak of infectious 
disease it is necessary (i), to isolate the sick 
and prevent their communication with the 
unaffected; (2) to remove or disinfect all 
refuse matter, decaying material, etc.; (3) to 
inspect the water supply and secure its purity; 
(4) to disinfect all outhouses and uncleanly 
premises by limewashing, etc.; (5) to prevent 
overcrowding ; and (6) to secure good and 
ample ventilation. 

Then come the measures to be resorted to 
in the sick rooms and around the invalid. 
The rooms should be kept clean; there 
should be as little communication as possible 
betwixt the sick and the rest of the house¬ 
hold, except the nursing staff. Those not 
connected with the nursing should bring the 
food, fuel, water, etc., into a neighboring 
room, well ventilated and disinfected; and 
then the nurses should, after their departure, 
remove what is required and put out any¬ 
thing done with; thus the direct communi¬ 


cation of the sick and the household will be 
prevented. A sheet saturated with a dis¬ 
infectant should be hung over the door of 
the room, so as to catch any poison wafted 
out when the door is opened. 

All slops, etc., should be disinfected ere 
being removed from the sick room; soiled 
linen should be immersed in a disinfecting 
solution; books and newspapers should be* 
aired and disinfected, or if valueless they are: 
best destroyed at once by burning. All un¬ 
necessary furniture, carpets and curtains, etc., 
should be removed from the sick room. 

Infectious Diseases. 

Then, when the disease has spent itself, 
care is still requisite, for then is the danger 
of causing infection at its height. This is; 
especially the case in typhus fever, scarlatina 
and small-pox. The scarlatinal patient 
should be rubbed with glycerine and carbolic 
acid, or washed with pure tar soap, and. 
the poison-bearing exfoliated skin removed. 
In small-pox, after the vesicles have com¬ 
menced to diy up, similar means may be 
resorted to. The convalescent should not 
mix with others as long as the skin is peel¬ 
ing in scarlatina, or a crust remains in small¬ 
pox. 

After the convalescent is removed, the 
room should be cleared out, scrubbed with a 
disinfectant, floors, walls and woodwork. 
The ceiling should be whitewashed and the 
room repapered, the doors and windows 
being thrown open for several days ; at 
nights they may be closed, and any of the 
fuming disinfectants might be disengaged, 
and the room kept closed till morning. 

The bedding, clothes, etc., should be dis¬ 
infected and washed; to hang clothes up in. 
a room, and then disengage the fuming dis¬ 
infectants, leaving the rooms closed for hours, 
is a plan which may be adopted where the 



GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


27 8 

clothes are too valuable to be destroyed and 
will not wash. Large disinfecting chambers 
for clothes are now available for public use, 
commonly in the hands of boards of health. 
Woolen clothes, especially thick ones, as 
loose clothes, blankets, etc., hold fever poison 
very tenaciously, and should always be well 
disinfected. 

And now as to the washing of the clothes 
of fever patients. Are those who wash them 
liable to be infected or not? So far as the 
subject has been investigated the answer is 


No. In the Calcutta European General 
Hospital, in twenty-five years not one of the 
washers ever took cholera, for instance. 
Neither do laundresses object to the clothes 
of fever patients, at least so far a,s we can learn 
by inquiries. Of course no reasonable person 
would send the clothes away without first 
putting them through a disinfectant solution. 

Disinfectants are so cheap and so effica¬ 
cious as preventives of disease that their use 
is really imperative, and their cost shoulc 
I never be grudged. 



Truths bo Ren)ei2)ber^d 


HE plagues of past time weres 
due to the insanitary 
arrangements of our 
ancestors. 

2. Sunlight has an important 
bearing upon health. 

3. Pulmonary consumption is 
associated with a damp 

subsoil; and its prevalence is affected 
by drainage. 

4. Sand soils are warmer than clay soils. 

5. “Rubbish” foundations are fertile 

sources of disease. 

6. Drains, damp-proof sources and dry areas 

are required for houses in damp situa¬ 
tions. 

7. Porous, moisture - absorbing materials 

are unfitted for the construction of 
houses. 

8. The rain-water ought to be carefully con¬ 

veyed away from the house and its 
walls. 

9. The air supply of a house must be suffi¬ 

cient in order to secure the health of 
the inmates. 

10. Impurities in the air are often solid, as 

smuts, seeds and germs. 

11. Fever poisons and vegetable odors con¬ 

sist of minute solid particles. 


12. Diminution of oxygen in the respired air, 

or excess of carbonic acid gas, are 
both deleterious. 

13. Poisonous emanations may arise from 

the earth or be given off in manufac¬ 
tories, and by chemical agents used 
in certain crafts. 

14. In imperfect ventilation the normal pro¬ 

portion of the constituents of the at¬ 
mosphere is disturbed. 

15. Not less than 1200 cubic feet of air per 

head per hour are requisite for health. 
More is required for the sick. 

16. The rate at which air passes through a 

room, or is renewed, is as important 
as the cubic feet of space allotted to 
each person. 

1 7 - Ventilation is much aided by the fires 
we use. 

18. Draughts may be occasioned by ven¬ 

tilating an apartment. 

19. Ventilators are placed in the ceiling be¬ 

cause the heated air rises. 

20. Double windows are very excellent for 

giving ventilation without draughts. 

21. Fires are as efficient for the purposes of 

ventilation as for warmth. 

22. Cold air usually finds its way in beneath 

the door. 





GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO ' PRESERVE IT. 


279 


23. Arranging the gaslights of a room under 

the ventilator in the ceiling forms an 
effective ventilating agent. 

24. Air can be propelled into rooms and be 

warmed before being admitted, with 
good effect. 

25. Too careful exclusion of air and closure 

of chinks produces all the evil con¬ 
sequences of bad ventilation. 

26. Thirty gallons of water per head daily is 

the calculation of water-works com¬ 
panies. 

27. The waste pipes of cisterns should never 

communicate with the drain without 
a break, to admit of the escape of 
sewer gas. 

28. Rain-water is soft, and though suited to 

ablution is not palatable as a beverage. 

29. Water becomes hard from the presence 

of lime, and bright and sparkling 
from the carbonic acid gas contained 
in it. 

30. The purer water is, the more "owerfully 

it acts upon lead. Hence leaden 
cisterns are especially objectionable. 

31. The quality of water is affected by the 

geological formations over which it 
flows, or from which it is derived. 

32. Artesian, or very deep wells, furnish 

water of varying quality, usually very 
good, but they cannot be depended 
upon for the supply of large towns. 

33. Water may be purified by boiling, dis¬ 

tillation, subsidence, and filtration. 

34. Family filters should be in use in every 

house. They can be cleansed by 
various means. 

35. On large plains it is almost impossible to 

procure good water if the population 
be dense. 

36. Our river well-heads should be covered 

with forests. 

37. The removal of our sewage is important 

to our health; while sewage is a 
valuable manure. 

38. “The rainfall to the river, and the sew¬ 

age to the soil ” is an apt maxim. 

39. The presence of water adds to the offen¬ 

siveness 01 decomposing matter. 

40. The “ dry removal ” is unsuited to 

densely populated towns. 


41. The removal of sewage by water is the 

easiest, cheapest and quickest. 

42. The position of a water-closet in a house 

is more important than is commonly 
credited. 

43. Sewers should be watertight and venti¬ 

lated, to prevent the sewage gas from 
escaping at the water-closets. 

44. Sewers should be periodically flushed, 

and disinfectants added to the water 
used for flushing purposes. 

45. Sewage in rivers pollutes them, and is 

injurious to those persons who live 
further down the river and drink the 
water. 

46. “Sewage farms,” farms irrigated by sew¬ 

age, are growing in favor. They are 
very productive, and not injurious to 
the public health. 

47. Sewage does not exercise a prejudicial 

effect upon the grass, or upon the 
animals fed upon it, or upon the 
human beings who eat them. 

48. Neither is parasitic disease endangered 

thereby. 

49. Sewage is also cleansed by “purifica¬ 

tion” and “ filtration ” processes. 

50. Many diseases are due to the contami¬ 
nation of water and air. 

51. Malarial fevers arise from decaying vege¬ 

table matter and stagnant water. 

52. Enteric or typhoid fever is the result oi 

insanitary arrangements. 

53. It is common in very wet and very dry 

seasons. 

54. It may arise without typhoid-fever-poison 

being present, but its presence makes 
infection almost certain. 

55. It is communicated to others more by 

the contamination of the drinking 
fluids than by contagion proper. 

56. Enteric fever may be communicated by 

the milk supply. 

57. Cholera is very communicable by drink¬ 

ing fluids tainted with its poison. 

58. Cholera is much more infectious than 

enteric fever, and may cling to clothes 
and to persons. 

59. Dysentery is associated with malarial 

fever, and arises from like exciting 
causes. 






280 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


60. It grows up in an epidemic form in 

camps and armies under insanitary 
conditions. 

61. Diarrhoea may be a simple means of 

getting rid of offending matter in the 
bowels, or it may be a grave disease. 

62. Diarrhoea commonly arises from impure 

air and water, especially the latter. 

63. The exanthems (eruptive fevers) are pro¬ 

duced by infectious particles in the 
air. 

64. The poison long retains its activity if 

not exposed to the air. 

65. Epidemic disease is al\vays most serious 

among those whose vital force is 
undermined by insanitary surround¬ 
ings. 

66. Decay or decomposition is a process of 

oxidation—of atomic activity. 

67. The particles of decomposing matter 

may be invisible to the strongest 
microscope, but are evident to the 
smell. 


68. Antiseptics unite with, matter in a state 

of decay, and bring it into a condition 
where it is harmless. 

69. Some fumes are very powerful disinfec¬ 

tants, as chlorine, iodine, sulphuric 
acid, etc. 

70. Other disinfectants are liquid, as chlor- 

alum, etc. 

71. Disinfectant powders of various kinds. 

are useful in water-closets, privies,, 
urinals, and sewer-traps. 

72. Antiseptic soaps are often useful, and 

remove contamination and unpleasant, 
odors. 

73. The disinfection of the sick room, of the 

excreta, and the soiled clothes of the 
sick person is arresting the progress 
of infectious disease. 

74. There should be no direct communica¬ 

tion betwixt fever-patients and the 
household : only direct communica¬ 
tion by the nurses should be per¬ 
mitted. 



fullest extent. Let the step be elastic and 
let the whole carriage be that of an athlete. 

Many persons sneer at athletics, complain 
that they are carried to excess, see no ad¬ 
vantage in spending one or two hours each 
day in training the body, and talk about 
newfangled notions. They seem to prefer 
dyspepsia to a healthy stomach, a sallow 
complexion to the rosy glow of health,, 
a bent and shrivelled form to the upright, 
strong, well-moulded, vigorous frame of one 
whose physical powers are in perfect condi- 


Y free gymnastics we mean those 
exercises employed for develop¬ 
ing and strengthening the mus¬ 
cles and organs of the body 
which do not require any appara¬ 
tus, such as dumb-bells, swings, 
etc. It is surprising to what an 
extent the body can be trained, thereby pro¬ 
moting health. Let the round shoulders be 
straightened up. Let the muscles be made 
hard and pliable. Let the chest be expanded 
and the breathing power increased to the 


















GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


281 


tion. They are content to be walking 
ghosts, moping about with a suggestion of 
the graveyard in every look and motion. 
“ Cultivate the mind,” they say, forgetting 
that the first requisite for a sound mind is a 
sound body. 

The question is often asked : Is the 
teaching of gymnastics in schools wise for 
girls ? The question has been raised time 
and again, and the answer practically was 
given in Philadelphia, where a most thorough 
course was given a three-years’ test. Objec¬ 
tions to the instruction were anticipated, but 
all that were raised were met with a reply 
so complete as to usually end them. The 
most serious question raised was one regard- 



place the fists together, with their backs front, the 
elbows elevated as high as the shoulders. Then 
describe the arcs A, B and C, D half a dozen times, 
elevating the fists as at E and F. 

ing the effect of exercise in the gymnasium 
on delicately built girls. This was found to 
be beneficial, if not too violent. 

The course at the Normal School was 
considered as near an ideal one as can well 
be formed. The gymnasium was in charge 
of a physician, and the greatest care was 


taken that only good should result. Some 
of those who watched the progress of the 
study, expressed a fear that the hours were 
too long, and reports gained circulation to 
the effect that girls who should not partici¬ 
pate with the classes, went through the drills 
for fear of losing their status in the school. 



Place the elbows by the sides, in line with the 
waist, and fists against the shoulders, backs front. 
The right forearm is carried directly down, and re¬ 
turned to the commencing position four times; four 
corresponding motions are made with the left fore¬ 
arm, terminating at B; then four downward motions 
are made alternately ; and, finally, four downward 
motions are described with both forearms simulta¬ 
neously. Then the fists are elevated to C and D. 

Inquiry into these complaints developed 
that none of them had ever been formally 
laid before the Normal School authorities. 
From all the information obtained, it appeared 
that the gymnasium work in the school was 
very much enjoyed by the girls, who were 
enthusiastic regarding it, to such an extent 
that many remained after hours in order to 
receive individual instruction. 

There was visible a pronounced improve¬ 
ment in the carriage of the students, as well 
as in their general health. Those most fre¬ 
quently excused from the exercise were 













•282 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


girls who wore tight clothing. Objections 
have been raised in this enlightened age by 
some fond parents that the gymnastic exer¬ 
cises have increased the waist measurements 
of their daughters, hence they desired that 
the girls should be relieved of the class 
instruction. This is the height of folly. 



This is the Rocking Exercise. Swing the arms 
up and down, as shown by the dotted lines. Do not 
keep your body stiff, but 'let it be pliable, and bend 
it as shown in the figure. 

Two kinds of instruction are given, gen¬ 
eral gymnastic' and calisthenics, the latter 
being obligatory. 

Regarding the whole course, the principal 
speaks very frankly, and his answers cover 
all questions that could well be asked. 
Said he : 

“The gymnasium work has, I believe, 
been of advantage to the students. We en¬ 
deavor to guard against overwork or undue 
exercise. The period of exercise does not 
exceed twenty-five minutes, and the students 
are permitted to drop out of the work when 
they become tired or feel that it is too 
fatiguing for them. When physicians’ cer¬ 
tificates state that students should not take 
the gymnasium work, the students are ex¬ 


cused absolutely from that part of the exer¬ 
cises intended to be of personal benefit. 

“As all our students are in the institution 
for the purpose of being trained for teaching, 
we require of everyone a knowledge of the 
light calisthenic exercises without apparatus, 
which, it is expected, they will be required 
to teach when they enter the elementary 
schools. Even from this light work stu¬ 
dents are excused, although it is an essen¬ 
tial part of the curriculum, and as neces¬ 
sary to the student’s preparation for her 
profession as is her work in other depart¬ 
ments. 

“While calisthenics have not been intro¬ 
duced as yet in the elementary schools as a 
formal part of the work, yet physical exer¬ 
cises have, through the enterprise of many 
progressive teachers, found a place already 


f*\ o 



This figure shows three classes of movements: 
from A to B, from A to C, from A to D. Repeat 
a dozen times, thrusting the fists out with a will. 

in some schools. It is confidently believed 
that their general introduction into the schools 
is not far distant. 

“ The Normal School is simply anticipating 
what is believed to be a demand of the fu¬ 
ture, and it asks nothing of its students 
which is unreasonable to ask of a teacher. 






GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


283 


It endeavors to give the instruction which 
best fits the students for the work of teach¬ 
ing. Therefore, it can no more neglect 
physical exercises as a possible part of the 
elementary school work than it can neglect 
drawing, music or any other part of the 
teachers’ preparation. 

“ As a matter of fact I have no recollection 
of a complaint of injury to a student by the 
gymnasium work, although I have received 
many requests of physicians to relieve stu¬ 
dents of the work—requests which are always 
honored. 

The Students Enthusiastic. 

“ On our own responsibility we have been 
compelled to require students to cease from 
work, and in one instance, at least, know 
that the order from the department was a 
source of some dissatisfaction to the pupil 
thus affected. 

“ The student who is unable to take the 
physical exercises, which are intended for 
personal benefit, loses nothing in her stand¬ 
ing if a physician’s certificate states that she 
should not do the work. More than that, 
the students are often excused without such 
a certificate, on the judgment of the teachers 
in charge.” 

Exercise performed without moderation or 
rule induces all forms and all degrees of 
fatigue, and exposes the human machine to 
the various injuries which we have described 
as the accidents of work. 

On the other hand, muscular work per¬ 
formed in gradually increasing quantity and 
according to the rules of graduated training, 
brings about a progressive adaptation of the 
organs to the performance of more and more 
violent exercise. It improves the human 
motor by giving to all its machinery a greater 
strength and ease of working. 

Such are the results of exercise considered 


as an abstract factor and reduced to the 
quantity of work represented by it. But it is 
only by a mental effort that we can isolate 
the work done by the system from the or¬ 
gans concerned in its performance. Now 
these organs are . not the same in all cases, 
and do not work in the same manner in all 
forms of exercise. Thus the practice of dif- 



These movements are executed from the sides by 
bending both elbows simultaneously, and drawing 
the forearms in on odd numbers and straightening 
the arms on even ones, first from A A to B B ; from 
B B to C C; from C C to D D ; from D D to EE; 
and then back, by reversing the order of the 
motions. These wfill be made in regular order from 
A A to E E and back, twnce with the palms out at 
the sides and the thumbs back ; and twice with the 
backs of the hands out and the thumbs pointed 
front. 

ferent exercises produces different effects on 
the system. 

At the outset we notice a difference be¬ 
tween the various exercises practiced ; they 
do not all necessitate the same quantity of 
work. Exercises are called violent when 
they demand considerable and repeated 
efforts from the muscular system; they are 
called moderate when they do not demand 








284 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


much work ; finally, when the muscular ex¬ 
ertion is reduced to a minimum, the exercise 
is called gentle. Running is a violent exer¬ 
cise, walking at a fair pace is a moderate 
exercise, and walking slowly is a gentle 
exercise. 

The quantity of work done is evidently 
the chief element in the classification of 



The right arm will describe eight as large side 
circles as possible, in a forward direction, as indi¬ 
cated by the arrow ; then the left arm w T ill describe 
eight corresponding circles ; then eight correspond¬ 
ing circles with the arms alternately, the left arm 
commencing a circle just before the right arm has 
regained its commencing position, thus rendering 
the circle continuous ; and, finally, eight correspond¬ 
ing circles with both arms simultaneously. All side 
and head circles will be described in the direction of 
the palms, the student standing with the feet in the 
military position, and bringing the arms close to the 
head while executing the movements. Then reverse 
the arms and describe the circles backwards. 

bodily exercises, for it is that which most 
influences their effects. But, the a*mount of 
work done by the system being the same, it 
is not indifferent, from the hygienic stand¬ 
point, whether the work is done slowly or 
quickly, whether it is uninterrupted or there 
are frequent periods of rest. 

It is important also to know if the exercise 
needs complicated and difficult movements. 


if it exacts great attention of the will, or if it 
can be performed automatically, and without 
needing- the intervention of the conscious 
faculties. 

Finally, besides the different forms of the 
work, it is also important to* determine the T 
mechanism of the exercise, to say what parts 
of the body are especially concerned in its 
performance, and what are indirectly asso¬ 
ciated with it. 

Feats of Strength. 

Violent exercise is often wrongly confused 
with a “feat of strength,” or a “difficult” 
exercise. In all feats of strength it may 
happen that the work, without being consid¬ 
erable, may be executed by means of a very 
small number of muscles. The exercise is 
then merely a kind of demonstration of the 
muscular strength of the individuual, who, 
for example, performs with ten muscles a 
work which other people can only do with 
twenty. 

A man who seizes a horizontal bar with 
one hand and raises himself with only one 
arm, shows that he has a very strong biceps, 
but the mechanical work that he performs 
is; in the end, strictly equal to that done by 
a man who pulls himself up with both arms. 

Sometimes so-called feats of strength are 
only feats of skill. In gymnastics there are 
many movements which need a long appren¬ 
ticeship and which, in the end, can be per¬ 
formed with the expenditure of an insignifi¬ 
cant amount of force when a man has 
learned the trick. The difficulty in the per¬ 
formance of these exercises does not con¬ 
sist in the expenditure of very great muscu¬ 
lar force, but in finding, from experience or 
from teaching, the muscles which must be 
thrown into action. Numerous movements 
performed on the trapeze need more science, 
than strength. 







GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


285 


We must not confuse “quantity of work” 
with “difficulty of work.” This is a mis¬ 
take of daily occurrence, and the result is 
that the preference is given from the hygienic 
standpoint to exercises which are merely 
clever, while the really violent exercises are 
abandoned, being those in which force is 
expended, without any laborious calculation 
how to use it. 

Now, the general efforts of exercises are 
in proportion to the expenditure of force 
which the exercise renders necessary, and 



The movements are executed with the legs unbent 
and their muscles rigid. The trunk is first bent to 
the right as far as possible, and recovers the vertical 
position four times ; then four corresponding motions 
are made to the left; then four motions made to the 
sides alternately; and, finally, eight motions from 
side to side, the first commencing from, and the 
eighth terminating at, the commencing position. 
All the movements are made energetically , but in 
slow time . 

not to the difficulties presented by the de¬ 
tails of its execution. 

By young men, and even in girls’ board¬ 
ing schools, we see the most complicated 
machinery used and the most difficult—we 
might say the most grotesque—movements 
performed. For want of an attentive an¬ 


alysis people do not understand that many 
of the games of young children are in 
reality violent exercises, while many of the 
exercises of the orthodox gymnast are 
merely feats of skill. 

In a “ feat of strength ” the quantity of 
work done by the organism may be quite 



The body is bent forward and backward instead of 
sidewise. When making the forward motions, the 
legs and the spine are kept straight, the bending 
taking place only at the hips. 

small, but generally the local work is very 
considerable in relation to the strength of 
the muscles which perform it. The effect 
of the exercise is then especially local, and 
may perhaps have no appreciable influence 
on the whole system. By continual practice 
in raising weights with the arm outstretched 
it is possible very greatly to develop the 
muscles which extend the arm on the 
shoulder ; but the great organic functions, 
respiration, circulation, etc., will participate 
very little or not at all in the work. 

The exercise will represent an expenditure 
of force capable of rapidly tiring the few 
muscles in action, but not enough to have 
much influence on the blood-current or the 
movements of the lungs. 













286 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


In a difficult exercise, the performance of 
which needs the perfect co-ordination of 
movement, the exact weighing of the effort 
of each muscle, the chief expenditure will 
be of nervous energy, and the muscles will 
only perform a feeble mechanical work. The 
nerve centres will then have more to do with 



The backward motions are usually made with the 
legs straight; but pupils should occasionally bend 
backward as far as possible. Four times are enough. 
Do not strain your muscles, and don’t make any fool¬ 
hardy attempt to reach the utmost limits. 

the exercise than the muscular fibres ; the 
psychical faculties will come more into play 
than the muscular strength. 

Gymnastics, as now carried on at educa¬ 
tional establishments, make a man who de¬ 
votes himself to them, spend most of his 
time in a long apprenticeship and in true 
mental work. Feats of skill are done, rather 
than work, in the mechanical sense of the 
word. 

Many pupils spend months in learning a 
bi'east or a balance, and when they discover 
the method, the muscular trick, they do all 
at once with the greatest ease the muscular 
action which the day before seemed to be 
beyond their strength. 

There is a close relation between increase 
of respiration and increase of muscular 
work. The energy and the frequency of 
the movements of the heart increase accord¬ 
ing to the same laws. The quickening of 
respiration only becomes excessive in exer¬ 


cises demanding a great expenditure of force. 

Muscular fatigue may, on the other hand, 
be severe without the amount of work done 
being considerable ; in the case, for instance, 
in which the work is done by a small num¬ 
ber of muscles. 

The form taken by fatigue after exercise,, 
may give, physiologically, a measure of the 
work done in a given time. The muscular 
fatigue of any region of the body may serve 
to estimate the intensity of the local work ; 
the measure of the total work will be given 
by the violence of the disturbances of the 



This is the sinking movement. Let the body down 
as low as possible, as in the dotted part, and then 
raise it on its toes to the full height sixteen times. 

heart and lungs, that is to say, the intensity 
of breathlessness and the quickening of the 
pulse. 

The measure we suggest can evidently 
only be applied to the same individual, or to 
two individuals equal in power of resistance, 
in strength, and in habituation to work ; but 
with this restriction we can adopt, as a cri¬ 
terion of classification, the following indica¬ 
tion : 






GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


287 




When, after an exercise, a man of average 
strength has experienced neither fatigue nor 
breathlessness, the exercise may be called 
gentle. When the exercise has caused local 
fatigue without inducing breathlessness, it 
will be moderate. It will be called violent 
when it is accompanied and followed by 
^breathlessness. 

We call exercises of strength those in 
which each movement represents a great 
quantity of work, and brings into play the 
contractile power of a great number of 
muscles. 

The lifting and carrying of heavy burdens 
is the type of works of strength, and it is 



The knee is bent as much as possible, and pointed 
directly down, the calf of the leg and the heel being 
pressed firmly against the thigh. Extend the leg, as 
in the dotted line, a dozen times. Then give a spring 
and light on the right foot, elevating the left at the 
same time. Repeat the same motions with the left 
leg. 

really in the hard manual professions that 
we can best study their effects. 

Evidently the movements of gymnastics, 
whose usual object is to displace the body 
in various directions, cannot give rise to 
muscular efforts as intense as those of a 
man who displaces at the same time a heavy 


burden and his own body. And, in fact, 
gymnastic exercises are rarely exercises of 
strength. 

There are, however, movements performed 
with the aid of apparatus, which seem at 
first to need an enormous expenditure of 
force, owing to the unfavorable positions in 



Raise the right knee to the breast, as shewn in the 
figure, eight times ; then t' e left knee. Then alter¬ 
nate, right and left, eight times. 

which the bony levers act; but we soon see 
that muscular effort in these movements is 
in direct ratio to the inexperience of the 
gymnast. By practice we are always able to 
discover a process which facilitates the per¬ 
formance. The human machine represents 
an articulated system made up of a great 
number of movable pieces joined together. 

Hence, there is an infinite number of com¬ 
binations of attitudes. Often an impercep¬ 
tible variation in the direction of a limb 
totally changes the conditions of the work. 
An undiscoverable variation in the perform¬ 
ance of a breasting movement diminishes by 
nine-tenths the expenditure of force. Thus 
an exercise which at the outset seemed 
athletic, only needs, after some months prac¬ 
tice, very moderate work. 










288 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


The first effect of an exercise of strength 
should be to induce quickly fatigue of the 
muscles from which enormous work is sud¬ 
denly demanded. But breathlessness pre¬ 
cedes fatigue in the course of these exer¬ 
cises. However slow the movements, 



A facing is executed by simultaneously turning on 
both heels to the right, straightening the left leg, 
throwing the whole weight of the body on the right 
knee, energetically raising both arms and projecting 
the chest. First, this outward motion is made to the 
right, and the commencing position resumed four 
times; then four corresponding motions from the posi¬ 
tion are made to the left; then four of these outward 
motions from the position are made to the right and 
left alternately; and, finally, eight motions are made 
in combination from side to side, the first commenc¬ 
ing from , and only the eighth terminating at , the 
commencing position. 

respiration is very quickly embarassed, and 
the wrestler, or the porter with a heavy 
burden must often stop for breath, long 
before their muscles are fatigued. 

Exercises of strength demand great mus¬ 
cular expenditure, but they produce all the 
conditions necessary for energetic tissue- 
repair. They need very little work of co¬ 
ordination and do not demand a frequent 


repetition of movement. They occasion less 
disturbance in the nerves than exercises of 
speed, and do not demand, like exercises of 
skill, great brain work. 

Forced labor is nearly always performed 
by the aid of slow and sustained contraction. 
The muscular fibre of a wrestler is tense in 
one direction for sometimes an entire minute ; 
the muscles of a fencer are changing every 
moment from repose to action, and moving 
the limbs in the most varied directions. 
Powerful and sustained contractions favor 
the nutrition of the muscular fibre. The 
nutrition of muscle is more intense in slow 



In executing these movements, both to the sides 
and in front, the extended leg is kept perfectly 
straight , and the circles are made as high and large 
as possible. The trunk is also kept as immovable as 
possible. The student should practice these move¬ 
ments frequently, and become as perfect in their 
execution as possible, as they render freer the play 
of the legs in their sockets, and set in active motion 
all the muscles of the trunk, especially those of the 
back and loins, as well as the muscles of the legs. 

contractions, because the flow of blood is 
more regular and more prolonged. 

Exercises of strength and forced labor , in 
spite of the great quantity of work they 
need, have little influence on the brain, they 
affect the functions of nutrition much more 








GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


289 


than those of the nervous system. The 
energetic and sustained muscular contractions 
which they render necessary draw blood to 
the muscles in great quantity and keep it 
there a long time. The muscular fibres 
benefit from this, and increase in size. 

On the other hand the blood is enriched 
with a great quantity of oxygen, for increased 
respiratory need is the first effect of great 
expenditure of muscular force. This need 
finds free and easy satisfaction in the period 
of repose which inevitably follows each effort. 
Finally the intensity of the combustions due 



The movements are made by sliding the toes 
directly front in the line D E. The right foot first 
passes to E, and regains the commencing position 
four times ; then the left foot; then four of these 
motions from the position are made alternately; 
and, finally, seven front motions are made by recip¬ 
rocation (four with the right foot and three with the 
left), the left foot being advanced at the same time 
the right foot is regaining the commencing position, 
and conversely. 

to a great quantity of work, promotes the 
using up and prompt disappearance of the 
reserve materials, and the need of quick re¬ 
pair; whence increased appetite. 

19 


On the other hand the repeated contrac¬ 
tions of the abdominal muscles in the fre¬ 
quently recurring efforts, performs a sort of 
massage on the intestines which favors the 



In executing charges, the student, with one fool 
fixed, takes strides as great as possible without pre¬ 
venting an easy recovery of the commencing posi¬ 
tion, in the direction prescribed. The leg whose foot 
remains in positio?i must be kept rigid and straight , 
and so turned upon the heel that the two feet are at 
right , angles. This class of movements is done by 
charging sidewise, first to the right with the right leg, 
as represented by the dotted part of the figure, and 
regaining the commencing position four times ; then 
a charget is made to the left with the left leg, and 
the commencing position regained four times ; and, 
finally, eight charges are made to the right and left 
alternately. 

outward movement of the faeces and makes 
the bowels regular. 

Exercises of strength are then favorable to 
all the nutritive functions. They increase 
energetically, and even violently, the work¬ 
ing of all the organs of the body, while 
leaving in relative repose the nerve-centres 
and psychical faculties. Now, calm of the 
nervous system is a valuable condition for 
the repair of the losses sustained in work. 

Observation of facts shows that athletic 
exercises, when they are not beyond the 








290 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


strength of the subject, place him in the most 
favorable conditions of nutrition. Under the 
guidance of a quiet nervous system, the func¬ 
tions of repair are performed with the most 



In executing the charge, the right arm is carried 
front and up at an angle of 45 degrees, and the left 
arm back and down at the same angle, as represented 
in the dotted part of the figure. In charging and 
facing to the left, in like manner the left arm is 
carried front and up, and the right one back and 
down. 

perfect regularity, and we see that the ac¬ 
quisitions made by the system through more 
perfect assimilation exceed the losses brought 
about by work. Exercises of strength tend 
to increase the weight of the subject. 

Exhaustion will result from excessive 
work which exceeds a man’s strength even 
if he is well fed. If a man wishes to get out 
of his muscles a quantity of force out of pro¬ 
portion to their contractile power, he is 
obliged to make an energetic effort of will, 
and he needs a great expenditure of nervous 
energy to excite the weak muscular fibre. 
He can perform a work beyond his strength, 
but it is by taking “from his nerves” that 
which his muscles are unable to give. 


In this case the exercise of strength will 
not have its usual result of economizing ner¬ 
vous energy. A work of the nerve-centres 
is necessary to increase the irritability of the 
muscles. We do not know exactly in what 
this work consists, but we can determine its 
effects. The excessive exertion of the will 
in the work leads quickly to nervous ex¬ 
haustion. The man becomes thin, eats and 
sleeps ill; he suffers from overwork by ex¬ 
haustion. It is thus that we see horses 
rapidly waste and get ill, although they are 
well fed, if they are forced to draw too heavy 
a load, and their ardent and generous nature 
impels them to go on working up to the last 
limit of their strength. 

We call those exercises which need the 
very frequent repetition of muscular move¬ 
ment, exercises of speed. 

There are great differences among the 



The movements of this position correspond to 
those with parallel vertical bars ||. Each student 
becomes a pair of living parallel bars—a conduit of 
power—a strength-giving implement, more invigo¬ 
rating than any apparatus of the gymnasium. The 
right arm of one forces back the left arm of the other 
eight times; then the other arms are used ; then 
both arms together. The legs should be extended as 
in the figure; then should change position, each 
in turn being extended forward. 

various exercises of speed as regards the 
intensity of work. Many of them are typical 
violent exercises: running, for instance. 
Many on the contrary need so insignificant 












GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


291 


an expenditure of force that they hardly de¬ 
serve the name of exercise. A pianist play¬ 
ing scales, notwithstanding the extreme speed 
of the movements of his fingers, performs 
but a trifling muscular work. 

The essential character of exercises of 
speed is the rapid multiplication of muscular 
movements. A series of inconsiderable 
efforts, often repeated, thus allow the per¬ 
formance in a shoR time of a considerable 
quantity of work, without bringing into play 
very important muscular masses. As regards 
the quantity of work done, an exercise of 
speed may thus be absolutely equivalent to 
an exercise of strength. 

Exercises of speed, as well as exercises of 
strength, may then produce a great quantity 



Two pupils take the position by turning back to 
back and standing erect, locking their arms, as shown 
in the figure. One, bending only at the hips, raises 
the other; then is lifted in turn. Repeat twenty times. 
This throws the shoulders back and strengthens the 
muscles of the breast and arms. 

of work in a short space of time. From this 
common condition are derived certain iden¬ 
tical effects, breathlessness for instance. But 
each of these kinds of exercise has its own 


character, from which are derived very dif¬ 
ferent results. 

The one kind needs that the muscles 
should contract with all the energy they 



Seize the wand with the arms extended forward; 
hold the arms straight and work the hands down and 
up, as shown in the dotted lines. This strengthens 
the muscles of the wrist. Then bend the elbows and 
bring the wand to the forehead, as indicated in the 
figure. Repeat thirty times. 

possess; the other does not need this, but 
the muscles must pass at very short inter¬ 
vals, and a great number of times in suc¬ 
cession, from repose into action. 

The essential character of exercises of 
speed, that to which their very remarkable 
physiological effects are due, is this frequently 
repeated change of the muscles from the 
condition of relaxation to that of contraction. 

Exercises of speed produce, quite as much 
as exercises of strength, this thirst for air 
which is to respiration what appetite is to 
digestion. Skipping, running and the nume¬ 
rous children’s games whose essential char¬ 
acter consists in rivalry of speed amongst 
the players, are as valuable, and more, as 
exercises of strength, from the point of view 
of respiratory hygiene. 


















292 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


A child which has just been playing at 
running has absorbed without making any 
painful muscular effort, in simple “play,” a 
greater quantity of oxygen than one which 



Here are two classes of movements. In the first, 
the arms are kept perfectly straight. Elevate the 
wand, as in the figure, and lower it, bringing it 
across the lower part of the body. Repeat twenty 
times. Then turn the wand over, bringing the arm 
to the top of the head and the elbow to the side, as 
seen in the dotted lines, and repeat. 

has been made to use heavy dumb-bells. 
Now the absorption of the greatest possible 
quantity of oxygen seems to be, on the whole, 
the thing most desired, when we need the 
general effects of exercises with a hygienic 
end in view. 

Among the ancients the exercises of speed 
always held the first rank. Running was 
regarded as a criterion of athletic superiority, 
and the characteristic of Achilles in Homer 
was the quickness of his legs. 

Exercises which need at the same time a 


great expenditure of strength and a great 
speed may be called forced exercises. They 
demand more work from the animal machine 
than it is capable of performing, and must 
only be continued for a very short time, 
under pain of causing serious accidents. We 
rarely have to observe in men the effects of 
this excessive accumulation of work. 

In animals we often see examples, espe¬ 
cially in the horse, that noble animal which, 
as Buffon says, “dies for better obedience.” 
An eager horse harnessed to a heavy cart, 
and made to gallop up hill, is doing at once 
a work of strength and of speed, and often 



Execute the movements described in the first part 
of the preceding figure. Then throw the -wand over 
the head, place it horizontally across the shoulders, 
bending the elbows, as shown in the dotted lines. 
This throws the shoulders back, and is a most invigo¬ 
rating exercise. 

gives an example of the accidents of forced 
exercise; threatened with asphyxia from the 
accumulation of carbonic acid in the blood, 
exposed to ruptures of vessels, or to visceral 





















GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


293 


lacerations by the violent pressure occasioned 
by the effort, the animal sometimes dies sud¬ 
denly from a rupture of the heart, or falls 
down paralyzed by a haemorrhage in the 
spinal cord. 

Thus, to sum up, the exercises of speed 
have the advantage of producing the same 
quantity of work as the exercises of strength, 
and of producing the same intensity of re¬ 
spiratory need. Further, they increase the 
activity of the respiratory functions with less 
fatigue of the lungs and heart, owing to the 



The wand, crossing the body in front, shows the 
commencing position. Then lower the wand behind 
the body into a position corresponding to the com¬ 
mencing position. Then, keeping the arms straight, 
bring the wand to the position shown in the dotted 
lines, first one hand above the head, then the other. 
This compels the body to be erect, and exercises the 
muscles of the shoulders and arms. 

absence of effort , which only exceptionally 

occurs in exercises of speed, but which is 

obligatory in exercises of strength. Hence 

a first cause for preferring exercises of speed 


when the object is to increase the oxygena¬ 
tion of the patient. 

As regards the muscular system, an exer¬ 
cise of speed, in a given time, will produce 



Hold the wand above the head, keep the arms and 
legs straight, and then bend forward and backward 
as far as possible, taking the positions seen in the 
dotted lines. Repeat twenty times. 

less fatigue than a work of strength, and will 
subject the motor apparatus in a less degree 
to the various accidents resulting from shocks 
and frictions of its constituent parts. 

But these advantages are counterbalanced 
by another which we must recognize in ex¬ 
ercises of strength, the greater development 
given to the muscles. The flow of blood to 
the muscular fibre is more considerable in 
proportion to the intensity of the effort, and 
more prolonged in proportion to the duration 
of the contraction. 

This fact is proved by the following obser¬ 
vation : In a man who is being bled, the 
blood runs from the veins for a little while 
and then the flow stops. If we then cause 












294 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


him to move the muscles of his forearm the 
flow recommences, not because the veins are 
emptied by increased pressure, but because 
the contraction draws more blood from the 
muscles. Now if the muscles contract in an 
energetic and sustained manner the flow of 
blood is rapid, full and uninterrupted. 

If we cause the patient to make a series of 
small, rapidly repeated contractions of the 
muscles of his forearm, the flow becomes 
jerky, small, and in the same period of time 
will furnish a lesser quantity. This experi¬ 
ment proves that less blood traverses the 
muscles during a series of small contractions 
frequently repeated than during one long 
sustained contraction. 


No further demonstration is needed to 
prove that the nutrition of muscle must be 
less active during exercises of speed than 



This is the charge with the wand. In making this 
sidewise motion, the full weight of the body is thrown 
upon the advance leg, the other leg being kept rigid 
and straight , the wand being advanced in the direc¬ 
tion of the charges, inclining up at an angle of 45 
degrees, as in the dotted part of the figure. Then 
alternate and advance the other leg. 

during exercises of strength, for we know 
that the nutrition of a region of the body is 
active in direct proportion to the quantity of 
blood with which it is supplied. 

When we have frequented a gymnasium 
and have observed many men performing 


exercises, we have been struck by noticing 
the different responses of the muscles in dif¬ 
ferent individuals. In some persons rapidity 
of movement is, so to speak, natural, and 
exercises of speed do not demand any great 
effort; their muscular tissue is very irritable. 



This is a combination of arm movements and a 
charge. The pupils first charge toward the right, 
inclining front at an angle of 45 degrees, at the same 
time lifting their arms into a vertical position, with 
the wand above their heads. Then the correspond¬ 
ing motion is made toward the left. 

In other persons, on the other hand, the 
muscles, although energetic, only obey the 
orders of the will with considerable slowness. 
A great expenditure of nervous energy is 
necessary to obtain a rapid movement. 

These differences are often racial, and at 
the first glance are seen in the deportment. 
The vivacious step of the Southron contrasts 
with the calm posture of the man of the 
North. The motor fibres of the former are 
more responsive than those of the latter. It is 
curious to see these differences manifesting 
themselves in physical exercises, and to as¬ 
certain the difference of aptitudes resulting 
from them for this or that form of work. 

The English and the Germans have never 
been able to rival the French and Italians in 
fencing. English boxing needs above all 
massive strength and power of resistance ; 
brench boxing needs, on the contrary, agility 
















GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


295 


and readiness in the blows, that is, great 
suddenness of attack and quickness in reply. 

A boating newspaper reviewed the different 
methods of rowing prevalent in different 
regions. We were struck by noticing that 


in a regatta the French rowed forty strokes a 
minute, the Dutch only twenty-five. From 
thirty-six to forty is the usual number with 
our boat crews, such as Harvard, Yale, Cor¬ 
nell, the University of Pennsylvania, etc. 



EXERCISES WITH 




EALTH, good sound health 
is the one object in view. 
How to cultivate, tone up, 
strengthen, every muscle, 
every nerve, every organ of 
the body—this is the ques¬ 
tion. It is a great one, im¬ 
portant, far-reaching, outstrips a thousand 
others, is worth considering, in fact, must be 
considered if you would live a long, happy, 
useful life. 

Dumb-bells have long been used in gym¬ 
nasiums, and their value has been fully 
proved. The body needs exercise ; the 
muscles should be hardened. You should 
have strength; you should have speed. This 
we have spoken of already. Now we must 
add one thing more you need to have— 
endurance. 

We call exercises of endurance those in 
which the work must be continued for a long 
time. 

In these exercises the expenditure of force 
is determined less by the intensity and rapid 
succession of efforts than by their duration. 
It is necessary that the muscular effort shall 


not be too considerable, and the movements 
not too rapid, in order that fatigue under its 
various forms may not interrupt them too 
soon. So that an exercise of .endurance is 
only moderate exercise if it lasts a short time, 
while it may become forced exercise if it be 
continued too long. 

Power of Endurance. 

In these exercises the quantity of work 
done after a long time, at the end of a day, 
for instance, may be very considerable, but 
the expenditure of force is made in such 
small fractions that there is no painful mus¬ 
cular effort, nor any marked disturbance in 
the organic functions. So that a man per¬ 
forming an exercise of endurance may pass, 
almost without noticing it, to strong doses 
of muscular work. 

The animal machine is made in such a 
manner as to be able to perform without 
fatigue movements of a determined intensity 
and speed. When these limits are not ex¬ 
ceeded, no appreciable disturbance is pro¬ 
duced in the system, and the work is done 
amidst complete tranquility of the vital 










296 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


functions. Thanks to the perfect equilibrium 
between the muscular exertion and the power 
of resistance of the subject, he is able in ex¬ 
ercises of endurance to go on working for a 



Place the dumb-bells in front, as seen in the figure, 
and bring them to all the positions shown in the 
dotted lines. Describe an arc upward and down¬ 
ward, keeping the arms straight. Bring the bells 
together by throwing the arms straight back. Bring 
one arm to the position F H, and the other to I E, 
and swing in alternation. Suspend the bells at the 
sides and draw them up under the arms, doubling 
in the wrists. Double the elbows and throw the 
bells back as far as possible over the shoulders. 

long time, and let the useful effects of work 
insensibly accumulate, without causing any 
disturbance to the various parts concerned in 
its performance. 

We see at once the importance and use¬ 
fulness of exercises of endurance when we 
have to do with a feeble system, with a per¬ 
son of low resisting power, to whom we wish 
to give the benefits of muscular work, while 
enabling him to avoid the dangers of fatigue. 
Similarly we are sometimes able to give a 
sick man a very energetic remedy by admin¬ 
istering it to him in “ fractional doses.” 

The division of work into fractional quan¬ 
tities sufficiently small to enable the system 
to support each one without disturbing its 


normal functions, such is the essential con¬ 
dition of exercises of endurance. 

Another condition is necessary to consti¬ 
tute an exercise of endurance ; the muscular 
efforts must be at intervals sufficiently long 
that the effects of a second may not be 
added to that of a first. Between two suc¬ 
cessive doses of work there must be a suffi¬ 
cient time for repose. 

There are organs in the human body 
which perform a considerable work contin¬ 
uously throughout life. It is surprising, for 
instance, to think how the hollow muscle we 
call the heart goes on contracting from birth 
till death, without ever suspending or slack¬ 
ening 1 its work. This is because the cardiac 
muscle performs a work of endurance. The 
expenditure of force at each beat is well 
balanced with the power of resistance of the 



Thrust the right arm forward, bend the elbow, 
describing the arc C D A ; reverse the motion, and 
then draw back the arm, the bell resting on the 
breast. Then go through similar motions with the 
left arm. Then make the motions with both arms 
simultaneously. 

system of which it forms a part, and the in¬ 
terval between the beats is a time just long 
enough to rest the fibres. 

We may say that respiratory fitness is the 
true regulator of a work of endurance. 














GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


297 


In order that an exercise may be long 
continued the first condition is that it does 
not lead to breathlessness. We can go on 
walking in spite of weary legs and sore feet; 
but we cannot go on running when we are 
out of breath. 

The exercises of endurance, always leav¬ 
ing the working of the lungs comparatively 
tranquil; do not demand the great inspira¬ 
tory efforts which force all the air-cells to 
open out. In the state of repose there is 
always a great number of air-cells remaining 
inactive; their walls are flaccid and col¬ 
lapsed, there are whole regions of the lung 
which take no part in the respiratory act. 



An easy exercise is formed from the previous one, 
with the up and down charge of the dumb-bells. 
From the hanging down position of the arms, A, 
they are drawn back, B, ready for the charge. Arms 
stretched to the position seen at C. Arms drawn 
back for the charge, dumb-bells over the shoulder, 
little finger uppermost. Arms charge upwards, D. 

The pupil may associate with this exercise local 
walking, accenting each new movement with a 
stamp of the foot. 

When the lungs bring their whole respira¬ 
tory force into play, no region remains in¬ 
active, and the most remote air cells are 
opened up. The lungs become as large as 


possible, and push out the walls of the 
thorax. Here is the most precious effect of 
the exercises which cause breathlessness. 
They tend to increase the capacity of the 



In this exercise, the right hand is drawn over the 
left shoulder, as seen in the figure. From this posi¬ 
tion a vigorous blow is executed, from high to low, 
the arm being fully stretched at the middle of the 
curve C, C. It is executed with the right and left 
alternately. The stroke can be made upward to the 
shoulder, from the hips, as well as downward, com¬ 
mencing with the left arm. 

chest. Now the exercises of endurance do 
not lead to breathlessness. 

The exercises of endurance render more 
active the gaseous interchange and enrich 
the blood with a greater quantity of oxygen, 
but their effect ceases there : they do not 
excite with sufficient violence the respiratory 
movements to modify the shape of the chest. 
They have their indications and their advan¬ 
tages ; they also fall short in some direc¬ 
tions. The doctor must weigh the pros and 
cons, and must deduce from examination of 
his patient the formal indication for one exer¬ 
cise rather than another. 

Those whose lungs are suspect, for whom 
violent respiratory movements would present 
dangers ; those also whose heart is not in a 














298 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


state of perfect integrity, or in whom we 
suspect arterial degeneration which dimin¬ 
ishes the strength of the vessels ; all those, 
in short, whose organs of respiration and 



The forearm circle .—Take tlie bells and bring 
them to the position seen in the figure. The right 
arm makes a circle round the left arm, while the left 
arm circles round the right. The motion may be 
reversed, alternated, made more rapidly. The upper 
part of the arm is kept in the horizontal position. 
Stand with the heels together ; then with the feet 
spread, as at B, D. 

circulation present a certain fragility, should 
prefer exercises of endurance to exercises of 
strength or of speed. 

Aged men, persons suffering from gouty 
or alcoholic vascular degeneration, persons 
suffering from fatty infiltration of the heart, 
should confine themselves exclusively to 
exercise of endurance. 

Patients who very easily lose breath, can¬ 
not perform any exercise of speed or of 
strength, and the same is the case with 
phthisical persons. But still patients of both 
these classes have need of supplementary 
respirations to compensate for the insuffi¬ 
ciency of the respiratory field which has 
been reduced by the disease, sometimes by 
as much as half. Exercises of endurance 
constitute in such cases a valuable means of 
treatment. 


They make it possible, through increasing 
by a very little at a time the carbonic acid 
formed by work, that the whole of this 
excess shall be eliminated at each expiration, 
there being in exchange a small excess of 
oxygen introduced during inspiration. If 
the exercise is well regulated it can be kept 
up for hours, and the patient will then have 
benefitted without incurring the dangers of 
breathlessness, from a series of small quan¬ 
tities of oxygen the sum total of which will 
be equal to that gained by a healthy man in 
an exercise of strength or of speed. 

Generally we do not make use enough of 



The hand-circling exercise .—Grasp the bells and 
elevate the arms, as shown in the figure. Now 
describe a circle with the other ball, moving the 
hand around the surface of an ideal cone, the point 
of which lies in the wrist joint. 

These exercises are very useful to those who 
habitually have cold hands, to those who, in writ¬ 
ing or similar labor, produce a one-sided activity of 
that member, or where there is weakness in the 
wrist joint. They should be executed with the arms 
extended. 

exercises of endurance in treating patients, 
with lung trouble. We should boldly pre¬ 
scribe for tubercular or asthmatic patients, 
long walks on level ground, or sustained 











GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


299 


exercise at the oar, coming down stream and 
rowing with a very slow stroke. 

A man who, not being in training, goes 
out for a day’s shooting, will inevitably 
suffer on the following day from a more or 
less severe attack of stiffness, and yet his 
exercise, the type of an exercise of endur¬ 
ance, will not have produced breathlessness 

at any time during the day. 

These observations give us the key to a 



A good exercise is the leg beat , towards the hand 
F, where the dumb-bells are raised to the forward 
horizontal position, alternately, the left and right 
hand ; and the leg which corresponds with the out¬ 
stretched arm is swung upwards until it touches the 
dumb-bell; this is facilitated by slightly lowering 
the dumb-bell towards the foot. 

To vary the exercise you can describe several cir¬ 
cles, as at C, I), E. then touching the bell at F. 
Then use the other leg. 

fact which is at first sight very surprising, 
and even inexplicable except on our theory, 
namely, that young persons support better 
exercises of speed than exercises of en¬ 
durance. 

A child seven years old will bear very 
well all the games which need rapid and 
prolonged running. This is owing to the 
wonderful ease with which its lungs adapt 
themselves to the exigences of forced res¬ 
piration. The carbonic acid produced by 


work is eliminated with great rapidity and 
causes no inconvenience to the system. 



An exercise which is especially useful consists in 
taking the forward spring step, with the leg that is 
put forward bent at the knee, as at C; the upper 
part of the body is kept as erect as possible. Unite 
with this the thrusting out of the arm on che same 
side as the leg which takes the forward step. 

But carbonic acid is not the only product 
of dissimilation due to work which must be 



This is a combined bell and leg exercise. Bend 
the leg, as at B, at the same time elevating the bells; 
lower the bells and bring the leg to the position of 
the dotted lines. Then bend the legs as far as pos¬ 
sible. Alternate, using the other leg. 

eliminated from the system, and there are 

others whose exit is slower, notably those 

resulting from the dissimilation of the nitrog- 





















300 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


enous tissues. Now dissimilation is much 
more rapid in the child than in the adult, for 
the young tissues have less stability than 
the adult tissues. Hence the formation of 



This exercise is a beautiful one. The dumb-bells 
are held in a forward horizontal position, C ; the feet 
in the locked position. The left foot steps forward ; 
simultaneously both arms are swung backwards, as 
in the dotted lines. The foot returns to the locked 
position, the dumb-bells being at the same time 
carried forward to the horizontal position. 

nitrogenous waste-products, of which uric 
acid and urates are the chief, is more 
abundant. 

Exercises of endurance which allow of the 
elimination of the whole excess of carbonic 
acid with each expiration, lead to no accu¬ 
mulation of this gas, but they can cause an 
accumulation of the nitrogenous waste-pro¬ 
ducts, for the elimination of these does not 
begin, as we have shown, for three or four 
hours after the muscular work which has 
caused their formation. An exercise may 
then be continued for four hours, and give 
rise throughout this time to the formation of 
nitrogenous waste-products, not one particle 
of which is being eliminated. 

All these waste-products will be accumu¬ 
lated in the blood when the exercise has 
come to an end. The system which will 
have escaped the effects of carbonic acid, a 


gas which is eliminated as fast as it is formed, 
will not escape those of nitrogenous waste- 
products which will have accumulated in 
large quantities in the blood. There will 
be after the exercise of endurance is over, a 
true uricaemia, a surcharge of the blood with 
uric acid compounds. 

This result explains how it is that young 
persons who, thanks to the adaptive power 
of their respiratory organs, have borne with 
impunity an exercise of speed, and have not 
lost breath, can easily suffer from febrile 
stiffness, and even from febrile overwork, 
after too long a walk. 

Gouty persons are, like children, exposed 
to the accidents of consecutive fatigue after 
exercises of endurance. They have already 
a constitutional tendency to the accumula- 


c \ 



The bow swinging must be executed with the legs 
a part, and with it the upper part of the body must 
be bent forward; the arms hang down, the thumbs 
towards each other, and the dumb-bells are swung 
in a large semicircle to the right and to the left, as 
seen in the figure. The whole body follows the 
motion of the dumb-bells, by turning first to one 
side and then to the other. 

tion of uric acid in the blood, and muscular 
exercise causing the production of nitrogen¬ 
ous waste-products which cannot be elimi¬ 
nated as fast as they are formed, hence there 









GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


301 


is, when the long-continued work is over, 
an abundance of uric acid compounds in the 
blood. We know that an attack of gout is 
due to this uric saturation of the blood, and 
thus are explained the attacks of gout which, 
in gouty subjects, almost inevitably follow a 
very long day’s shooting, when a man has 
not been prepared by gradual training. 

To sum up, the exercises of endurance 
allow of the performance of such work with 
great economy of fatigue. They give the 
system the benefit of a supplementary acqui¬ 
sition of oxygen, without exposing it 
to the dangers of forced respiration. 

They quicken the circulation of the 
blood without fatiguing the heart or 
violently distending the vessels. In 
a word they spare the whole ma¬ 
chine during work. 

But if they preserve the system 
from the accidents of immediate 
fatigue, they do not save it from 
consecutive fatigue. If they enable 
it to escape breathlessness, this is 
not the case as regards stiffness. 

Moderate and prolonged exercise, 
that in which the total work is con¬ 
siderable, but well-divided, is suitable 
for patients whose respiration needs 
management. It cannot be prescribed 
without preliminary training for gouty per¬ 
sons, and is absolutely unsuitable for chil¬ 
dren. 

Exercises of speed are well suited to 
young persons, who easily eliminate carbonic 
acid. Exercises of endurance are better 
suited to persons of ripe age, whose nitro¬ 
genous tissues resist better the processes of 
dissimilation, and form less the nitrogenous 
waste-products. 

Exercise produces then salutary effects 
alike in those who assimilate too little and in 
those who do not dissimilate enough ; mus¬ 


cular work is a regulator of nutrition as in¬ 
dispensable to over-rich as it is to impover¬ 
ished constitutions. Hence there is no 
individual, no living being, who is not in¬ 
stinctively impelled to this powerful general 
alterative agent. 

When a vigorous horse has been kept in 
the stable for a long time, we see it when 
first brought out make leaps and turns, and 
show by its lively paces a great desire for 
movement. We then say that the animal is 
frisky . This great vivacity has not, however, 


as its sole object the manifestation of the joy 
it feels at being again at liberty; it expresses 
the needfor exercise which the animal feels. 
Similarly it is under the influence of the need 
for exercise that the wild beasts in a menag¬ 
erie constantly prowl about their cages; that 
children coming out of the class-room leap 
' and run about the recreation ground, and 
that dogs run after each other in the streets. 

Every living being which has long been 
motionless experiences a need for action, and 
this fact is alone sufficient to prove the 
hygienic importance of muscular exercise. 



u v”' ; 

. '-.J. 


The Transfer of Dumb-Bells .—This is an entertaining and 
effective exercise, which is made plain by a study of the figure. 
The far-apart position is taken ; the dumb-bells are removed 
from left to right, and right to left, as far as possible. 

Taking up and putting down the dumb-bells: this may appro¬ 
priately follow the preceding exercise, and may be used at any 
time when in the course of his exercises the pupil wishes to put 
his dumb-bells down. By a spring he changes his position from 
the locked to the apart position, and with a bending movement 
of the body at the same moment, places the dumb-bells cross¬ 
wise before him, as at C. He returns at once with a spring 
into the locked position, D, body erect. Takmg up the dumb¬ 
bells occurs in a similar manner, by a rapid change from the 
apart to the locked position. 





302 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


The need for exercise is one of the nume¬ 
rous sensations which lead living beings to 
perform actions necessary for the preserva¬ 
tion of life or of health. Prolonged immo¬ 
bility produces a need for muscular exercise, 
just as sustained work produces a need for 
repose. 

♦ 

The need for exercise is developed with 
more intensity in proportion to the lowness 
of the temperature; by severe and piercing 
cold we are much more driven to action than 
by great heat. In this case the need for 
exercise is derived from the instinct which 
leads us to produce heat by movement. 



The Stamping Exercise is executed from the apart 
position, with the body bent forward; the arms are 
drawn back and thrust forward alternately, as illus¬ 
trated in the figure. 

The need for repose is called fatigue; the 
need for exercise has not received a special 
name, but deserves one quite as much as 
hunger, thirst , etc. 

Under the influence of deficient exercise 
certain materials which should be used up 
each day by work, accumulate in the human 
machine, the wheels of which they encumber 
and the working of which they clog. These 
materials are the reserves of which we have 
pointed out the origin and destination. It is 
necessary that the reserve materials should 
be used up as fast as they are formed. 


When they are not regularly destroyed 
and they tend to hinder, by their accumula¬ 
tion, the working of the organs, we feel our¬ 
selves impelled to bring our muscles into 
action, with the unconscious object of burn¬ 
ing these materials in the work, and the need 
for exercise is produced. 

Great Need of Exercise. 

But the superabundance of the reserve 
materials is not the only cause of the need 
for exercise ; if insufficient exercise can lead 
to the accumulation of certain useless 
materials within the system, it also induces 
a diminution of the materials necessary to 
the balance of health, and thus leads to im¬ 
poverishment of the constitution; so we see 
some persons whose life is too inactive, put 
on too much fat and become plethoric, whilst 
others waste and become thin through in¬ 
sufficient movement. 

Thus the need for exercise is felt as much 
by thin people who assimilate too little as by 
fat people who do not dissimilate enough. 

The need for exercise then responds to 
two physiological necessities, of which in¬ 
stinct gives us warning. It can come from 
an overcharge with reserve materials, and the 
urgent necessity there is that these materials 
should be burned; it may also arise from a 
general sluggishness of the functions and the 
need of a stimulus capable of arousing them 
to fresh activitv. 

More and more the American people are 
tiking an active interest in physical culture. 
This is the result of the increasing value 
attached to sound health and the importance 
of having a physique strong enough to bear 
the strain imposed by our very trying climate 
and modes of business. We are a fast peo¬ 
ple, expending a vast amount of nervous, 
vital force in the grand rush and struggle 
for success. No longer is it considered that 

















GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


303 


the body is of little consequence. The laws 
that govern it and the methods for promo¬ 
ting sound health are being carefully studied. 
Physical exercises of one kind or another are 


taught in most of our schools, and this is the 
omen of a brighter day and a generation of 
people who shall be noble specimens of 
physical manhood. 




N the gymnasium we call ground 
exercises those which are per¬ 
formed in the upright posture, 
and which consist in succes¬ 
sive movements of flexion, ex¬ 
tension, etc., of the legs, the 
arms, the trunk, the pelvis, and 
the neck. These are evidently, from an 
aesthetic point of view, the best of all exer¬ 
cises. Every limb does work in proportion 
to the strength of its muscles, for it moves 
only its own weight. 

The body being supported on the legs 
during these exercises, the vertebral column 
has no tendency to assume a vicious attitude 
for the maintenance of an abnormal equilib¬ 
rium. 

These exercises would then be the best of 
all if they were a little more interesting to 
those who practise them. But they are very 
unattractive, as they suppress all initiative 
on the part of the pupil, and only need an 
attentive and passive obedience to orders. 

There is happily another gymnastic ex¬ 
ercise which combines with regularity in the 
expenditure of force a peculiar attraction, 
because it implies a contest of skill, agility 


and readiness : this is French boxing. This 
exercise is learned in a series of lessons of 
which each is performed alternately by the 
right and the left side of the body. In this 
manner the right leg and the right arm re¬ 
peat exactly, when their turn comes, all the 
movements which have just been performed 
by the left arm and the left leg. 

French boxing, in which blows are given 
with the feet as well as with the fist, needs 
every moment attitudes of great boldness. 

Rapid Movements. 

When a kick has to be given as high as 
the face, the trunk must be strongly inclined 
to the side to counterbalance the displace¬ 
ment of the centre of gravity, and this atti¬ 
tude would be vicious if it were always in 
the same direction. But the right leg, which 
has delivered a kick, has hardly returned to 
the ground when the left leg must take its 
turn, and repeat the attack, either directly 
forwards, or by the pirouette known as the 
turning kick. 

With a rapidity which astonishes the spec¬ 
tator, the body must change from one leg to 
the other with a sufficiently stable equilib- 


















ATHLETIC EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE BODY. 


304 


































































































































































































































































































































































GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


305 


rium to propel the foot in a precise direction 
with great force. In order that the centre 
of gravity may be displaced with such mar¬ 
vellous ease, the vertebral column, which 
plays the part of a balancing-pole, must pre¬ 
serve an extreme mobility. 

French boxing is, then, preferable to 
fencing for the regular development of the 
body of a young man and for preventing 
vicious carriage. 

Swimming and Climbing. 

Swimming needs a regular action of all the 
muscles. The body must progress in this 
exercise by a movement of extension which, 
beginning in the legs, spreads to the thighs, 
the vertebral column and the arms. 

Climbing has a great resemblance to swim¬ 
ming. In both these exercises progression 
is brought about by alternate movements of 
flexion and extension of the body and limbs. 
Between these two methods of progression 
there seems to be at first sight only a differ¬ 
ence of direction; in swimming it is hori¬ 
zontal, in climbing from below upwards. 

But there is a capital difference as regards 
the mechanism of the work; in the swimmer 
the arms and shoulder move in the same 
Horizontal plane; in the climber, on the con¬ 
trary, the arms are much in advance of the 
Chest, and their movements of flexion, the 
hands being fixed, tend to draw the shoulders 
upwards, forwards and inwards. 

In the exercise of swimming there is no 
cause of deformity, and swimmers have, 
therefore, generally a very regular develop¬ 
ment. 

There are certain exercises which seem at 
first sight to be performed by a very localized 
group of muscles, but which a more at¬ 
tentive analysis shows to be generalized 
throughout the body. Thus a man who 
rings a heavy bell does not only work with 

20 


his hands which hold the rope, but with his 
arms which bend, with his trunk which leans 
forward, even with his feet, which contract 
in order to adhere more firmly to the 
ground. 

Rowing is reputed to increase the size of 
the biceps, and this sport is generally classed 
with exercises of the arms. This is a mis¬ 
take, for the work of the rower is far from 
being localized in his upper limbs. The 
muscular effort which moves on the boat is 
largely situated in the extensors of the ver¬ 
tebral column. The oarsman pulls above 
all with his loins. Further, when the boat 
is to be propelled with great speed, as in 
racing, the legs work at least as much as the 
arms. 

The Oar and Paddle. 

As we are writing these lines we are suf¬ 
fering from an attack of muscular stiffness 
produced by resuming the exercise of rowing 
after a year’s interval. In the muscles of 
the arms we have merely a slight sensation 
of discomfort, but those of the loins and 
thighs are really painful, having been vigor¬ 
ously in action. 

We must make a strong distinction be¬ 
tween exercise with the oar and that with the 
paddle . In the latter exercise the canoeist 
derives a fixed support from the seat, and his 
legs do not help him at all. They usually 
lie in the bottom of the boat inactive and 
extended. 

As to the trunk, it participates in the work, 
not by movements of flexion and extension, 
but by lateral displacements, now to the 
right, now to the left. Further, the canoeist, 
when making his most powerful efforts, is 
not leaning backwards, like the oarsman, but 
curved forwards. 

This position is imposed by the necessity 
of giving to the movement of the trunk a 




306 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


direction opposed to that in which the water 
is displaced by the motor of the boat. Now 
in paddling the water is displaced from be¬ 
fore backwards, whilst in rowing it is dis¬ 
placed from behind forwards. 

The canoeing movement is certainly very 
graceful. The body leans in regular rhythm 
to the right and to the left, and the head at 
each displacement is inclined in the opposite 
direction to the trunk, by a series of lateral 
inflexions of the cervical vertebrae. From 
these two opposed but compensatory move¬ 
ments, results a wave-like movement, which, 
added to the rapid gliding of the frail bark, 
forms a seductive picture. 

A Curved Back. 

But the canoeist’s back is curved like that 
of the jocky, and his legs remain inactive. 
Hence, in our opinion, the inferiority of 
canoeing from the hygienic point of view. It 
leaves the lower limbs absolutely motionless, 
and it tends to produce a round back. 

In rowing, the oarsman also leans forwards 
at intervals in order to carry his oar back¬ 
wards, but this is at a stage in the exercise 
where no force is required and, therefore, no 
pressure is exercised on the vertebrae. The 
really energetic muscular action, the one 
which determines the progression of the 
boat, is performed by bending the body 
backwards ; at this movement of the effort 
the head is high and erect, and if the move¬ 
ment is very powerful, the face is upturned. 
The really active movement in rowing con¬ 
sists in extension of the dorsal spine. No 
movement is more fit than this to remedy a 
round back. 

It will be well to point out the difference 
between “ sculling ” and “ rowing.” In the 
latter case there is one oar held in both 
hands, which forces the oarsman to lean to 
the side of his oar. In sculling there is 


needed an equal and symmetrical effort of 
both hands. Hence, to preserve the straight¬ 
ness of the body, sculling is much superior 
to rowing. 

We cannot review here all the exercises 

_ .< 

which are able to favor regular development. 
But we should like to try to define certain 
points which must be kept in mind when 
we wish to appreciate the influence of move¬ 
ments on bodily form. 

Wrong Modes of Exercise. 

First, the body left to itself, without being 
subjected to any external influence capable 
of producing deformity, tends naturally to de¬ 
velop in a regular direction. The causes 
which tend to produce deviation may be of 
internal orgin, such as affections of bones or 
joints, retractions of tendons or of muscles,, 
and paralysis. 

But the most common deformities arise 
from external causes, such as pressures, 
shocks, works or habits leading to a vicious 
carriage. Amongst the external agents 
capable of producing bodily deformity, ill- 
chosen or ill-directed exercise is a very fre¬ 
quent cause. 

The vertebral column is the axis of the 
body. When it is normal in direction, the 
body is upright and the attitude is elegant. 
Most of the deviations of the spine have a 
muscular source, and arise from the predom¬ 
inant action of the muscles which draw the 
vertebrae in a given direction over those 
which should balance the action of these by 
drawing the spine in the opposite direction. 

Muscular exercise tends to develop the 
muscles and the bones ; it is enough that 
this development should be regular, that 
no region of the body should acquire an ex¬ 
aggerated size capable of destroying harmony 
of proportion, and that no portion of the 
skeleton should assume a vicious direction. 





GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 307 


Neglect of all exercise sometimes coin¬ 
cides with deviations of the body, but these 
are almost always due to a habitually vicious | 
carriage, such as is observed in persons of 
sedentary life. The schoolboy kept in class 
from morning till evening, the artisan kept 


tribute the round back so common to tailors. 

When muscular force is completely re¬ 
moved, as for instance in the dead body, 
there is a tendency to fall forwards ; and if 
the dead body, held upright, is supported 
by the waist, we see the head lean down 



SPORT IN THE GYMNASIUM. 


all day in the workshop, often present de¬ 
viations of the figure; but the vicious 
position of the body needed for writing is the 
true cause of the lateral curvature of the 
spine which is common in school-children ; 
similarly it is to the bent attitude when 
working with the needle that we must at- 


towards the chest, the shoulders fall for¬ 
wards, and the back arched by an exagger¬ 
ated flexion of the spine. 

This stooping attitude, due to complete 
absence of muscular action, is an exaggera¬ 
tion of that observed in persons whose mus¬ 
cles are extremely enfeebled by inaction. 

























308 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


The round back is in these persons always 
accompanied by a receding chest, first be¬ 
cause muscular inaction leads to diminution 
in the size of the thorax; secondly, because 



Figure 1. 

in a side view of the body, very pronounced 
convexity of the back tends by comparison 
to cause the line of the sternum to appear 
flat, and even concave. We observe this 
characteristic deformity in all cases in which 
young persons have led too sedentary a life, 
deprived of air and movement. 

Muscular exercise, in whatever form, gives 
marvellous results in these deformities in 
which we cannot properly speak of a devia¬ 
tion to be remedied, but rather of a weak¬ 
ened part to be supported. The vertebral 
column promptly finds energetic support 
from the spinal muscles as soon as a man 
begins to perform violent movements, for 
every work needing a certain expenditure of 
force demands action from these muscles for 
the purpose of fixing the vertebral column, 
the centre and pivot in all movements of the 
trunk and limbs. 


But aside from these cases of excessive 
debility, it is not from increased strength of 
the muscles that we must demand the means 
of restoring perfect uprightness to the figure. 
The persons who are most remarkable for 
elegance and grace are often very supple 
rather than very vigorous. 

Suppleness of figure comes from the great 
ease with which the vertebrae can glide in all 
directions over each other. From this great 
mobility results the facility with which the 
various pieces of the dorsal spine accommo¬ 
date themselves to the different attitudes of 
the body, and to the rapidity with which the 
trunk is balanced in all the displacements 
which it undergoes. So that the greatest 



possible grace of figure may be observed in 
clowns. 

Certain exercises which demand very 
slight expenditure of muscular force have a 


















GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


309 


remarkable tendency to make the back very 
straight : these are exercises which need 
balancing. A rope-dancer cannot keep up¬ 
right on his slender support if he allows the 
axis of his body to fall out of the vertical, 
and this axis is represented by the vertebral 
column. 

All the movements of the acrobat tend to 
give to the muscles which move the verte¬ 
brae the degree of contraction necessary that 
the bony rod they form should have a per¬ 
fectly vertical direction. 



Figure: 3. 


The rope-dancer preserves when on the 
ground the position which his well-disciplined 
muscles are accustomed to give to the bones 
on which they act. 

Balancing jugglers are, like rope-dancers 
and India-rubber men , types of perfect physi¬ 
cal straightness ; and if we compare them, in 
the circus, to the gymnasts whose specialty 
is the trapeze, we are struck by the superior¬ 
ity of the former in elegance of figure. 

We have seen nothing more charming 
than a little balancing girl who, at the circus, 
climbed to the top of a pyramid built of 


bottles, and poised herself like a bird on the 
neck of the highest without displacing any 
of them. It was marvellous to see the child. 



Figure 4. 


when she had built the fragile structure, first 
make sure of the balance standing upright, 
then, putting her foot on its frail support 



Figure 5. 


raise herself, holding in her hand the neck of 
the last bottle, without the trunk deviating 
from the vertical by a hair’s breadth. 

It was then necessary, from the stooping 






























310 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


posture, to gain the upright one, and it was 
only by a mathematical precision in the con- 




Figure 6. 


Figure 7. 


traction of the vertebral muscles that the 
extension of the legs and thighs could be 


I 



effected without upsetting the whole structure. 
It is our purpose to present the uses of the 



swing and stirrups, for they certainly pos¬ 
sess the advantages of all other gymnastic 
apparatus. We would not underrate the value 
of other apparatus and modes of exercise. 
We offer the swing and stirrups, not as a full 
response to the public demand, but as the 
most complete “ multum in parvo” in the 
gymnastic field, and as most admirably 
adapted to the wants of those who cannot 
avail themselves of the advantages of a 
gymnastic institution. To all such it is a 
God-send. 

It is comparatively easy to devise gym- 


Figure 9. 

nastic exercises which shall interest a social 
class, enlivened by music. But what shall 
those do, who, finding it inconvenient or 
disagreeable to visit the gymnasium, would 
cultivate muscle and vigor at home? In the 
absence of social stimulus and music, the 
exercises themselves must possess peculiar 
fascination. If, in addition, they bring every 
part of the body into varied action, giving 
the left arm, shoulder—the entire left half of 
the body as much and as varied exercise as 
the right, we should have the model home 
gymnastics. 
































GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


311 


The swing and stirrups meet these de¬ 
mands more successfully than any other 
apparatus yet devised. While the first exer¬ 
cises of the first series are simple enough for 
children, the last exercises of the last series 
are beyond the reach of all except those who 
have favorable composition and are very 
much in earnest. For clergymen, ladies and 
many others, who would carry on the work 
at home, this invention is the most complete 
means imaginable. 

Two large hand rings are suspended from 

i 



changes can be made. The rings must be 
raised, let down, drawn apart, the stirrup 
straps changed, or removed altogether from 
the rings, each and all with a single motion 
of the hand and in a moment ; there are 
various simple mechanical contrivances by 
which these multifarious changes can be 
made. An ingenious mechanic can scarcely 
be at fault. We will suggest that in splicing 
the ropes into the rings the splice should be 
long and drawn close; else giving way, an 
unpleasant surprise may occur; the ropes 




Figure 11. 


Figure 12. 


the ceiling by ropes, which, running through 
padded hooks, are carried to the walls. Two 
other ropes extend from the walls directly to 
the hand rings. A strap with a stirrup is 
placed in either hand ring. By a simple ar¬ 
rangement on the wall the hand rings are 
drawn as high as the performer can reach, or 
let down within k foot of the floor; or at 
any altitude they can be drawn apart to any 
distance. The distance between the stirrups 
and rings can be likewise varied. 

The usefulness of the swing and stirrups 
depends upon the facility with which these 


should run through strong, padded hooks at 
the ceiling, which are fastened on the upper 
side of the timber with thick nuts ; the fas¬ 
tenings on the wall must be made secure. 

The ropes with which the rings are sepa¬ 
rated should be armed with wrought iron 
snap hooks, which can be caught into 
wrought iron rings that have been firmly 
lashed into the suspension rope at the point 
where it connects with the hand ring. 

The stirrup straps must be of very strong 
white leather, with edges so rounded that 
the pants will not be worn. In shortening 





























312 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


the straps a buckle should not be used, for 
in removing the straps from the hand rings 
much time would thereby be lost; nor should 
a simple hook be employed, as the leather is 
liable to give way and the hook to slip out. 



Figure 13. 


A brass H, with one side sewed into the end 
of the strap doubled, and the other slipped 
through slits in the body of the strap, is a 
perfect thing. With this simple contrivance 
the strap can be altered or taken out alto¬ 
gether in a second, and can never give way. 
The stirrups should be very strong, with 
serrated bottoms, and fastened into the ends 
of the straps with strong sewing and copper 
rivets. 

The swing and stirrups cannot be put up 
in an ordinary gymnasium; the ceiling is too 
high. The best height for the ceiling hooks 
is twelve feet; a ceiling as low as eight feet 
will do. The apparatus can be used, how¬ 
ever, in a gymnasium, or in an open yard, 
by the erection of a simple framework. If 


suspended in an ordinary gymnasium, from 
a ceiling eighteen or twenty feet high, a large 
number of the most valuable exercises can¬ 
not be performed advantageously. 

Upon a close examination of the swing 
and stirrup exercises, the conviction will be 
forced upon all, that by* no other means can 
such a variety of valuable exercises be 
reached. 

A vain boasting over muscular strength is 
vulgar. We regard with disfavor the cul¬ 
tivation of mere strength, without a noble 
carriage, freedom, security, agility and grace. 
Still less do we approve of a mere display of 
feats. But what thoughtful person can re¬ 
flect upon the objects of human life, without 
seeing that not only is the highest develop¬ 
ment of the muscular system a great advan¬ 
tage to those who follow mechanical occu¬ 
pations, but of vital importance likewise to 



Figure IT 


those who fill the ranks of intellectual life, 
and who require, as a condition of success, 
good health and strong vitality. 

Only a whole man is capacitated to per¬ 
form in the best manner the tasks of life. 



















GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


313 


Is it not an aim worthy our highest efforts 
to develop our whole being to its fullest 
capacity ? 

This universal development is especially 
provided for by the union of the stirrups 
with the rings, from which results an infinite 
combination and variety of exercises. The 
gymnasium receives in this apparatus a 
larger circumference than is offered by all 
other gymnastic utensils combined. 

The muscles of the lower part of the 
body, and the nape of the neck, are more 
thoroughly trained than by any other 
means. The extensor muscles of the fin¬ 
gers, hands, arms and legs, which are never 
brought into vigorous play with other gym¬ 
nastic apparatus, enjoy, in the use of this 
apparatus, full play. The rotary and di¬ 
agonal movements of the muscles, which 
are particularly effective in the production 
of symmetry, figure prominently. 


n 

Figure: 15. 

These exercises derive great advantage 
from the fact that the points of support as 
<well as the points of grasp are moveable, 
whilst ordinariiy these points are fixed. The 
advantage is, that these points are fixed 




through a varied action of the muscles. 
This compels an almost infinite multiplica¬ 
tion of the direction and manner of muscular 
exertion. 

The pupil must observe the gradual 
method of advancing. Beginning with the 
most simple, and at last reaching the most 



difficult. He must proceed from exercise to* 
exercise, from degree to degree, from series 
to series. 

Figure 1.—Shoulder Swing, forward and 
backwards, four , six or eight times. Rings- 
at the height of the head. The swing mo 
tion is sustained from the shoulders. 

Figure 2.—Hand Swing Sidewise, four ,. 
eight , or twelve times. The swinging which 
is sidewise, is carried on by efforts of the 
legs and arms. This exercise operates hap¬ 
pily by enlarging the chest. The feet follow 
the dotted line ; the toes rest on the floor, 
then with a spring the motion is reversed. 

Figure 3.—Standing Inclination Side- 
wise, two , four , or eight times. Rings and 
grasp the same as in the last. The inclina- 






















314 


GOOD HEALTH. AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


tion of the body is exactly to the right and 
left alternately. The arms remain in the 
position shown. The body remains inflex¬ 
ible. 



Figure 4.—Chest Stretched Position, 
during two, four, or six inhalations. Rings 

one foot from the floor. Grasp from the 
outside as shown in the cut, arms exactly 
perpendicular. Legs straight, supported on 
the points of the toes. The rope must touch 
the shoulder. One hand can be lifted, and 
the weight of the body supported by the 
other hand. 

Figure 5. — Leg Spreading, from the 
Shoulder Ha?tg. Position as shown in the 
figure. The legs are thrown out exactly 
sidewise and with great vigor. The position 
of the feet when in contact and when sepa¬ 
rated is well shown. 

Figure 6 . — Knee Lifting, from the Shoul¬ 
der Hang. Rings in the same position. In 
this exercise the hands seize the ropes close 
above the rings. By this means, a more I 


concentrated exercise upon the correspond¬ 
ing muscles of the legs is secured. The 
knees are drawn up as high as possible. 
Those who are muscular and flexible, can 
carry the knees as high as the chest. 

Figure 7. — Horizontal Leg Raising, 
from the Shoulder Hang, two, four or six 
times. Rings, hands and body in the same 
position as in Figure 6 . The legs are kept 
perfectly straight, and they are raised as 
shown in the figure where they are held for 
a moment. 

Figure 8 . — Stirrup Standing Inclina¬ 
tion, in the Elbow Hang, four, six, or eight 
times. Standing in the stirrups, the rings 
are placed as high as the shoulder. Arms 
as seen in the cut. The body is thrown 
vigorously forward and backward. A fine 
development for the chest, and helpful for 
respiration. 

Figure 9.—Half Lying, with Lifting by 
the Arms, two, three, or four times. Rings 
as high as the chest. Seize the rings from 
the outside with the support grasp, and bring 



Figure 18 . 



























GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 315 



the body beneath the rings in an 
almost lying down position. Keep 
the body and neck in a straight line 
rigidly. Now draw the chest up 
to the rings, and let the body down 
again to the full length of the arms. 

Figure 10.— Angular Support 
Hanging, during tivo, four or six 
inhalations. Rings as high as the 
shoulders. Seize the rings from 
the inside with the support grasp, 
and spring into the position be¬ 
tween the ropes, keeping the arms 
straight ; then let yourself slowly 
down into the position of Figure 10. 

Head erect, chest thrown well for¬ 
ward, back straight, legs close to¬ 
gether. 

Figure 11.— Body Turning in 
the Support Hang, one , two or 
three tintes. Rings at the waist. 

Seize the rings from the inside with the sup¬ 
port grasp. The straightened body sustained 
by the hands is turned from side to side, 



Figure 20. 

the upper part one-eighth of a circle and 
the lower part one-fourth of a circle at each 
swing or turn. 

Figure 12.— Chest Expanding, two, four 
or six times. Rings as high as the chest. 
Adjust the stirrup straps so that when the 
rings are held out at arms length from the 
body the stirrups will touch the floor. Put 
the feet into the stirrups as far as the heels. 
Take hold of the rings with the support grasp 
from the inside. Stretch out the arms in 
front of the body, and then keeping the 
arms straight, carry them backward as far 
as possible. As soon as the straps are 
drawn tightly, the feet begin to offer a 
point of resistance, which may be increased 
to any desired degree. The body remains 
firm with heels upon the ground. 

Figure 13.— Twisting Swing, one , two 
or three times. Standing in the stirrups, 
the rings should be as high as the waist. 
Take hold of the rings from the inside 


Figure 19. 













316 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


with the support grasp, and rotate the body 
on its own axis from side to side until you 
reach a semicircle. As the ropes cross 
each other, the straps are made to cross 
each other likewise, through the action of 
the muscles of the legs. The rotation ought 
not to go beyond a semicircle, else it may 
become irregular and injure the apparatus. 

Figure 14.— Drawing Up by One Arm 
in the Back Stretching Position, one , two 
or three times. Rings as high as the head, 





V 


• • v \ 


i \ » ; « « 

:/ \\ y\ \ 

M '-.A \ 

v 



<-• 




Figure 21. 

though if the rings are placed a little lower, 
the action of the muscles will be greatly in¬ 
tensified. The two heels must rest on the floor , 
with the body nearly horizontal, and the arm 
straight. The body is to be kept straight 
and stiff, while with the one arm it is drawn 
up as near as possible to the ring, and then 
it is let down as slowly as possible. 

Figure 15.— Hand and Foot Hanging, 
during one , tivo or three inhalations . Grasp 
the rings as shown in the figure ; throw the 


body forward, raise the legs and insert the 
feet in the rings; hang a moment, resume 
first position and repeat. 

Figure 16.— Knee Raising in the Sup¬ 
port Hang, three , four or five tunes. Stand 
between the ropes, and grasp the rings from 
the inside, as seen in the figure. Raise the 
knees as high as possible, then thrust them 
down again with great force. 

Figure 17.— Head Downwards Feet 
Free, during four , six or eight inhalations . 

Grasp the rings tightly, thrust the 
feet upward. The body is kept 
suspended between the ropes as 
indicated in Figure 17. Care must 
be exercised that the rings do not 
swing in the slightest degree. 


Forward and Backward. 

Figure 18.— Fall Hang in the 
Stirrups, four , eight or twelve times. 
Grasp the rings and swing forward 
and backward. This is partly ac¬ 
complished through an upward 
action of the elbow, and partly 
through the turning of the rings, 
the firm grasp upon which is never 
relaxed. When going forward, one 
must pay close attention to the 
position of the elbows, as the arm 
and hand rotation may be a prona- 
tory instead of a supinatory move¬ 


I'V 


A 


x 


ment, in which case the front position would 
be entirely different from the one intended. 
This latter point is important. 

Figure 19. — The Hanging Circular 
Swing, twelve times. The pupil suspends 
himself, as in the figure, draws his body up 
by the arms, turns in a sidewise direction, 
both rings before the chest, accompanied by 
an inclination of the whole weight of the 
body in that direction. Thence he goes into 
the same position on the othei side. 






















GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


317 


Figure 20. — Forward and Backward 
Swing with Drawing Up, two, three, or four 
times. The rings, at the highest grasp posi¬ 
tion, are seized from the outside with the 
hang grasp, and the pupil swings back and 
forth. In either direction, when the centre 
of the swing is reached, the body is drawn 
up by the arms, and at each end of the swing 
it is let down again to the full length of the arms. 

Figure 21. — Sidewise Swing with Draw¬ 
ing Up, two , three, or four times. Position 
and grasping same as in Fig. 20. The swing 
takes place in an exactly sidewise direction. 
As before, the body is drawn up as near as 
possible to the rings at the centre of each 
swinging, and let down again at the end 



points. On account of the sidewise position, 
the outer arm cannot attain the same straight 
attitude as the inner arm. 

Figure 22. — Drawing Up and Support 
Changing, one, two , or three times. With 


rings a little above head height, one goes 
from the drawn-up hang position into the 
angular support hang, and from that back 
again. This is achieved without touching 
the floor. The rings must be turned round 



Figure 23. 


during the exercise, on account of the 
changes in position which naturally occur 
between the hang grasp and the support 
grasp. 

Figure 23.—Drawing Up Hang with 
One Arm, without Touching the Floor, 
one, two or three times. Seize the ring at the 
highest grasp point, and go over into the hand 
hang, with one arm stretched at full length. 
Now draw up the body until the arm is at a 
right angle. Both upward and downward the 
movement should be slow. Then alternate. 

Figure 24.—Forward Leap with One 
Leg. Position the same as with other for¬ 
ward leaps. The body as close as possible 
to the cord. One leg is bent at the knee at 























318 


GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 



a right angle, while the other executes the 
leap. Alternate. 

Those who have been troubled with lame 
knees, must practice this exercise with care. 



As there is a very severe exercise of the 
knee joint and the parts immediately sur¬ 
rounding it, and as a lameness in those parts 
is apt to be a serious affair, too much caution 
cannot be exercised. 

Figjcre 25. —Sidewise Leap with One 
Leg. One goes over in a sidewise direction, 
from a sidewise position, the leg that makes 
the leap being the one nearest the cord. 
Alternate the sides. 

Figure 26. —Back Twisting Leap. Dur¬ 



ing the leap turn half round and come down 
facing in the opposite direction. Alternate 
with turning the other way. 

Figure 27.— Opposite Double Leap. 
Execute the forward leap, and immediately 
follow it by the backward leap. 

This leaping forward and backward ovei 
the ropes is, on the whole, perhaps the 
hardest of the leaping exercises. There can 
be no doubt of it, if you have had sufficient 
practice to enable you to leap about as high 
backward as you can forward. The faithful 

































































GOOD HEALTH, AND HOW TO PRESERVE IT. 


319 


gymnast will be astonished at his improve¬ 
ment in the backward leaping. 

Beginning with the cord one foot high, he 
soon rises to two feet, then to three, and 
perhaps to four feet by the end of the first 
year. A much higher point than this even 
may be reached by those who, beginning 
with a fortunate composition, give a few 
moments every day to efforts in this depart¬ 
ment. Persons with hernia, unless well pro¬ 
tected with a superior truss, must exercise 
great caution in the backward leap. 

Figure 28.—Arm Suspension. Grasp the 
rings, as shown in the figure ; thrust the head 
forward, bringing the body to a suspended, 



Figure 27. 


horizontal position ; keep the legs straight. 
Be careful not to strain the muscles, by- re¬ 
maining suspended too long. Although one 
of the most difficult exercises, this is one of 
the best. 

The student of gymnastics must bear in 
mind that only by patient endeavor can he 
gain the best results. He should never 


practice when his muscles feel stiff, or when 
by reason of other occupations, he has be¬ 
come wearied. He should feel when he goes 
to his practice as the boy does when he goes 
to his play. It is something which he is to 
enjoy and which is not to be made a burden 
or a toil. 

Make a study of this matter of health, for 
it means happiness, success and long life. 




Figure 28 . 


Cultivate a physique which will not be con¬ 
stantly conveying to others the impression 
that you are going into a decline. Athletic 
sports with many are a hobby and not al¬ 
ways are they carried on from the highest 
motives. Health, strength, endurance, fit¬ 
ness of mind and body for the pursuits of 
life are to be kept constantly in view. 

What is said in the foregoing pages con¬ 
cerning good health and how to preserve it, 
is worth the attention of every one, and if 
you are stimulated in this noble pursuit, and 
have had the means suggested for reaching 
these desirable results, it will be far better 
than as if a fortune had been laid at your 
feet, without the knowledge which you have 
here gained. 







































EANS and ways to 
secure resuscita¬ 
tion from heavy 
electric shock 
have at last been 
discovered as a re¬ 
sult of investiga¬ 
tion by the Aca¬ 
demy of Medicine in Paris. The 
appalling number of accidents 
claiming so many lives of brave 
workmen and dutiful officers in 
the service of electrical industries 
and institutes has long been a subject of 
public discussion. 

Finally the minister of public works sought 
to solve the mystery by commissioning the 
Paris Academy of Medicine fully to investi¬ 
gate the matter, and try and devise some 
practice for saving the lives of persons 
affected by electric shock. The results have 
been most gratifying. 

Take one instance: The foreman of the 
electric company at Rochester, N. Y., re¬ 
ceived through his - body a 3 , 000 -volt cur¬ 
rent. To all appearances he was instantly 
rendered lifeless, but three other workmen, 
acquainted with the method of resuscitation 
here described, saved their comrade by 
prompt action. 

320 


The formula for reviving the victims of 
electric shock is this: A person so disabled 
should be treated like one drowned. These 
are the rules, which not only workmen in 
electrical industries but every citizen and 
every friend of humanity should know by 
heart: 

Above all, break the contact with the con 
ductors. If the current can be instantly cut 
off so much the better. If not, lose no time 
in telephoning or sending, but apply your¬ 
self directly to the body that must be re¬ 
moved. 


Important Directions. 

In doing so touch not the victim on face 
or hands, or any naked part of his body. 
You may try to lift him up by the coat-tails 
or after throwing a blanket or coat around 
him. Mind, they must be dry. Also re¬ 
member that dry wood is a non-conductor. 
You must use a stick to draw the body 
over to one side or to hold back a live wire* 
To lift the victim off a crossbar pass a piece 
of lumber under his heels and raise him up. 
The same should be done if the body is in 
contact with the ground. His feet should 
be raised from the earth immediately. Any 
piece of wood or furniture or cloth will do. 

The body should be carried into the open 



















A RESCUE FROM DROWNING, 


‘21 

1 


321 















































































































































































































































































322 


WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


air or a room where air has free access. All 
not directly engaged in the work of rescue 
should be instantly dismissed from the place. 
The body must be placed upon the back, 
after the shirt and collar have been loosened. 
Raise the shoulders and let the head fall 
back. 

Then begin the work of restoring respira¬ 
tion ; that is, seize both arms and draw them 
energetically over the head, bringing them 
nearly together and holding them in that 
position for a couple of seconds. These 
movements having expanded the chest and 
pressed air into the lungs, carry the arms 
down to the side and front of the chest, 
doubling them up at the elbow, in order to 
expel the air from the lungs. Continue in 
this for at least an hour, unless respiration 
sets in before. 

To Induce Breathing. 

A second assistant should at the same 
time seize the tongue of the victim—it is well 
to protect one’s finger with a piece of cloth 
or a glove for this process—and draw it out 
while the arms are extended over the head, 
allowing it to recede when the arms are 
pressed against the side of the breast. Both 
these manoeuvres should be carried on with 
as little interruption as possible. Twenty 
times per minute is not too much. 

If the victim shows a tendency to clinch 
his teeth, keep them apart by placing a piece 
of wood or anything handy between them. 

It is also advised to rub the body with 
brushes, brooms and cloth in order to pro¬ 
mote the circulation of the blood. 

Do not administer stimulants unless a 
medical person pronounces it safe to do so. 
When possible procure a tank of oxygen gas 
from the nearest drug store, and after im¬ 
provising a cone place the tube over the 
mouth and nose while the gas is issuing. It 


is a powerful stimulant to the heart’s action 
under certain conditions, and will aid respira¬ 
tion. 

Similar methods of resuscitation should be 
employed in cases of stroke by lightning. 

DROWNING. 

Drowning is, unfortunately, a common 
accident. Four or five minutes underwater, 
and life is gone. There have, however, 
been one or two exceptions to this rule, and 
therefore respiration may be attempted after 
a longer immersion. The old plan of hold¬ 
ing a person up by the heels was very 
reprehensible, and so was rolling him on a 
barrel. 

The clearing of the mouth of phlegm, then 
a hot bath, or brisk friction, are very well as 
far as they go; their inefficiency being their 
great drawback. The passing of ammonia 
to and fro under the nostrils is unobjection¬ 
able at any rate. Artificial respiration is the 
most effective measure. The simplest form 
is to press upon the chest and abdomen at 
intervals, leaving the natural elasticity to 
suck in some air each time. 

Dr. Marshall Hall’s plan was to roll the 
body on its face and to excite artificial re¬ 
spiration by pressure along the back, or 
rolling the body over on the side; doing this 
so as to imitate, in time, the natural respira¬ 
tion. 

The method adopted by the Royal Hu¬ 
mane Society is that known as Dr. Silvester’s. 
It is carried out in the following way. The 
patient is laid on a flat surface on his back, 
with the head and shoulders slightly raised 
on a pillow. His arms are then to be 
grasped just above the elbows, and to be 
drawn gently and steadily upwards until they 
meet above the head, in which position they 
are kept for two seconds; they are then to 
be turned downwards, and to be pressed for 





WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


323 


two seconds gently and firmly against the 
sides of the chest. 

These movements are to be repeated de¬ 
liberately about fifteen times in the minute, 
until natural efforts at respiration are in¬ 
duced, when they are to be discontinued, 
and the ordinary means to promote circula- 
lation and warmth had recourse to. These 
last mean friction, hot spirits and water, and 
a warm bath where practicable. 

When a person is drowning and those 
around cannot swim, one person might do 
his best to reach him while another held him 
by the ankles. If the accident has occurred 
on ice, a stick laid across the opening by 
which the drowning man can support him¬ 
self, is of advantage till more substantial aid 
comes. But the loss of temperature will 
not permit the immersed person to hold on 
long. 

ACCIDENTS BY FIRE. 

Fire is a source of danger, and is very de¬ 
structive to life at times. Spontaneous 
combustion of the human body when satur¬ 
ated with alcohol is a myth, though perhaps 
the alcoholized body does burn more readily 
than one free from inflammable fluid. 

When a lady is on fire, she should not, 
and ought not to be permitted to run; that 
fans the flames amazingly. She must be 
laid down, and rolled up in the nearest wool¬ 
len article,—rug, coat, or blanket. Such 
wrapping up in a non-inflammable article is 
a most effective method of extinguishing the 
flames. Immersion in water is, unfortuna¬ 
tely, rarely practicable. 

HEMORRHAGE. 

The word hemorrhage, of course, means 
the escape of blood from any vessel in any 
part of the body, but here we only propose 
to speak of those bleedings which occur as 


a consequence of some accidental cutting or 
rupture from some external cause, of a blood 
vessel, in other words, those cases which 
occur in “ minor surgery.” 

Hemorrhage is of frequent occurrence and 
as a rule requires prompt action and pres¬ 
ence of mind in those present, to prevent it 
from becoming serious, and even imperilling 
life itself. The means of preventing and 



METHOD OF GRASPING THE ARM. 


suppressing the flow of blood from an artery 
that has been cut or broken in any way are 
few and simple. 

) For temporary means to stop bleeding 
from any artery in the arms or legs, a hand¬ 
kerchief or something of the kind passed 
around the limb above the point of injury, 
through beneath which a small stick, nail or 
wire is passed and then twisted around until 
it produces a good degree of pressure, will 
stop almost any case. This is an always 
present substitute for the tourniquet used by 
surgeons in like cases. 

Another means, always present, is direct 
pressure by means of the hands. On the 
upper extremities the circulation may be 
readily arrested with the fingers, by grasping 
the arm as shown in the above cut. 

If their points are so applied over the 
artery, a very slight force is sufficient, and 
any part of the arm above the elbow may be 
selected, although that shown in the cut is 
usually most co^enient. This fact should 










324 


WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


be impressed on the mind of all, especially 
the young of both sexes, as it will perhaps 
be the means of saving life in case of serious 
hemorrhage. 

If the accident should occur in the lower 
extremity, resort to the handkerchief and 
stick may be had recourse to, or the flow 
may be effectually stopped by making pres¬ 
sure on the artery near its passage from the 
body by means of the thumbs, applied as 
shown in this cut. 

If the pressure is made much lower down 
on the leg, much additional force is neces- 



PRESSING UPON THE ARTERY. 


sary, and even then, if the thigh be fat and 
muscular, it may not always be entirely 
successful; but if this force is used as here 
directed and illustrated, there need be no 
fear of fatal hemorrhage, even if all the 
arteries of the leg should be severed. 

As soon as possible the end of the bleed¬ 
ing vessels should be secured by tying by 
means of any small, strong cord, as a thread 
of silk or strong spool cotton. We wish it 
to be distinctly understood that we do not 
mention these means as being superior to the 
means wifehin the reach of the well prepared 


surgeon, but only as effectual means which 
will be present in any sudden emergency, 
and so simple that any one may understand 
and apply them readily. 

FAINTING. 

Fainting is alarming rather than dangerous. 
The person should at once be laid flat. If 
left alone they fall down, and so the hori¬ 
zontal posture is secured. Fainting persons 
should never be propped up in a chair or on 
a couch, but laid flat. In fainting, or syn¬ 
cope, the heart fails to propel the blood to 
the brain, and unconsciousness follows. 

But if the person be laid down and the 
head is brought to the level of the rest of the 
body, the blood circulates through the brain 
as readily as elsewhere, and the person 
recovers from the faint. 

SUNSTROKE. 

Sunstroke, contrary to the usual impres¬ 
sion, is not in all cases due to exposure of the 
head to the direct rays of the sun. Statistics- 
show that prostration from the effects of heat 
may occur under shelter, in the shade, at 
night, or even in persons who have not been 
exposed to the sun for days before. Intense 
heat need, not be solar, but may be artificial 
Since the human body can cool itself much 
more readily in a dry than in a moist atmos¬ 
phere, it may be expected to resist the 
severities of a dry, overheated climate more 
easily than the oppressive closeness of a 
damp and muggy one. 

bor this reason sunstroke is much more 
infrequent in the dry belt of the Texan 
prairies than in the lowlands of India or 
upon the sea-coast. For the same reason, 
too, it is especially prone to attack indoor 
workers in confined, moist factories, and 
notably those who labor in laundries and 
sugar-refineries. 





WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


325 


Sunstroke appears to be decidedly favored 
by intemperance, by want of acclimatization, 
and by debility following fatigue in a heated 
atmosphere. Occupants of badly ventilated 
sleeping apartments appear to be oftener 
affected than those who sleep in purer air. 

It is generally thought by non-professional 
persons that the symptoms of sunstroke come 
on without any warning whatever. In most 
cases, however, it is preceded by pain in the 
head, wandering of the thoughts or total 


inability to think at all, disturbed vision, 
irritability of temper, sense of pain or of 
weight at the pit of the stomach, or inability 
to breathe with the usual ease and satis¬ 
faction. 

These symptoms become more and more 
marked until insensibility is reached, preceded 
sometimes by delirium. The skin grows 
very hot, and usually very dry, but when not 
dry is covered with a profuse perspiration. 
The face becomes dusky, or, as the saying 


is, blue. Breathing becomes rapid and short, 
or slow and sighing. The action of the 
heart, as felt by the hand placed over it, is 
weak and rapid and often as tremulous as the 
“fluttering of a bird.” 

In many instances, from what is popularly 
termed the commencement of the attack 
until it ends in death, the patient does not 
move a limb, nor even an eyelid. The 
gradual failure of respiration interferes with 
the natural purification of the blood in the 


lungs, a fact speedily attested by the livid, 
purplish appearance of the surface. In most 
cases of sunstroke, accordingly, death comes 
on gradually by arrest of respiration, such 
arrest being without doubt due to direct 
paralysis of the respiratory centres by the 
excess of heat. 

A person suffering from sunstroke should 
at once be carried to a cool, airy spot in the 
shade of some wall, or perhaps to a large 
room with a bare floor, or, as is sometimes 

























































































































































































326 


WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


better, if no sunlight interferes, upon the 
pavement of a back yard. Unnecessary by¬ 
standers must be kept at a distance, for in 
this as in every other accident, the patient 
needs all the pure air to be had. His cloth¬ 
ing should be at once gently removed, and 
he should be placed upon his back with his 
head raised a couple of inches by a folded 
garment. 

His entire body, and particularly his head 
and chest, should then be profusely dashed 
with cold water. In preparation for this 
step, a messenger should be despatched for a 
good supply of ice, and several buckets of 
ice-water should be made ready for use as 
rapidly as possible. The ice-water must not 
be sprinkled over the patient, but dashed 
against him in large bowlfuls. While one 
person prepares the ice-water, and another 
uses it, a third and even a fourth may employ 
themselves in rubbing the surface of the 
patient briskly, each with a handful of 
cracked ice enclosed in a towel. 

To Reduce the Temperature. 

The purpose of these measures is to 
reduce the temperature of the body to 
something like a natural standard. When 
the decline in heat is noticed, the cold ap¬ 
plications should cease, and the patient 
should be carefully removed to a dry spot, 
where the entire surface of his body should 
be dried with towels. If any tendency to¬ 
ward a return of the high temperature should 
manifest itself, as is sometimes the case, even 
after the restoration of consciousness, it must 
be met at once by a renewal of cold applica¬ 
tions. A second rise in temperature need 
not excite surprise when we reflect upon the 
amount of superheated blood within the body 
not yet exposed to the influence of the cold 
applications. 

Artificial respiration must be resorted to 


as soon as the heated condition of the body 
is overcome, and continued until natural 
respiration returns. (See directions under 
“ Drowning.”) The dashing of cold water 
over the chest and face is a useful means of 
encouraging a return of the suspended func¬ 
tion of breathing, but the mechanical methods 
are best relied on in the main for this purpose. 

PERSONS WHO ARE FROZEN. 

Persons unconscious from exposure to 
cold require a special manner of treatment. 
The effect of excessive cold upon the body 
as a whole, and especially so in intoxicated 
persons who have lain down in the open air 
to sleep, is at first to produce unconscious¬ 
ness, which, if warmth is not applied, will 
sooner or later pass into actual death. 
When excessive cold prevails the inclination 
to sit down or to lie down should be resisted, 
for this is the first indication of freezing. 
First a sleepy feeling creeps over one, and 
then loss of consciousness supervenes. 

In order to restore a person from this un¬ 
conscious condition warmth may not be 
rapidly applied to the whole body, but it 
should be thawed out by slow degrees. 
Furthermore, the limbs must be very care¬ 
fully handled, to avoid fracturing any one of 
them, for cold renders them very brittle. 
The patient should be brought into an un¬ 
heated room, undressed, and covered up to 
the nostrils and mouth with snow or pow¬ 
dered ice, with which he should be constantly 
and gently rubbed. The snow should be 
removed as fast as it melts, until the skin 
begins to grow warm and the limbs relax. 

When its vitality has returned to the skin 
the snow should be removed and the whole 
body rubbed with cold cloths. Only now 
may the temperature of the room be gradu¬ 
ally raised and the patient placed in a tepid 
bath, and afterward in a warm one. From 



WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


827 


this point the treatment usual in the case of 
lethargic persons is to be instituted. The 
rescued individual must be restricted to a 
light diet for a day or two after emerging 
from the lethargy. 

POISONS. 

The treatment in cases of poisoning re¬ 
quires the stomach to be emptied as quickly 
as possible of the poisonous substance by 
means of vomiting, purging, or the stomach- 
pump. Tickling the membrane of the throat 
with the finger or with the tip of a feather is 
in many instances sufficient to induce vomit¬ 
ing. Usually after the giving of an emetic 
this means is used to hasten its action. 
Common salt serves a useful emetic action 
when dissolved in the smallest quantity of 
water which will absorb it, and given every 
minute until vomiting occurs. 

Another valuable emetic, particularly for 
children, is pulverized ipecacuanha, \vhich 
can be had of any druggist. Warm water is 
very commonly used to produce vomiting, 
and so too is mustard mixed in warm water. 
After vomiting is begun there is usually little 
trouble in keeping it up by simply giving a 
plenty of tepid water. 

HYDROPHOBIA. 

Mad dogs are apt to be very quiet, slug¬ 
gish, and sullen, and to slink away by them¬ 
selves ; others, however, become restless and 
irritable, and bite and run away. Most such 
dogs lose their appetite, but they swallow 
very abnormal substances, such as earth, 
straw, and shreds of cloth. Mad dogs all 
bark in a peculiar manner, and this is a 
characteristic feature of the disease. Their 
proclivity for biting exhibits itself rather 
against animals than against men, and some¬ 
times they confine themselves to snapping 
at inanimate objects ; yet they do not always 


spare their masters. They bite in a noiseless, 
insidious manner, without previous barking 
or snarling. Death follows eight or nine 
days later. 

The recognition of hydrophobia, it will 
accordingly be seen, is not without difficulty, 
and for this reason it is to be urgently 
recommended to every owner of a dog, that, 
so soon as he perceives in the animal any 
departure from his usual condition and 
behavior, immediately the object of suspicion 
should be secluded from mankind. 

A dog who has bitten a human being is 
very apt to be slain at once by the by¬ 
standers. This should not be permitted, 
but the suspected animal should be placed 
in confinement and watched under proper 
safeguards for the appearance of the disease. 
Should no indubitable symptoms indicate the 
disease in the dog, it can be readily seen 
what unnecessary mental distress will have 
been saved both to the person bitten and to 
his friends. 

The ordinary treatment for a dog bite is 
to cauterize the wound, destroying the 
poison by . burning away the part infected. 
But those who are bitten by a dog that has 
rabies should resort to the Pasteur treatment 
at once, which has proved efficacious in 
nearly every instance. 

OVERCOME BY GASES. 

Persons suffocated by carbonic acid, car¬ 
bonic oxide, illuminating gas or sewer gas 
must be removed as quickly as possible to a 
room where the air is pure and where the 
windows and doors are kept open to secure 
a constant renewal of the atmosphere. 

All clothing must be removed as rapidly 
as possible, and the patient, completely de¬ 
nuded, placed in a half-recumbent position, 
and the measures already detailed in cases 
of drowning employed to restore him to life. 




328 


WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


If the respiratory movements have already 
ceased, long-continued artificial respiration 
can alone be expected to give success. 

SCALDS AND BURNS. 

The following facts cannot be too firmly 
impressed on the mind of the reader; that in 
either of these accidents the first , best , and 
often tho only remedies reqidred are sheets of 
wadding, fine wool, or carded cotton, and in 
default of these, violet powder, flour, mag¬ 
nesia, or chalk. The object for which these 
several articles are employed is the same in 
each instance ; namely, to exclude the air 
from the injured part; for if the air can be 
effectually shut out from the raw surface, and 
care is taken not to expose the tender part 
till the new cuticle is formed, the cure may 
be safely left to nature. 

The moment a person is called to a case 
of scald or burn, he should cover the part 
with a sheet, or portion of a sheet, of wad¬ 
ding, taking care not to break any blister 
that may have formed, or stay to remove any 
burnt clothes that may adhere to the surface, 
but as quickly as possible envelope every 
part of the injury from all access of the air, 
laying one or two more pieces of wadding 
on the first, so as effectually to guard the 
burn or scald from the irritation of the at¬ 
mosphere; and if the article used is wool or 
cotton, the same precaution of adding more 
material where the surface is thinly covered, 
must be adopted ; a light bandage finally 
securing all in their places. 

If the skin is much injured in burns, spread 
some linen pretty thickly with chalk oint¬ 
ment and lay over the part, and give the 
patient some brandy and water if much 
exhausted; then send for a medical man. If 
not much injured, and very painful, use the 
same ointment, or apply carded cotton dipped 
in lime water and linseed oil. If you please, 


you may lay cloths dipped in ether over the 
parts, or cold lotions. Treat scalds in same 
manner, or cover with scraped raw potato ; 
but the chalk ointment is the best, In the 
absence of all these, cover the injured part 
with molasses and dust over it plenty of 
flour. 

DIRT IN THE EYE. 

Place your forefinger upon the cheek 
bone, having the patient before you ; then 
slightly bend the finger ; this will draw down 
the lower lid of the eye, and you will prob¬ 
ably be able to remove the dirt; but if this 
will not enable you to get at it, repeat this 
operation while you have a knitting needle 
or bodkin placed over the eyelid; this will 
turn it inside out, and enable you to remove 
the sand, or eyelash, etc., with the corner of 
a fine silk handkerchief. As soon as the 
substance is removed, bathe the eye with 
cold water and exclude the light for a day. 
If the inflammation is severe, let the patient 
use a refrigerant lotion. 

LIME IN THE EYE. 

Syringe it well with warm vinegar and 
water in the proportion of one ounce of 
vinegar to eight ounces of water ; exclude 
light. 

IRON OR STEEL SPICULE IN THE 

EYE. 

These occur while turning iron or steel in 
a lathe, and are best remedied by doubling 
back the upper or lower eyelid, according to 
the situation of the substance, and, with the 
flat edge of a silver probe, taking up the 
metallic particle, using a lotion made by dis¬ 
solving six grains of sugar of lead and the 
same of white vitriol in six ounces of water, 
and bathing the eye three times a day until 
the inflammation subsides. Another plan is 

Drop a solution of sulphate of copper 





WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


329 


(from one to three grains of the salt to one 
ounce of water) into the eye, or keep the 
eye open in a wineglassful of solution. 
Bathe with cold lotion, and exclude light to 
keep down inflammation. 

DISLOCATED THUMB. 

This is frequently produced by a fall. 
Make a clove hitch, by passing two loops of 
cord over the thumb, placing a piece of rag 
under the cord to prevent it cutting the 
thumb; then pull in the same line as the 
thumb. Afterwards apply a cold lotion. 

CUTS AND WOUNDS. 

In all fresh wounds, the first consideration 
is to remove foreign bodies, such as pieces 
of glass, splinters of wood, pieces of stone, 
earth or any other substance that may have 
been introduced by the violence of the act 
which caused the wound. 

Where there is much loss of blood, an 
attempt should be made to stop it with dry 
lint, and compression above the part wounded, 
if the blood be of a florid color ; and below, 
if of a dark color. In proportion to the im¬ 
portance of the part wounded will be the 
degree of the discharge of blood, and the 
subsequent tendency to inflammation and 
its consequences. 

Clean cut wounds, whether deep or super¬ 
ficial and likely to heal by the first intention, 
should always be washed or cleaned, and at 
once evenly and smoothly closed by bring¬ 
ing both edges close together, and securing 
them in that position by adhesive plaster. 
Cut thin strips of sticking-plaster, and bring 
the parts together; or, if large and deep, 
cut two broad pieces, so as to look like the 
teeth of a comb, and place one on each side 
of the wound, which must be cleaned pre¬ 
viously. The pieces must be arranged so 
that they shall interlace one another; then, 


by laying hold of the pieces on the right 
side with one hand, and those on the other 
side with the other hand, and pulling them 
from one another, the edges of the wound 
are brought together without any difficulty. 

COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. 

From any cause, as apoplexy, or a piece 
of fractured bone pressing on it, there is loss 
of sensation. If you tickle the feet of the 
injured person he does not feel it. You can¬ 
not arouse him so as to get an answer. The 
pulse is slow and labored ; the breathing 
deep, labored and snorting; the pupil en¬ 
larged. Raise the head, loosen strings or 
tight things, and send for a surgeon. If one 
cannot be got at once, apply mustard poul¬ 
tices to the feet and thighs, leeches to the 
temples, and hot water to the feet. 

CHOKING. 

When a person has a fish bone in the 
throat, insert the forefinger, press upon the 
root of the tongue, so as to induce vomit¬ 
ing ; if this does not do, let him swallow a 
large piece of potato or soft bread ; and if 
these fail, give a mustard emetic. A piece 
of food lodged in the throat may sometimes 
be pushed down with the finger, or removed 
with a hair-pin quickly straightened and 
hooked at the end, or by two or three vigor¬ 
ous blows on the back between the shoulders. 

SPRAINED ANKLE. 

Wash the ankle frequently with cold salt 
water, which is far better than warm vinegar 
or decoctions of herbs. Keep your foot as 
cold as possible to prevent inflammation, and 
sit with it elevated on a cushion. Live on 
very low diet, and take every day some 
cooling medicine. By obeying these direc¬ 
tions only, a sprained ankle has been cured 
in a few days. 



330 


WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 


A SIMPLE CURE FOR SPRAINS. 

A lady who can testify to the efficacy of 
the following cure for a sprain or bruise 
gives it to the public: Make a plaster by 
stirring salt enough into hot molasses to 
make it of a consistency to remain in place 
when confined by a muslin bandage. Suit 
the size of your plaster to the spot to be 
covered, and pack it securely around the 
injured member. 

HOW TO RAISE THE BODY OF A 

DROWNED PERSON. 

In a recent failure to recover the body of 
a drowned person in New Jersey, a French- 
Canadian undertook the job, and proceeded 
as follows: Having supplied himself with 
some glass gallon jars and a quantity of un¬ 
slacked lime, he went in a boat to the place 
where the man was seen to go down. One 
of the jars was filled half full of lime, and 
then filled up with water and tightly corked. 
It was then dropped into the water and soon 
after exploded at the bottom of the river 
with a loud report. After the third trial, 
each time at a different place, the body rose 
to the surface and was secured. 

STINGS OF INSECTS. 

A free application of ammonia to the part 
bitten will give instant relief from the stings 
of bees, wasps, hornets, scorpions, etc. The 
part may afterward be covered with sweet 
oil. 

BITES OF SNAKES. 

These are dangerous and require powerful 
remedies. The bites of the various kinds of 
snakes do not have the same effects, but 
people suffer from them in different ways. 
It is of the greatest importance to prevent 
the poison mixing with the blood and to 
remove the whole of it instantly from the 


body. Take a piece of tape or anything that 
is near and tie tightly around the part bitten; 
if it be the leg or arm, immediately above 
the bite and between it and the heart. The 
wound should be sucked several times by 
any person near. There is no danger to the 
person performing this kindness, providing 
his tongue or any part of the mouth has no 
broken skin. Having sucked the poison, 
immediately spit it out. 

Cutting Out the Poison. 

A better plan is to cut out the central part 
bitten with a sharp instrument. This may 
not be a very pleasant operation for an ama¬ 
teur, but, as we have to act promptly in such 
an emergency, courage will come. After 
the operation bathe the wound for some time 
to make it bleed freely. Having done this 
rub the wound with a stick of lunar-caustic 
or, still better, a solution composed of sixty 
grains of lunar-caustic dissolved in an ounce 
of water. This solution should be dropped 
into the wound. 

Of course the band tied round the wound 
in the first place must be kept on during the 
time these means are being adopted. The 
wound afterwards must be covered with lint 
dipped in cold water. There is generally 
great depression of strength in these cases ; 
it is necessary, therefore, to give some stimu¬ 
lant, a glass of hot brandy and water, or 
twenty drops of sal-volatile. When the 
patient has somewhat recovered give him a 
little mustard in hot water to make him 
vomit; if, on the other hand, the vomiting 
is continuous, a large mustard poultice 
should be applied to the stomach and one 
pill given composed of a grain of solid 
opium. Note.— Only one of these pills 
must be given without medical advice. All 
these remedies can be acted upon until a 
surgeon arrives. 





ETIQUETTE 

4 POLITE SOCIETY 



MERSON was one of 
the most acute ob¬ 
servers of manners 
that culture has ever 
produced, and he 
wrote: “Thelonger 
I live the more I 
am impressed with 
the importance of manners. 
When we reflect upon their 
persuasive and cheering force, 
how they recommend, prepare 
and draw people together; 
when we think what keys they 
are, and to what secrets ; what 
high and inspiring character they convey, 
and to what divination is required of us for 
the reading of this fine telegraphy, we see 
what range the subject has.” 

Manners with some, are the gracious 
legacy of inheritance, education and environ¬ 
ment; with others they are the growth of 
the careful cultivation of years, and carry 
with them the calm self-poise of the man 
who has conqured circumstances and estab¬ 
lished his own position. In such as these 
there inheres a certain power that impresses 
itself upon all who come in contact with its 
influence. 


The self-possession and certainty stamped 
upon the face of a man who inherited, or 
won for himself, the sure and perfect armor 
of good-breeding, is but the outer stamp of 
the man himself. 

Good manners are profitable as well as 
pleasant. They carry with them a measure¬ 
less weight of influence. A gentleman 
once brought into his library a costly sub¬ 
scription book. “ My dear,” said his wife, 
“you already have a copy of that work.” 
“I knew I did,” he replied, “but the man¬ 
ners of the lad who sold it were so elegant 
that it was a pleasure to purchase it.” 

Charm of Good Manners. 

The charm of good manners is not a 
qualification belonging to any particular 
station in life, for, to the poor and unlettered 
oftimes may be traced deeds and actions 
that mark them as nature’s noblemen. Ed¬ 
ucation, wealth and social station do not 
always confer them, but the outer grace 
may be acquired by all. 

In this way it has come to be known that 
a refinement of laws in any country indicates 
that a gradual refinement of manners has led 
up towards, and fully crystallized into a refine¬ 
ment of the hearts and the laws of the people. 

331 






















332 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


It has long been a proverb that “manners 
make the man.” There is a truth in the 
saying which is universally recognized and 


admitted. According to the manners, we 
give to others the character of the true lady 
or the true gentleman. 



NDISCRIMINATE introduc¬ 
tions are always in bad taste, 
yet, since the sweetest of our 
friendships are wont to reach 
us through the medium of a 
formal presentation, it is well 
that we understand how, when 
and where these introductions should prop- 
.erly take place. 

As a rule, introductions, to be agreeable, 
should be desired before being given ; and 
since we are, or should be, in a measure, the 
endorsers of those whom we present to our 
friends, a due degree of care should be 
exercised in so doing, lest inadvertently we 
force upon another what may prove an un¬ 
desirable acquaintance. 

Introduce Yourself. 

There are times when it is eminently 
proper to introduce one’s self, such as when 
you find upon entering a drawing room that 
the hostess has forgotten your name ; or if 
at should have been wrongly announced ; or 
if you are an entire stranger to the hostess, 
it is not only proper, but imperative, to 
introduce yourself at once. Then, too, it 
occasionally happens that a gentleman, 
wishing to render some assistance to a lady 
who is traveling alone, prefers to introduce 
.himself beforehand. This, of course, leaves 


the lady perfectly free to recognize him or 
not at any future time. Occasions such 
as these are constantly arising, and tact and 
judgment must be used to decide the ques¬ 
tion for one’s self. 

Watering-place introductions are frequently 
given for the convenience and pleasure of the 
time being. They are usually made by the 
eldest lady of either party and further recog¬ 
nition in the future is optional. 

Correct Form of Introduction. 

Do not introduce gentlemen to ladies 
without first being sure that the acquaintance 
will be agreeable to the lady, since it is much 
more difficult for a lady to shake off an un¬ 
desirable acquaintance than it is for a gen¬ 
tleman. In the case of foreigners it is always 
well to be careful before introducing them to 
young ladies at their own request, since it 
often happens that foreign titles found upon 
this side the water are extremely dubious. 
Hence one is clearly justified in referring 
them to her parents or guardians for the 
required favor. 

In introducing ladies, present the younger 
to the elder, unless in case of some marked 
exception, such as a lady of distinction. 

The simplest form in presenting one per¬ 
son to another is always the best. A wife 
presents her husband as “Mr. North,” 









ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


333 


“Colonel North,” or “Doctor North,” al¬ 
ways giving him his rightful titles. The wife 
of the President should introduce him as 
“The President,” while we should address 
him as “Mr. President.” 

In introducing a gentleman to a lady one 
should say, “Mrs. A., allow (or permit) me 
to introduce (or present) Mr. B.; Mr. B., 
Mrs. A.,” being sure that the names are 
distinctly pronounced. If this should not be 
the case, let the parties themselves ask it at 
once, a simple “ I beg pardon, I did not 
understand the name,” saving much future 
annoyance. 

SALUTATIONS. 

In our own customs of salutation we bare 
the head in token of respect, never thinking I 
that in the olden time it was an act of adora- ' 
tion practiced before gods and rulers. When ! 


we rise and stand as our friends enter or leave 
our reception room, it is an act of respect, it 
was once an act of homage. The throwing 
of a kiss is an imitation of an act of worship 
by devout Romans before their gods. 

The removal of a gentleman’s glove in 
shaking hands with a lady is the relic of a 
habit based on necessity, and dating back to 
a day when the knight of old removed his 
iron gauntlet lest he crush the maiden’s hand 
within its grasp. The removal of the glove 
was practiced between men also at a later 
date, when too often beneath the heavily em¬ 
broidered gauntlet lurked the assassin’s dag¬ 
ger, so that to unglove before a hand-clasp 
grew to be considered an act of good faith. 

The bow, the hand-clasp and the kiss are 
the principal methods of salutation employed 
by the most highly civilized nations of this 
era of the world. 



LL other arts pale before the art 
of conversation as a source of 
popularity, and no other ac¬ 
complishment tends so much 
toward social success. The 
contact of many minds is a 
constant stimulus to mental activity and its 
outward expression in animated conversa¬ 
tion. It lends new power to brilliancy of 
talent, and quickens, to a certain extent, 
even the lowest and dullest of intellects. 

A man will always bear in mind that the 
greatest compliment he can pay a woman is 
a respectful, deferential attention to her 


words. There are men whose very manner 
of listening conveys, in itself, the most deli¬ 
cate flattery. 

A woman, in her turn, should always re¬ 
remember that, however interesting her con¬ 
versation may be, there is always danger 
that a man may possibly weary of its pro¬ 
tracted continuance, and so she should for¬ 
bear leaving him no loophole for escape. 
Louise Chandler Moulton enjoins one thing 
on woman which they would do well to 
recollect, and that is, “if they want a man 
to stay with them to make it evidently and 
entirely easy for him to get away. There 



















334 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


is something lawless and rebellious in even 
the best of men; they hate doing things be¬ 
cause they are obliged; they must be 
coaxed.” 

The current change of society is the light 
coin of “small talk” that breaks with chink 
and shimmer the heavy bills of large denom¬ 
ination, that else would overwhelm social 
conversation with their size. 

The very essence of the art of conversa¬ 
tion is to draw others out and cause them 
to shine; to be more anxious, apparently, 
to discover other people’s opinions than to 
advance your own. 

“Drawing Out Others.” 

Who does not remember gratefully and 
admiringly the sympathetic people who seem 
to draw out the very best there is in us— 
in whose company we appear almost bril¬ 
liant, and actually surprise ourselves by the 
fluency and point of our remarks ? Such 
people are a boon to society. No one sits 
dull and silent in their presence, or says un¬ 
pleasant, sarcastic things before them, and, 
while never seeming to advance any views 
of their own, and certainly never forcing 
them upon our attention, we involuntarily 
learn of them and love them, scarcely know¬ 
ing why. 

Sidney Smith once said: “ Man could 
direct his ways by plain reason and support 
his life on tasteless food ; but God has given 
us wit and flavor, and laughter and per¬ 
fumes, to enliven the days of man’s pilgrim¬ 
age and to charm his pained footsteps over 
the burning marl.” And Sidney Smith was 
so much the life and soul of every social 
gathering, that while the English language 
is spoken his witty remarks will be quoted 
with delight. 

Wit, however, is too often but another 
name for sarcasm and ridicule, that like a 


barbed arrow rankles long in the soul of its 
victim. True humor, it should be remem¬ 
bered, is neither scathing nor insolent; it is 
simply that bright repartee that someone 
aptly calls the “spice of conversation.” 
Hence it would be well to smother the temp¬ 
tation to be witty at the expense of another, 
and crush back the brilliant but cutting retort 
meant only to wound, not to amuse. 

Evil Speaking. 

Beware of evil speaking. In the eyes of 
all right-minded persons much that you have 
said recoils upon your own head, for no one 
has quite the same opinion of an individual 
after having listened to a series of scandalous 
stories from his lips. Hence, for your own 
sake, as well as for that of others, eschew the 
vice of evil speaking as a very pestilence. 

Let young ladies have a care how they 
speak lightly or contemptuously of one 
another at any time, but more especially 
when conversing with men. Nothing, as a 
rule, is more prejudicial to a woman, in the 
estimation of a man, than this all-too-preva- 
lent habit. No matter what the faults of 
your sister-woman may be, condone them 
gently, or if this be impossible, let a silence 
that is golden fall about the subject. 

Unhesitatingly acknowledge a woman’s 
beauty or talent, and instead of detracting 
from your own merits, it will enhance them 
in the eyes of all. A young man was once 
heard by the writer counselling his sister 
from the depths of his own experience as a 
social favorite. “Never,” said he, “say one 
word against a girl to any young man. It 
only puts you down in their estimation. Say 
something pretty and complimentary about 
them if you can ; if not, keep still.” And his 
advice was words fitly spoken, that are, in¬ 
deed, “ like apples of gold in pictures of 
silver.” 




ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


335 


Stories should never be introduced into 
general conversation unless they meet several 
requirements. In the first place, they should 
be short and well told. Secondly, they should 
be new to the company where they are told. 
Nothing is more tiresome than listening to a 
twice-told tale, though the height of good 
breeding is to smile over its tediousness. 

To be endurable, compliments should be 
made use of in a very cautious and artful 
manner. If permitted to degenerate into 
gross flattery they are far from compli¬ 
mentary to the understanding of the indi¬ 
vidual addressed. The day, happily, is long 
since past when conversation between men 
and women was confined to unmixed flattery 
on the one side and blushing acceptance on 
the other. That “ the best flattery is that 
which comes at second hand,” no one can 
deny, yet, judicious praise is not only ac¬ 
ceptable but useful many times in giving the 


needed incentive, without which the flagging 
footsteps might have faltered on their way. 

Let your voice be low and pleasantly 
modulated and your enunciation clear, dis¬ 
tinct and musical. All these things are 
marks of good breeding, and, if not yours 
by birthright, may be acquired by patience 
and perseverance. Avoid high tones and 
nasal tones. Do not talk rapidly, or in a 
hesitating, stumbling fashion. A partial 
course in elocution and voice training will 
work wonders in this direction, and any one 
determined to succeed will never regret the 
time or money so spent. 

Repose of manner should be assiduously 
cultivated. Do not fidget or loll about in 
your chair, or twist your fingers constantly, 
or play with something while you talk, or 
restlessly beat a tattoo with fingers or feet. 
All such faults render your companionship 
a burden to those about you. 


nnnnnnntxuxinccnnnnnjannnnnminnxxnnnnnnxixxnxmnn; 

H # ; 

II # Visiting (^ards # 

iiarjri:;r;,a:a.j3r;a0r;aan,acna:.rjrjCH:r/::nn'nGrjrjrj:rjr/norin: 


HE card should be perfectly 
plain, fine in texture, thin, 
white, unglazed and engraved 
in simple script without flour¬ 
ishes. Gilt edges, rounded 
or clipped corners, tinted sur¬ 
faces or any oddity of letter¬ 
ing, such as German or Old English text, are 
to be avoided. A photograph or any orna¬ 
mentation whatever upon a card savors of 
ill-breeding or rusticity. Have the script 
engraved always, never printed. The en¬ 
graved autograph is no longer considered 
in good taste, neither are written cards as 
elegant as those that are engraved. 

The regulation size, both in this country 


and England, for a lady’s visiting card is 
three and one-half inches in length and two 
and one-half inches in width. This oblong 
form is most generally used, but there is an 
almost square shape, two and a half inches 
by three, also in favor, and especially used 
by unmarried ladies where the shortness of 
their name would be too much emphasized 
in the longer card. For instance : “ Miss 
Ray” would be quite justified in choosing 
the square style, while “ Miss Ethelinda 
Crane” or “ Mrs. Algernon Spencer” would 
find the length of their names displayed to 
better advantage on the oblong card. 

Cards for gentlemen are much smaller 
than those for ladies. This holds good in 








336 


ETIQUETTE OF 

both England and America, where the re¬ 
quired size is three inches one way by one 
inch and a half the other, or thereabout. 

The largest card in use is the one some¬ 
times adopted by the newly-married and en¬ 
graved with their joint names. Thus: 

Mr. and Mrs. Grant Trowbridge 

may make use of a card four inches long by 
three and one-half in width, but a lady and 
her daughter, where their names appear to¬ 
gether, should use the first-mentioned oblong 
size for ladies. 

Engraving the Name. 

Married ladies make a point of using their 
husband’s name or initials upon their cards 
instead of their own, as : 

Mrs. George B. Cleveland. 

Or: 

Mrs. G. B. Cleveland. 

Instead of: 

Mrs. Grace E. Cleveland. 

It occasionally, however, happens that 
some lady, unwilling to so lose the identity 
of her own name, prefers this latter form. 
Or, if her family name be an old and hon¬ 
ored one, she frequently retains it, thus: 

Mrs. Grace Ethridge Cleveland. 

The black border upon a widow’s cards 
should never be over a quarter of an inch in 
depth: more than this savors of ostentation 
rather than affliction. 

Young ladies, especially if it is their first 
season in society, will find it the best form 
to have their names engraved upon the visit¬ 
ing card of their mother. 

Young ladies should always prefix “ Miss” 
to their names, the prefix “Miss” carrying 
with it a certain quiet reserve and dignity. 

Custom with reference to the cards that a 
man must carry, is considerably less arbitrary 
than towards women in the same respect. 
He may use his initials or his full name, as 


POLITE SOCIETY. 

it pleases him. He may inscribe himself 
“ Mr. John Smith,” or simply “John Smith,” 
and be quite correct in so doing, though just 
now there is a little inclination in favor of 
the more formal “ Mr.,” an English custom 
we do well in copying. 

Military, not militia, naval and judicial 
titles, may always be used. Physicians and 
clergymen have the same privilege; honor¬ 
ary titles, however, should be avoided. 

Some eminent men go to extreme sim¬ 
plicity, as, for instance, “ Mr. Webster” being 
all that graced the cards of that celebrity. 

It is hardly necessary to say that a busi¬ 
ness card should never be used as a visiting 
card. A gentleman carries his cards either 
in his pocket or in a small leather case sold 
for that purpose. 

Cards for Receptions. 

Cards may be used for receptions, lawn- 
tennis parties, afternoon teas, etc., in place of 
more formal invitations, the nature of the 
entertainment being stated in the left-hand 
corner of the card. 

There are a certain number of French 
phrases that custom has declared shall take 
the place of that “pure English undefiled” 
whereof Spenser wrote. In a few cases 
these chance to be shorter, more euphonious 
and more directly to the point than the cor¬ 
responding English phrase. For instance, 
the word “chaperon,” so important in its 
signification at the present, has no adequate 
English translation. Below is given an 
alphabetical list of those phrases in most 
frequent use, together with the abbreviations. 

French Phrases. Abbreviations. 

Bal masque .A masquerade ball. 

Chaperon .An older woman attending 

a girl in society. 

DIatinee .A morning or daylight en¬ 

tertainment. 

JHatinee musicale ... A daylight musical enter¬ 
tainment. 






ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


337 


In leaving cards follow the fashion of 
those who have paid you the same courtesy. 
If a call has been made upon you, return it 
by a call, as to return a personal visit by the 
sending of a bit of pasteboard would partake 
of the nature of a slight. If cards only have 
been sent you by a servant, return cards in 
the same manner by messenger or servant; 
if they were sent by mail, return by mail. 
If the cards of any of the gentlemen of a 
house are left, always leave the cards of any 
gentleman of your family in return. 

Making First Calls. 

Of course first calls should be made and 
returned in person, the card-leaving formal¬ 
ities coming later on. This rule is departed 
from only by a few ladies whom age, health, 
social or literary duties will excuse from 
making personal calls. These frequently 
permit themselves to send out cards in place 
of a first call, either accompanying them 
with, or immediately following them by an 
invitation to some entertainment. This at¬ 
tention should receive the same notice as a 
first call; cards should be sent in return, 
together with an answer to the invitation, if 
it is of a nature to require it, and a personal 
call must be made thereafter, unless it was 
simply an afternoon tea, and an invitation 
sent in return speedily as possible. 

Cards sent by messenger are enclosed in 
a single unsealed envelope ; sent by mail 
this envelope is enclosed with another and 
larger one which is sealed. Cards handed 
in at the door are received by the servant on 
a salver to prevent being soiled by handling. 

First Calls of the season necessitate the 
leaving of cards. Let them to be left quietly 
in the hall. This custom assists the lady of 
the house in revising her visiting list. 

Letters of Introduction necessitate that 
those who have received courtesies in re¬ 


sponse to such, should, upon their departure, 
send P. P. C. cards to those that have thus 
remembered them. 

A Change of Residence renders it desir¬ 
able to send cards by mail to one’s friends 
with the new address engraved thereon. 
However, should there be unpaid calls, the 
cards to these should be left in person. 

A Reception Day. 

The Return from an Absence, including 
any length of time, should be announced by 
sending out cards having the address and 
reception day engraved upon them. Where 
P. P. C. cards have been issued previous to 
departure these should always follow the 
return 

Preceding a Debut. Previous to the date 
decided upon for the presentation of a 
debutante to the social world, the young 
girl’s mother calls upon those of her friends 
whom she desires to be present upon the 
occasion and leaves them her own and her 
husband’s cards, and, if she have grown sons, 
their cards also. 

Reception Invitations to a full dress recep¬ 
tion are preceded by a call by card upon all 
the acquaintances to whom the hostess may 
be indebted. 

After Cards is the name applied to those 
that are sent to friends after a marriage and 
are engraved thus : 

Mr. and Mrs. Charles E. Smith. 

Later on, however, when the bride returns 
visits, she usually leaves her own card with 
her married name engraved upon it, thus: 

Mrs. Charles E. Smith. 

at the same time leaving her husband’s sepa¬ 
rate card with her own. 

Before Marriage, the bride expectant in 
paying her farewell calls, leaves her own 
separate card, together with that of her 


22 



ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


O O Q 
OOO 

mother or chaperon, with all acquaintances 
she may wish to retain in her new life. 

Among the cards as yet not referred to in 
this department are the following: 

Cards of Congratulation, such as those 
sent the parents of a newly-betrothed couple 
upon the announcement of the betrothal; 
those sent the happy parents of a lately ar¬ 
rived son or daughter, etc. Cards of this 
description should be left in person, though 
it is not expected that you should enter and 
make a formal visit. The leaving in person, 
however, is a compliment. 

Cards of Betrothal are distributed by the 
parents of the newly-engaged pair, leaving 
their cards with their own on all friends of 
the family. Individuals receiving these cards 
should call as soon as possible. 


Cards of Courtesy are sent on many oc¬ 
casions. For instance, to a house where 
the children or youth of the family have 
been invited without including the elders. 
This is done in acknowledgment of the cour¬ 
tesy extended to their children. Again, a 
gift however simple, even flowers, should 
always be accompanied by a card of cour¬ 
tesy, never by a card simply. Cards should 
also accompany, or be attached to, flowers 
sent to a funeral, that the family may know 
friends remembered them in their sorrow. 

Cards of Inquiry are frequently sent, or 
better still, left in person, at the homes of 
friends prostrated by severe illness, or by 
recent bereavement. These usually have 
the words, “To inquire,” or “With kind 
inquires,” pencilled above the name. 



EREMONIOUS visits should al¬ 
ways be short, fifteen to twenty 
minutes being the outside limit, 
and a shorter time often suffic¬ 
ing. Even should the conver¬ 
sation become very animated, 
do not prolong your stay beyond this period. 
It is far better that your friends should 
regret your withdrawal than long for your 
absence. A lull in the conversation, a rising 
from her seat, or some pretext on the part 
of the hostess, or the arrival of a guest, all 
give an opportunity for leave-taking which 
should be made use of at once. 

A hostess does not necessarily advance to 
receive her guests, simply rising and moving 
forward a step in order to shake hands (if 


she should so wish), remaining standing till 
they are seated, and, if possible, keeping the 
latest comer near her side. Gentlemen 
should always permit the lady to make the 
first advance in the matter of handshaking. 
It is her prerogative. 

As the guests depart, the hostess does not 
accompany each one to the door, but rising, 
remains standing until the guests have quite 
left the room, when it is to be supposed they 
will be met by a servant. In country towns 
the hostess usually accompanies the guest to 
the door, if there are others present, excusing 
herself to them and remaining out of the 
room but a moment. 

Cultivate the art of leaving; nothing will 
contribute more to your social success. It 





ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY 


339 



is said of so brilliant a woman as Madame 
de Stael that she failed lamentably in this 
particular, and, on the occasion of her visit 
to Weimar, made with the avowed inten¬ 
tion of intellectually 
captivating the liter¬ 
ary lions of the age, 

Goethe and Schiller, 
she made one fatal 
mistake, she stayed 
too long! Goethe 
wrote to Schiller: 

“ Madame de Stael is 
a bright, entertaining 
person, but she ought 
to know when it is 
time to go! ” It is 
also evident from her 
own statement that 
she did not know how 
to go. She lingered 
after she had started, 
and even if this were 
an unpardonable sin 
on the part of so mar¬ 
velous a woman, it is 
surely a capital crime 
on the part of ordinary 
mortals. 

Never say, “ I must 
go,” but, when you 
have fi n i s h e d your 
visit and rise to de¬ 
part, go ! Never per¬ 
mit yourself to be 
drawn into touching 
upon any subject at 
this critical moment 
that will necessitate 

lengthy discourse for yourself and hostess, or 
force upon you the awkward alternative of 
reseating yourself to finish the conversation. 
There is always a certain awkwardness in 


thus repeating the ceremony of leave-taking 
which may be avoided by a quick and grace¬ 
ful departure that leaves both host and guest 
with feelings of the utmost amiability. 


A MORNING CALL. 


There, is possibly, more difference of 
opinion on the subject of who shall make 
the first visit or call and when it shall be 
made, than almost any other point of eti- 



















































340 


ETIOUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


quette. At the same time more importance 
is attached to it than to almost any other 
social question, and it touches more uni¬ 
formly every phase of city or country life 
than any other canon of courtesy. 

Common sense and kindliness of heart are 
always to be relied upon in matters of this 
nature, and the initiative may safely be taken 
by those who have social position, age, or 
length of residence on their side. Of course 
in large cities the immense demands of 
social life give a certain immunity from any¬ 
thing like promiscuous calling to those 


whose circle of acquaintance has already 
grown beyond the limits of their time. In 
towns and villages, however, no such immu¬ 
nity exists, and a call may be easily made, 
or a card left, while, on the other hand, 
should the new acquaintance prove “ push¬ 
ing,” or in any way obnoxious, one simply 
ceases to leave one’s cards and the evil is 
done away with. 

Any visit made between the hours of 
twelve and six is to be looked upon as a 
morning visit, though there is a little differ¬ 
ence in various cities with regard to the 
exact time. Where one expects to touch 


upon reception hours, from three to five is 
usually a safe limit. In country towns or 
the small cities, from two to five are the 
usual hours for paying visits. Evening visits 
should be made between the hours of eight 
and nine, and ordinarily should never extend 
in length beyond the hour of ten. 

Gentlemen are permitted to call upon 
lady friends, Sundays after church and Sun¬ 
day evenings, business cares being their 
excuse for not availing themselves of the 
other days of the week. Of course, if there 
exists any known objection in the family to 
Sunday visiting all their friends are bound 
to respect it. 

A Card May be Left. 

If a lady have a known reception day, 
callers are bound, in common politeness, 
to make their visits, as far as possible, 
upon that day. If this is not done, either 
a card only should be left, or, if a personal 
visit is intended, particular instructions 
should be given to the servant to the 
effect that if “ Mrs. Brown is otherwise 
engaged, she is not to trouble herself to 
come down.” For which thoughtfulness,, 
“ Mrs. Brown,” if she be a busy woman, 
and troubled with many socical cares, will 
cordially thank you. 

Unfortunately, it often happens that many 
of our friends have the same reception day, 
and one’s own “ day ” may conflict with that 
of one’s nearest friend, so that, where the 
circle of acquaintance is large, much good 
nature, a few apologies and a great many 
cards are needed to safely balance the social 
accounts. 

The simple and necessary formulae of, 
“Not at home,” or “Engaged,” are more 
frequently questioned than any other social 
custom. Nevertheless their use is often a 
necessity, while, on the contrary, their abuse 



ETIQUETTE OF THE DRAWING-ROOM. 




























































































ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


341 


is to be regretted. No suspicion of an un¬ 
truth need apply to either, for the phrase, 
“ Not at home,” is used with the accepted 
signification of, “ Not at home, for the time 
being, to any visitors.” If, however, con¬ 
science rebels against this so transparent 
fraud, there is always the alternative of 
“ Engaged,” which carries not the least sus¬ 
picion of deception with it, but is somewhat 
less gracious to the ear. 

In suburban towns and small cities, where 
reception days are not common, the lady of 
the house must be very careful how and 
when she denies herself to visitors. 

A gentleman does not call upon a lady 
without some intimation of her wishes in the 
matter, unless he is the bearer of a letter of 


introduction, or is taken to her home by 
some friend sufficiently well acquainted to 
warrant the liberty. He may, however, 
seek an introduction through some mutual 
acquaintance. 

Ladies may express regret at being out 
when a gentleman called ; he also should 
regret the absence. If it should happen 
that a gentleman should call several times in 
succession and be so unfortunate as to miss 
the lady each time, it would be quite proper 
for her to write him a note, regretting her 
absence and appointing an evening when she 
would be at home for his next call. This 
would remove any feeling of annoyance on 
his part that perhaps her absence had been 
premeditated. 


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Weddings and Wedding Anniversaries' 

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N engagement is now frequently 
announced in rather a formal 
manner. This, however, is not 
usually done until a short time 
previous to the marriage itself. 
Sometimes it comes out in the 
society papers immediately after it has been 
made known to the kinfolk and intimate 
friends. Felicitations follow as a matter of 
course. 

The lady does not make any ceremonies 
calls after this announcement has been made, 
it being supposed that before this occurs she 
shall have left cards upon all her friends. 
If no formal announcement is made the bride- 
to-be must, before invitations are issued, 
leave cards with her friends and acquaint¬ 


ances. In the city she need not enter to 
make a personal call, in the country she will 
probably find it necessary so to do. 

Time was when during the two weeks, or 
longer, elapsing between the issuing of the 
invitations and the occurrence of the wed¬ 
ding, the bride-expectant was not to be seen 
in public, nor by chance callers at the house, 
a custom which still prevails to some extent, 
but is superseded in the most fashionable cir¬ 
cles by a series of especial entertainments given 
during this interval. These, however, are a 
great tax upon time needed for other purposes. 

By those so desiring, the words, “ No 
presents received,” may be engraved in the 
left hand corner of the card. This is often 
a relief to many of the guests, and, at the 
























342 


ETIQUETTE OF 

same time does not prevent the very inti¬ 
mate friends, as well as members of the 
family, from sending quietly such gifts as 
they may choose, which, of course, are not 
exhibited. 

The bride acknowledges the reception of 
each gift by a graceful little note of thanks. 
Some of them doubtless will come from per¬ 
sons unknown to her, friends of the groom, 
and to these she must be especially prompt 
in returning her acknowledgments. 

The Ushers. 

The duties of the ushers in a church wed¬ 
ding are very important. At large weddings 
as many as half a dozen, or more, ushers are 
sometimes needed to manage the great num¬ 
ber of guests. They usually appoint one of 
their number as head usher, and to him falls 
the duty of deciding on the space to be 
reserved for near elatives, which is to be 
divided from the remainder of the church 
by white ribbons. He makes sure that the 
organist is in place, indicates the approach 
of the bridal party that the Wedding March 
may greet them, and instructs the other 
ushers as to their respective duties. 

In escorting guests to their seats an usher 
gives his right arm to a lady. A gentleman 
who may be in her company should follow 
after. 

The “best man” is usually an intimate 
friend or relative of the groom. He drives 
to the church with him, stands by his side 
at the altar-rails while he awaits the approach 
of the bride, and, stepping back, it is he that 
holds the groom’s hat during the ceremony 
and hands it to him at its close. 

The ushers frequently form, two and two, 
and precede the bridal party up the aisle. 

The number of these is optional, from one 
to twelve being allowable. Four, six or 
eight are usually chosen. Unmarried sisters 


POLITE SOCIETY. 

of the bride and groom are frequently 
selected. Custom emphatically declares that 
they must be younger than the bride. Por 
an elder sister thus to officiate would be ex* 
tremely inappropriate. 

Home Weddings. 

Home weddings are attended with much 
less trouble, fatigue and expense than fashion¬ 
able church weddings. The clergyman en¬ 
ters the room and stands facing the people ; 
the bridal couple follow and stand facing 
him. Hassocks are provided for kneeling, 
if desired. The father, or some near male 
relative, stands ready, in sight of the clergy^ 
man, to give away the bride. He should 
simply bow his affirmation when the ques¬ 
tion is asked. 

There are many additions that may be 
made to this simple ceremony, such as a 
troop of pretty children holding white rib¬ 
bons each side to mark the path the bridal 
pair must walk to reach the minister, while 
the sweet strains of a hidden band of musi¬ 
cians may accompany their footsteps. 

The House Decorations. 

Floral decorations, within limits, are beau¬ 
tiful and appropriate, but where they are so 
lavishly displayed as to remind more of the 
florist’s bill than the beauty of the blossoms, 
their effect is lost in a certain vulgarity that 
attends all too-visible evidences of outlay. 

One pretty idea is to carry out the fancy 
of having one kind of flower, massed accord' 
ing to the chosen design, serve for the deco-> 
rations, at flower weddings ; for example^ 
rose weddings, lily weddings, daffodil wed* 
dings, etc. The design itself is according to 
the taste of the florist or the family, and is a 
subject changing so easily with the season 
or the fashion as to merit no mention here. 

It is necessary for the bride to include her 



ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


343 


new address with her wedding invitations, 
unless, as is still more “ chic,” cards for 
several reception days are issued after her 
return. These dates being fixed, it is then 
that first calls may be made upon her at her 
new residence with the happy certainty of 
finding her at home. 

At these quiet, informal receptions, she 
receives simply as a member of society, 
wearing usually a rich, dark silk without any 
reminders of her recent bridehood. 


WEDDING ANNIVERSARIES. 


The wedding anniversaries are numerous, 
but only a few of these are habitually ob¬ 
served. Paper, wooden, tin, crystal, silver 
and golden are the favorite ones, the others 
being so rare as to hardly merit being in¬ 
cluded in the list 

The following complete list of the anni¬ 
versaries, with the respective dates of their 
occurrence, may be useful for reference : 


First Anniversary.Paper Wedding. 

Second Anniversary.Cotton Wedding. 

Third Anniversary.Leather Wedding. 

Fifth Anniversary...Wooden Wedding. 

Seventh Anniversary.Woolen Wedding. 

Tenth Anniversary.Tin Wedding. 

Twelfth Anniversary.Silk and Linen Wedding. 

Fifteenth Anniversary.Crystal Wedding. 

Twentieth Anniversary.{ % 

Twenty-fifth Anniversary.^.Silver Wedding. 

Thirtieth Anniversary.Pearl Wedding. 

Thirty-fifth Anniversary.Coral Wedding. 

Fortieth Anniversary.Ruby Wedding. 

Forty-fifth Anniversary.Bronze Wedding. 

Fiftieth Anniversary. Golden Wedding. 

Sixty-fifth Anniversary...Crown-Diamond Wedding. 
Seventy-fifth Anniversary.Diamond Wedding. 


Tin and Paper Weddings and some other 
of the earlier anniversaries are usually occa¬ 
sions for happy frolics, and merry jests as to 
the form the gifts will take, though the 
paper wedding gives place for the presenta¬ 
tion of elegant books, and a supply of fashion¬ 
able stationery. 


The Wooden Wedding is a little more 
expensive in its demands, and the gifts range 
from elegant suites of carved furniture down 
to dainty bits of hand-carving in the shape 
of panels and placques ; and from rolling- 
pins and potato-mashers all the way up to 
oaken mantels, rich with all manner of in¬ 
genious fret-work of design. 

The Crystal Wedding may also show 
forth a glittering array of gifts both orna¬ 
mental and useful. 

The Silver Wedding is, perhaps, the most 
important of all the wedding anniversaries. 
In the matter of presents it is almost impos¬ 
sible to go amiss, since there is scarcely an 
article of use or ornament from dining-room 
to reception-room and from the library desk 
to my lady’s toilet table, that has not been 
made a thing of beauty and a joy forever by 
the silversmith’s art. 

Fiftieth Anniversary. 

The Golden Wedding, from the advanced 
age at which it occurs, has an element of 
sadness in its celebration. The aged couple 
who stand so near the brink of separation 
can have little of bridal joy as they look 
back to the day when they stood before the 
altar in the first flush of youth, with life be¬ 
fore them, or as they look forward to the 
shortened span of years that links them to 
their loved ones here. The gifts that are 
laid before them should be fitly wrought of 
gold, since their love has been as gold tried 
in the furnace of life. 

If the family means are insufficient for 
numerous valuable gifts, let all the friends 
“club” together and purchase some fitting 
souvenir for the occasion. Golden-rod 
forms an appropriate floral decoration. 

But, after all, the chief idea and the pleasure 
of this anniversary is the gathering together 
of as many as possible of the relatives that 




















344 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


yet remain to greet the pair at this, the 
golden milestone of their life’s journey. 

The Diamond Wedding occurs so seldom, 
and is so much like the others in the manner, 
if not the matter of its gifts, as to scarcely 
require mention here. 

The entertainment at these anniversary 
celebrations is very much the same as at 
weddings or other gatherings. The refresh¬ 
ments may be served at tables, or a “stand 
up ” collation given. In this latter case, 
there should be one or two tables set for the 
elders of the party. 


At Silver and Golden Weddings presenta¬ 
tion speeches are frequently made by some 
friend, and at golden anniversaries a regular 
program is oftimes carried out. Anniversary 
poems are read, “ The Hanging of the 
Crane” recited, congratulatory telegrams 
from absent friends are announced, and any 
old acquaintances present that *can be per¬ 
suaded to say a few words of “ ye olden 
times” are pressed into service. Good taste, 
however, would seem tc prevent any repe¬ 
tition of the marriage service on such an 
occasion. 



E hostess is expected to put 
her guests, as much as pos¬ 
sible, at their ease. She 
must encourage the timid, 
and watch the requirements 
of all. No accident must 
ruffle her temper. In short, 
she must for the time, be that perfect woman 
who is— 

“Mistress of herself though china fall.” 

She must not seem to watch her servants; 
she must not scold them. Her brow must 
remain smooth through all embarrassing 
hitches, her smile be bright and quick, her 
attentions close and complimentary to her 
guests. 

On the host devolves the duty of drawing 
out any of the guests with whose particular 
specialties he is acquainted, and his manners, 
too, must at least simulate ease, if he have 
it not. Let host and hostess refrain from 


boasting of the price of any article of food 
upon^the table. 

All the tact and good breeding at the 
command of the hostess should be exercised, 
first in choosing, then in arranging, the 
guests to be present. Not too many are to 
be bidden to the ordinary dinner; six, eight 
and twelve are desirable numbers,, and four 
frequently forms the cosiest party imaginable. 

The reason of thus arranging for even 
numbers arises from the fact that, in a mixed 
dinner party, it is well to have as many 
ladies as gentlemen. The conversation will 
then be prevented from dropping into long, 
or heated, discussions, both of which are 
destructive of pleasure. It will also be 
found pleasant to invite the young, and those 
ol more advanced years, together for an 
occasion of this sort. 

Since at no social entertainment are the 
guests so dependent upon one another for 





























ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


345 


mutual entertainment as at a dinner, both by 
reason of its smallness and the compactness 
of arrangement, it will be seen that an equal 
care devolves upon the hostess in seating as 
in inviting her guests. 

The most tedious of one’s friends can be 
tolerated at a party where it is possible to 
turn to others for relief, but to be chained 
for two or three hours, with the necessity 
upon you of talking, or trying to talk, to the 
same dull or conceited individual that the 
fates have unkindly awarded as your com¬ 
panion, is a severe social strain upon equa¬ 
nimity of soul. 

Hence each hostess should strive to so 
arrange her guests that like-minded people 
should be seated together, and people with 
hobbies should either be handed over to 
those likewise possessed, or into the hands 
of some sympathetic listener, thus securing 
the pleasure of all. 

Table Decorations. 

Where the resources of the dinner-giver 
are limited, the simple decoration of a few 
flowers arranged in a fanciful basket, or a 
rare old bowl filled with roses, is sufficient, 
and is far more indicative of taste and breed¬ 
ing than many of the set floral pieces fresh 
from the florist’s hand, and speaking more 
eloquently of the size of his bill than of taste 
■or appropriateness. 

The fancy of the hour, and a pretty one 
it is, is for massing one variety of flower for 
decorative purposes. Banks of crimson roses 
dow r n the centre of the snowy cloth, or great 
clusters of vivid red flowers, can be very 
effectively employed. Shells may be filled 
with flowers and used as a table decoration. 
A large one in the middle, and a smaller one 
on each side, has a pleasing effect. At each 
plate a bouquet of flowers may be laid, those 
for the gentlemen arranged as button-holes. 


In choosing the flowers for decorations, 
avoid those blossoms having a heavy fra¬ 
grance, such as the tuberose, jasmines, 
syringas, as their penetrating odor is pro¬ 
ductive of faintness in some, and is disagree¬ 
able to many, while roses, lilies, lilacs, and 
many other delicately-scented blossoms, are 
pleasant to all. 

Naturalness is to be aimed at in these 
decorations, and set floral pieces are in bad 
taste at a private dinner. 

How the Dishes are to be Passed. 

The servants, in passing the dishes, begin 
with the guest upon the right hand of the 
master on one side of the table, ending with 
the mistress of the house. Upon the other 
side they begin with the guest upon her 
right and end with the host. As one ser¬ 
vant passes the meat or fish, another should 
follow, bearing the appropriate sauce or 
vegetable that accompanies it. 

The servants should wear thin-soled shoes, 
step lightly, be ungloved, and always have a 
small-sized damask napkin wrapped around 
the thumb of the right hand, as dexterity in 
handling the dishes requires that they should 
extend the thumb over the edge of the dish. 

They should pass - all dishes at the left of 
the guests, that their right hand may be free 
to take them. Wines only are excepted, 
these being always poured at the right. 
Servants should never lean across any guest 
at table in order to reach or pass an article. 

It will be noticed by all interested that 
the order of the formal, modern dinner a la 
Russe, is very much as follows: Oysters, 
soup, fish, roast, entrees, Roman punch, 
game, salad and cheese, dessert, fruits, 
sweets, coffee. To make this clearer, one 
bill of fare will be given as an example, 
always remembering that the number of 
courses may be lessened in order to suit the 






346 


ETIQUETTE OF 

taste or purse of the host. Many courses 
are not a necessity, but the finest quality and 
the best of cookery should mark each dish 
served. 

Every dinner should begin with soup, to 
to be followed by fish, and include some 
kind of game. To this order there is no 
repeal, since “soup is to the dinner,” says 
De la Regnier, “what the portico is to the 
building or the overture is to an opera.” 
From this there is never any deviation. 

A standard bill of fare for a well-regulated 
dinner is as follows: 

Oysters on the Half-shell. Mock Turtle Soup. 

Salmon with Lobster Sauce. Cucumbers. 

Chicken Croquettes. 

Tomato Sauce. Roast Lamb with Spinach. 
Canvas-back Duck. String Beans served on Toast. 

Celery. Lettuce Salad. Cheese Omeie>.. 
Pineapple Bavarian Cream. Charlotte Russe. 

Ices. Fruits. Coffee. 

Each course may be served on dishes dif¬ 
ferent from the other courses; also fancy 
dishes, unlike any of the rest, may be used 
to pass relishes, such as olives, and add 
greatly to the beauty of the table service. 
Suitable sets for fish and game, decorated in 
accordance, are greatly to be admired. 

If wine is not desired from principle, 
merely touching the brim of the glass with 
the finger-tip is all the refusal a well-trained 
servant needs. 

Order of Precedence. 

In the matter of going out to dinner the 
host takes precedence, giving his right arm 
to the most honored lady guest. If the 
dinner is given in honor of any particular 
guest, she is the one chosen, if not, any 
bride that may be present, or the oldest 
lady, or some visitor from abroad. The 
other guests then fall in line, gentlemen hav¬ 
ing had their partners pointed out to them, 
and wherever necessary, introductions are 


POLITE SOCIETY. 

given. The hostess comes last of all, hav¬ 
ing taken the arm of the gentleman most to 
be honored. 

This is a disputed question, for the solu¬ 
tion of which each party gives valid reasons. 
Most gentlemen prefer to give the right 
arm, since the seating of the lady.is at the 
right side always ; but many, to preserve the 
feudal significance of the custom that bade 
the good knight keep his sword arm free for 
defence, if need be, offer the left. Since, 
too, dinner gowns have usually a train to be 
managed as best it may, ladies also prefer 
the tender of the left arm, as that leaves 
their own left arm free to manage the trail¬ 
ing, silken folds. The right arm, however, 
has the balance of favor, though gentlemen 
are bound to follow the example of their 
host as he precedes them to the dining¬ 
room. 

Dinner Dre^s. 

Ladies dress elegantly, and in any fashion 
of color, that fancy or becomingness may 
dictate. Corsages, however, while open at 
the neck in either square, or heart-shaped 
fashion, are not as low-cut as for a ball-dress, 
while the sleeves are usually of demi-length. 
Gloves are always worn, and not removed 
until seated at the table. They are not re¬ 
sumed afterwards unless dancing follows. 

Very young ladies wear less expensive 
toilets of white or delicately tinted wools, or 
light-weight silks. * 

Gentlemen are expected to wear the con¬ 
ventional evening dress. To be gloved or 
not to be gloved is a vexed question with 
them. It is well to be provided with a pair 
of light gloves, and let your own self-pos¬ 
session and the example of others decide for 
you at the moment. A gentleman fault¬ 
lessly gloved cannot go far wrong. 

Promptness in arriving is a virtue, but 
remember that you have no claim upon the 





ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


347 


time of your host or hostess, until ten or 
fifteen minutes before the hour appointed, 
and, if you arrive too soon you should re¬ 
main a while in the dressing-room. 


Departure is from half to three-quarters 
of an hour after the repast, and no matter 
what the entertainment, eleven o’clock 
should find every dinner guest departed. 





BREAKFASTS 

LUNCHEONS m 
AND * TEAS 









BREAKFAST or a luncheon is 
somewhat less formal than a 
dinner and, hence, so much the 
more delightful. 

The breakfast party includes 
both gentlemen and ladies while, 
as a rule, the luncheon is an 
entertainment given to ladies. The invita¬ 
tions to a breakfast may be written, engraved 
or verbal. If a large number of guests are 
invited to meet some distinguished stranger, 
engraved invitations are issued. 

Five days or a week’s notice is usually 
considered sufficient, but if distinguished wits 
and scholars are to be secured, it is well to 
give a longer period, since their time, always 
in demand, should be bespoken well in ad¬ 
vance. A reply to the invitation is a neces¬ 
sity, because the hostess wishes time, in case 
of non-acceptance, to secure another guest. 

Where the breakfast is less stately in 
character, an informal note, written by the 
hostess, in the first person, is a pleasant 
method, or simply written on the lady’s 
visiting cards under the name in this form : 
Breakfast, Tuesday, ten o’clock, February 
fifteenth. 

Artificial light is out of place, and sun¬ 
shine should flood the apartment, while a 


certain airiness and daintiness should pervade 
the table appointments, quite the opposite 
of the elaborate display that characterizes, 
the dinner party. Flowers should form the 
decorations of the table. Breakfast parties 
are a very convenient mode of social enter¬ 
tainment for those whose limited means will 
not admit of a more extensive display of. 
hospitality. 

The Hour for Breakfast. 

Ten o’clock is the usual hour, though it 
may be as late as twelve, thus differing from 
the luncheon, which is never earlier than 
one. 

Breakfast parties are a favorite reunion 
with literary people, who generally take the 
morning hours for leisure, leaving brain 
work until later in the day. Sidney Smith 
said he liked breakfasts, “ because no man 
was conceited before one o’clock in the day.” 

In serving breakfast the bill of fare, unless 
for special occasions, should never be elabor¬ 
ate, but rather dainty and attractive, as the 
appetite usually needs tempting at this early 
hour; fewer courses of a more delicate 
variety should be served than at other meals. 
The hostess dispenses the coffee, tea and 
chocolate from the head of the table; the 
substantials are set in front of the host, who 








































348 ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 

may help the plates and hand them to the 
waiter to serve; the vegetables and other 
dishes may be handed from the side table. 

It is well-bred to serve the breakfast with 
as little formality as possible, and with as 
few attendants; one servant, a maid, or man 
servant is sufficient unless the party is un¬ 
usually large. 

If grape-fruit be used for a first course, or 
orange skins filled with juice, a wreath of 
smilax on each plate makes a pretty decora¬ 
tion. 

A breakfast should invariably begin with 



ETIQUETTE OF THE TABLE. 


fruit, followed by a course of eggs. This 
latter is one of the essentials, and offers a 
greater variety than is perhaps known out¬ 
side of France. A Spanish omelette, it 
properly made, is a thing to be treasured 
among the “pleasures of memory.” Stuffed 
eggs, or hard boiled eggs cut in slices, with 
a bechamel or white sauce, are appropriate 
and generally liked. A fish course, an entree, 
one meat, a salad and a sweet course should 
follow next in order, concluding with coffee. 

The entree and the meat may form one 
course, if a slice of duck with olives, fried 
chicken or some such dish be selected. 


Ices of all kinds are entirely out of place 
at a breakfast. An omelette souffle, peaches 
with cream, or best of all a fruit salad, are 
within the proprieties. This last never fails 
to call forth enthusiastic appreciation. It is 
simply made, and keeps perfectly for two or 
three days. Half a dozen oranges should 
be peeled, leaving no particle of the white 
adhering, and then cut in small pieces. Half 
a ripe pineapple, broken with a fork into bits 
and sugared to taste, and four bananas sliced, 
are mixed with the oranges, and the whole 
put on ice for three or four hours. This 
will be found a dish rivalling th( 
ambrosia of high Olympus. 

Hot Breads. 

With the first course of fruit, finger- 
bowls are in readiness, but are removed 
at its close. Hot breads and breakfast 
cakes are always suitable, and oatmeal, 
carefully cooked and served with thick 
cream and powdered sugar, often fol¬ 
lows the fruit. The closing course 
should be hot cakes served with honey 
or maple syrup. 

If there are ladies present, or the 
hostess presides, the coffee, chocolate, 
etc., are poured by her, and after the 
first course she asks the guests when they 
will have it served. 

The following will be found an acceptable 
bill of fare for an ordinary breakfast party. 
It can, of course, be varied to suit the con¬ 
venience and taste of housekeepers : 

Melons. Grapes. Oranges. 

Fried Perch with Sauce Tartare. Saratoga Potatoes. 

Young Chickens with Cream Gravy. 

Poached Eggs on Toast. Baked Mushrooms. 

Broiled Quails. Tomatoes or Celery. 

Bread and Butter. Crackers. Hot Cakes. 

Coffee. Tea. Chocolate. 

If a butler serves at a breakfast he does 
not wear full dress as at a dinner. 




























































































































ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


349 


LUNCHEONS. 

A luncheon is usually an entertainment 
given by a woman to women. From what¬ 
ever cause, luncheon parties are rapidly 
gaining popularity among us. Macaulay 
wrote, “ Dinner parties are mere formalities, 
but you invite a man to breakfast, because 
you want to see him,” and the same may 
apply to luncheon parties for ladies, these 
being almost exclusively their affair. 

Invitations to small luncheons are usually 
very informal, and may be written in the 
style of a familiar note of friendship; or a 
visiting card may be used, underneath the 
name of which is simply written: Luncheon 
at one o’clock, Thursday, January eight. 

The Eatables. 

The repast may be elaborately made up of 
salads, oysters, small game, chocolate, ices 
and a variety of dishes which will destroy 
the appetite for dinner, or it may simply con¬ 
sist of a cup of tea or chocolate, thin sliced 
bread and butter, chip beef or cold tongue, 
but there is the same opportunity to display 
good taste and a well-appointed table as at a 
grander entertainment. 

Ladies attend formal luncheons in very 
elegant street or carriage costumes. They 
wear rich and becoming bonnets, which they 
do not take off. They appear with gloves, 
removing them when seated at the table. 

The toilet of the hostess may be as ele¬ 
gant as she wishes, anything, in fact, short 
of an actual evening costume. 

High tea is really the evening supper, 
although sometimes the “hightea” is spread 
for an earlier hour than the supper, say seven 
6r eight o’clock. The ladies come in visit¬ 
ing costume, and the gentlemen in morning 
dress in country towns. In cities, some¬ 
times, dress coats and light gowns are con¬ 
sidered essential. 


One waitress, if quick and deft, can readily 
wait on a dozen people, especially if all the 
necessary articles for changing the courses, 
plates, silver, etc., are arranged on a side 
table in the room or outside the door. 

There are many attractive menus that can 
be suggested for teas, but the following 
seems to demand as little home labor for 
satisfactory results as any other. The word 
tea , by the way, is something of a mis¬ 
nomer, as at these entertainments the bever^ 
ages are almost invariably coffee or choco¬ 
late, or both, tea being left entirely out of 
the question: 

Menu. 

Bouillon. Bread. Crackers. Celery. 

Pickled Oysters. Chicken Salad. Olives. 

Peanut Sandwiches. Salted Almonds. 

Chocolate. Ice Cream. Fancy Cakes. 

Coffee. Fruit. 

Serve the bouillon in cups, and be sure 
that it is very hot. Have a thin slice of 
lemon floating on the surface of each cup. 
Pass crackers (the Zephyr or Snowflake 
brands are best,) with this, and choice 
blanched celery. If the tables are set before 
the guests arrive, it is well to have a couple 
of short stalks of celery laid at each plate 
and spare that amount of waiting. Have 
each cup and saucer set in a plate, and take 
all three pieces off at once. Either tea or 
coffee cups may be used, and it is, of course, 
unnecessary to have them match. 

Five O’clock Tea. 

Some ladies make it a point to be “ at 
home ” almost every day at a certain hour, 
and serve tea or coffee in their drawing¬ 
rooms, accompanied by either wafers, mac- 
caroons, fancy cakes, or small delicate sand¬ 
wiches, and perhaps bouillon for masculine 
callers. 

Such a lady who is bright and interesting, 
who gives a warm welcome, yet does not 



350 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


bind any one to a longer stay than the con¬ 
ventional ten minutes, is sure of drawing 
about her a delightful circle of acquaintances, 
men and women alike being pleased to drop 
in on their way home from the city, or from 
more pretentious gatherings. 

If bread is thin enough, butter fresh, cake 
good, and tea and coffee perfection, you 
have provided all that is necessary. In 
warm weather ices or strawberries could be 
added. In England you will very seldom 
be given more than this at the best houses, 
and in Italy, where the afternoon receptions 
are the most agreeable entertainments im¬ 
aginable, you will never be offered anything 
more than dainty little cakes, chocolate and 
tea. These slight refreshments are usually 
served in the simplest way. 


Teas have been a great “fad,” and while 
not quite so popular, are pretty enough to 
deserve mention. A table is too often con¬ 
fused in its arrangement of color on account 
of its changes of courses. This can be 
entirely done away with by adopting some 
simple color scheme. A luncheon, or tea, 
is easier to serve in this fashion. 

Amber and white will harmonize with 
celery, salads, ices and other articles needed 
at a luncheon. The yellowish white, full of 
sunlight, harmonizes with amber and can be 
followed up to deepest bronze. Amber 
glasses, creamy damask, all the tints from 
white to bronze, can be used in the dishes. 
Apricots heaped on amber dishes, ices tinted 
in harmony, and a great mass of white roses 
for a centre ornament, are appropriate. 



1 


s 


m 


EVENING PARTIES, 
RECEPTIONS and SUPPERS 




NVITATIONS for an elaborate 
evening party are sent out ten 
days or two weeks in advance 
and are issued in the name of 
the hostess alone. Husband 
and wife may be invited to¬ 
gether, addressing the envelope 
to “Mr. and Mrs. John Doe;” and daugh¬ 
ters, if there are several, may be included in 
one invitation as “The Misses Doe.” Sons, 
-if there be more than one, receive separate 
invitations, though they can be included in 
• one as “Messrs. Doe.” 

But friends, even though sheltered by the 
same rooftree, must receive separate invita¬ 
tions. To invite “ The Misses Doe and 

« 

Roe,” or “Messrs. Brown and Green,” or 


even “Mrs. Doe and Family,” would be in 
bad form. To invite the husband to any 
entertainments where there are ladies without 
including the wife would be a direct insult. 
Invitations may be sent by post or carried 
by messengers. 

Next to elaborate dinners, evening parties, 
receptions and suppers require the most 
dressing, the most preparation and are at¬ 
tended with the most formality. Prompt 
notice should be taken of the invitation, 
although it is not so important as at dinners, 
for the reason that it is not necessary for the 
hostess to know just how many persons will 
be present. You should contribute to the 
entertainment of the company in ever}’ way 
possible. 








































































































































































































































ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY 


351 


Before supper, cards, conversation, music 
are made use of to entertain the guests. 
When dancing is a feature, it does not begin 
until after supper, and while this amusement 
is in progress opportunity for conversation, 


suit its character to the company. Do not 
play classical music where it cannot possibly 
be appreciated, and, above all, attempt 
nothing that cannot be executed perfectly. 
In singing, let gentlemen remember that ii 



A LAWN 

games, etc., should be provided in other 
rooms for those who do not dance. Rules 
for going out to supper at a large party are 
•the same as those at a ball. 

If music is one of the features, try and 


PARTY. 

it is an amusing song they are to render, it 
must be perfectly unexceptional in character. 
Ladies should bear in mind in singing that 
it is much better taste in large assemblies to 
avoid the purely sentimental order of songs. 











































































































































































352 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


which, with the large number of beautiful 
compositions at our disposal, is easily done. 

Observe scrupulous silence while others 
are playing and singing. If you possess any 
musical accomplishments, and are asked to 
contribute your share toward the entertain- 


not weary your audience. 1 wo or three 
stanzas of a song, or four or five pages from 
a long instrumental piece are sufficient. 

Remember, it is only the lady of the house 
who has the right to ask you to play or 
sing; to all others give a smiling refusal. 


ENTERTAINING THE GUESTS WITH A SONG 



ment of others, do so without waiting to be 
urged; or, if you decline, decline absolutely. 
Urging should not be resorted to by the 
hostess, which custom would soon cure a 
certain class of performers from the disagree¬ 
able habit of holding back for repeated solici¬ 
tations. If you consent to play or sing, do 


In retiring from a large party it is suffi¬ 
cient to bow politely when expressing the 
pleasure you have received. And if the 
hostess or host offer the hand, shake it 
cordially, but not too roughly. 

An after call is required the same as after 
a ball or dinner party. 






















































ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


353 


RECEPTIONS. 

For informal receptions, invitations are 
most frequently written on the left-hand 
corner of the hostess’ visiting card : Mrs. 
Charles Grey, Thursday, from five to eight 
o’clock. 

At an evening reception, the lady should 
be dressed in handsome home toilet and 
receive standing. If several ladies receive 
together, their cards should be enclosed with 
the invitation. The simplicity of the occasion 
leaves the hostess the more time to devote 
to the enjoyment of her guests. Music, both 
vocal and instrumental, is a great addition to 
an evening reception. 

Serving Refreshments. 

Refreshments are generally served inform¬ 
ally. The table should be set tastily in the 
dining room, and supplied with coffee or 
chocolate at one end and a tea service at the 
other. Besides these, daintily prepared sand¬ 
wiches, buns, cakes, ices and fruits are 
served. If the reception is very select, and 
the number of guests small, a servant pre¬ 
sents a tray with tea, sugar and cream, while 
another follows with the simple refreshments 
that should accompany it. 

A wedding reception, or a very elaborate 
•evening reception, of course admits of much 
more ceremony, as well as more substantial 
refreshments, than small entertainments. 

Ladies attend evening receptions in demi- 
toilette, with or without bonnets, and gentle¬ 
men in full morning dress. 

SUPPER PARTIES. 

Some lover of this social repast says, 
“Suppers have always been invested with a 
peculiar charm. They are the most con¬ 
versational, the most intimate and the most 
poetical of all entertainments. They are the 
favorite repast of men of letters, the inspira- 
23 


tion of poets, and a form of hospitality 
eminent in history. Who has not heard of 
the petite soupers of the Regency and the 
brilliant minds there assembled ?” 

Suppers are the popular entertainment of 
gentlemen, and usually take some distinct¬ 
ive name, such as fish suppers, game suppers, 
wine suppers, and each has suitable supplies 
for the table. 

The Invitations. 

Invitations to suppers may be given in 
person, by a friendly note, or writing on a 
card of the host or hostess : “ Supper at io 
o’clock, Thursday, December 18th.” 

The very late city dinners have prevented 
supper parties from keeping their popularity, 
but there is no reason why in towns these 
should not be favorite entertainments. 

The same service is proper at a supper as 
at a dinner, with the exception of soup- 
plates. Oysters on the half-shell and bouil¬ 
lon served in cups are the first two courses. 
Then follows the usual order of dishes, such 
as sweetbreads and green peas, whatever 
game may be in season, salads of all kinds, 
then ices, fruits and coffee. It is not quite 
so heavy a repeast as the elaborate dinner 
party. Games and salads are served to¬ 
gether. 

A Game Supper. 

A game supper consists of wild fowls and 
fish, with jellies, ices and bonbons, while a 
wine supper admits of almost every variety 
of luscious dishes, differing very little from 
dinner, except that the delicacies are all cold, 
and of course no vegetables are served. 
Fillets of game, boned turkey, cold ham, 
fish, salads, ices, jellies and creams, are 
suitable to this style of entertainment. 

A Fish Supper. 

When a fish supper is given, dishes are 
' generally composed of the products of the 





354 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


sea or river. This is a fashionable mode of 
entertainment for the season of Lent. Salads, 
olives, pickles and sauces are served as rel¬ 


ishes. Sweet desserts never accompany a 
fish supper, but fruits are an appropriate ad¬ 
dition. Coffee must be given with all suppers. 





HE great sorrow brought upon 
a family by the death of a 
loved one renders the imme¬ 
diate members of the family 
incapable of attending to the 
necessary arrangements for 
the funeral. The services of 
an intimate friend, or a relative, should, 
therefore, be sought. He should receive 
general instructions from the family, after 
which he should take entire charge of the 
arrangements, and relieve them from all care 
on the subject. If such a person cannot be 
had, the arrangements may be placed in the 
hands of the sexton of the church the de¬ 
ceased attended in life, or of some respon¬ 
sible undertaker. 

The expenses of the funeral should be in 
accordance with the means of the family. 
No false pride should permit the relatives to 
incur undue expense in order to make a 
showy funeral. At the same time, affection 
will dictate that all the marks of respect 
which you can provide should be paid to the 
memory of your beloved dead. 

In some parts of the country it is custom¬ 
ary to send notes of invitation to the funeral 
to the friends of the deceased and of the 


family. These invitations should be printed, 
neatly and simply, on mourning paper, with 
envelopes to match, and should be delivered 
by a private messenger. The following is a 
correct form, the names and dates to be 
changed to suit the occasion : 

“Yourself and family are respectfully in¬ 
vited to attend the funeral of David B. 
Jones, on Tuesday, March 18, 189—, at 11 
o’clock A. M., from his late residence, 1926 
Amber Street, to proceed to Laurel Hill 
Cemetery.” 

Where the funeral is from a church, the 
invitation should read : 

“Yourself and family are respectfully 
invited to attend the funeral of David B. 
Jones, from the Church of the Holy Trinity, 
on Tuesday, March 18, 189-, at 11 o’clock 
A. m., to proceed to Laurel Hill Cemetery.” 

Where such invitations are sent, a list of 
persons so invited must be given to the per¬ 
son in charge of the funeral, in order that he 
may provide a sufficient number of carriages. 
No one to whom an invitation has not been 
sent should attend such a funeral, nor should 
those invited permit anything but an im¬ 
portant duty to prevent their attendance. 

When the funeral is at the house, some 





















ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


355 


near relative or intimate friend should act as 
usher and show the company to their seats. 

Preserve a decorous silence in the cham¬ 
ber of death—speak as little as possible, and 
then only in low, subdued tones. 

The members of the family are not obliged 
to recognize their acquaintances. The latter 
show their sympathy by their presence and 
considerate silence. 

As the coffin is borne from the house to 
the hearse, gentlemen who may be standing 
at the door or in the street remove their 


hats and remain uncovered until it is placed 
in the hearse. 

The pall-bearers should be chosen from 
among the intimate friends of the deceased, 
and should correspond to him in age and 
general character. 

With regard to sending flowers, the wishes 
of the family should be considered. If you 
are uncertain upon this point, it is safe to- 
send them. They should be simple and 
tasteful. Letters of condolence are sent to> 
those in bereavement by their intimate friends. 





X3* 

BSERVE the utmost neatness 
in every detail of the toilet 
for home or street. It is an 
old rule, but a very good 
one, that a woman may be 
judged “by her boots, gloves 
and pocket-handkerchiefs.” 
To this maybe added “finger nails,” and 
last but not least, skirt edges. “ No matter 
how elegant the general get-up may be,” 
asserts one fastidious critic, “if a woman’s 
skirt binding is muddy, frayed, or pendant, 
she is, to my mind, not a gentlewoman.” 

The style of the person should have much 
to do with choosing the style of dress for 
any occasion. Only people lacking the 
slightest originality of mind would think of 
blindly following the dictates of fashion 
without any reference to their own physical 
style. 

Very short women should not wear very 
large hats. Women with very thin faces 
should avoid wide hat brims and many 


plumes. Women with large, full faces 
should not go to the extreme in wearing 
small bonnets. To do so is but to exagger¬ 
ate the defect in each case. No matter what 
the extremity of style may be, there is always 
a happy medium from which to choose. 

Curls and Ribbons. 

Flying curls and a great superabundance 
of ribbons and fluttering ends belong only 
to a young girl. To persist in an extremely 
youthful style of dress long after the passing 
of youth, instead of adding to the apparent 
youth of the wearer, simply defeats its own 
end by exaggerating the defects it was meant 
to conceal. 

Small, thin women should not wear too 
much black. Let them wear a profus¬ 
ion of fluffy laces about the throat; soft, 
puffy vests, or, as one writer observes, “have 
consummate skill in concealing bones.” 

Short, stout women should see that all 
adornments, such as lolds, plaits, etc., keep 











356 


ETIQUETTE OF 

as much as possible in perpendicular lines. 
It is a mistake to think that perfect plainness 
will disguise the breadth, it rather empha¬ 
sizes it. On this style of woman a loosely- 
fitted wrap has a better effect for the street 
than a tight, plain garment. 

Gloves and Shoes. 

To have many dresses is always a mistake 
even among the very wealthy. They are 
constantly going out of fashion and unless 
the owner is continually seen at balls, recep¬ 
tions and other gatherings, they are entirely 
unnecessary. 

The glove of to-day is fitted comfortably. 
Nothing is more indicative of a lack of taste 
than to crowd the hand into a glove that is 
several sizes too small for it. The same 
might be said of the foot, and with more 
reason, since a painfully tight shoe not only 
injures the health, comfort and complexion 
of the wearer, but is ruinous to all grace of 
carriage. 

There is nothing marks the true lady as 
much as the perfection of neatness and style 
in gloves and shoes. To be well gloved and 
to have one’s feet neatly clad, no matter how 
plain the attire, is to be well dressed. 

When to Wear Jewels. 

Mme. de Maintenon declared that good 
taste simply indicates good sense, but many 
women who boast of good sense seem not 
to have the slightest idea of the times and 
places for wearing precious stones. 

It is conceded by all authorities that arti¬ 
cles of adornment consisting of or contain¬ 
ing jewels or precious stones should never 
be worn in the street. Exception is made in 
favor of rings and watches. The woman 
who wishes to adopt correct form will wear 
the simplest pin to fasten her gown during 
the morning hours and on the street. 


POLITE SOCIETY. 

For ceremonious visits, a pretty and orna¬ 
mental pin of gold is proper, or of gold and 
enamel, but even then it should have a use¬ 
ful purpose ; it should fasten some part of 
the toilet. The enameled and gold wreaths 
of myrtle or of forget-me-nots are extremely 
pretty for these simple pins. So are the true 
love-nots or a flower of enamel upon gold, 
but without the all-prevailing diamond dew- 
drop or center. 

Dress for Dinner. 

For dinner, a woman may wear the rich¬ 
est gems, it being understood that the func¬ 
tion is a ceremonious one, and that she shall 
wear a low gown. Should she dine in a 
more democratic way and the men of the 
family do not wear evening dress, she natur¬ 
ally will wear a high gown or one possibly 
open a little at the throat. She may wear a 
pin with a single gem under these circum¬ 
stances. 

For balls, operas or entertainments of cor¬ 
responding splender, a woman, when she is 
not herself a hostess, may wear any number 
of well-chosen jewels. It is quite correct to 
be sumptuous in this particular, but well to 
remember that jewels, like flowers, har¬ 
monize or do not harmonize, and that 
emeralds and turquoises, for example, may 
not be worn in conjunction, because, as the 
French say, “ they swear at each other.” 

It is not good form ta wear ornaments 
made in the form of beads or reptiles. The 
sacred emblem of the cross set in shining 
jewels and worn at ball or rout, shows a 
most pitiable ignorance of the eternal fitness 
of things. 

The Face Veil. 

In spite of the protestations of oculists, 
women continue to regard veils as an essent¬ 
ial part of their toilets ; first, because they 
are becoming; and, second, because they 





TRAVELLING COSTUME. 


357 


























































































































































































































3 58 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


keep their hair in order. The plain tulles 
and nets, which come in all colors, single 
and double widths, are always pleasant to 
wear and less trying to the eyes than the 
coarser meshes. The veil of Brussels net 
wrought in sprigged designs is a failure. It 
is becoming to nobody, and is essentially 
inartistic. 

Opera Dress. 

For the opera the most elegant dressing 
is desirable. Ladies may wear evening- 
gowns, and men dress suits. If they occupy 
boxes this is almost an obligation. Light 
colors render the house more attractive—are, 
in fact, a part of the whole spectacle. Jew¬ 
els and flowers are there, and those *who 
wear visiting or street costume are in the 
minority. 

If a man wear a dress suit it is expected 
that the woman will show him sufficient 
respect to wear an evening gown. The 
man’s costume is donned out of respect for 
the occasion and the woman, and she betrays 
utter ignorance or remissness of duty when 
she does not return the compliment in kind. 

Middle-aged women wear the same cos¬ 
tume at the opera that they would at a 
dinner party. 

To dress for the theater is a much simpler 
matter than for the opera. Display is not 
required here. Elegant visiting or prome¬ 
nade costume is appropriate. Dressy little 
bonnets or small hats, gloves, either match¬ 
ing the gown or light in tint, complete the 
theater toilet. If a large hat is worn to the 
theater, common courtesy demands its re¬ 
moval that those in the rear may see the 
stage. 

Dress for concerts admits of a little more 
display than for the theater. A silk gown 
with a little lace and jewelry, and white or 
light kid gloves. 

A dress for traveling should be plain and 


serviceable; a tint should be chosen that 
does not show soil or dust. A duster, an 
ulster or overgarment of some kind made of 
pongee silk, linen, or whatever material is in 
vogue, should be worn to protect the cos¬ 
tume from smoke and dust. 

The hat should be plain and a veil worn 
to shield the eyes from cinders when travel- 
ing by railway. A pair of slightly smoked 
spectacles are very good for this purpose. 
Carry an extra wrap and a hand-satchel to 
hold the needed toilet articles. Let every¬ 
thing else go in the trunk. A woman bur¬ 
dened with “big bundle, little bundle, band- 
box and umbrella,” is a burden to herself 
and a terror to others. 

The rule for traveling dress is that there 
should be nothing about a lady to attract 
attention, but this is relaxed in case of ladies 
traveling a short distance for a brief visit, 
who are privileged to wear the dress that 
suits their purpose. 

Calling or Visiting Costume. 

For morning calls dress quietly in prome¬ 
nade costume. Wear light-colored gloves 
unless in deep mourning. If driving, car¬ 
riage dress may be worn. For day recep¬ 
tions the dress may be more elaborate and 
the bonnet more “dressy.” 

By not carefully distinguishing between 
the gowns for different occasions and over¬ 
dressing at all times, women lose all the 
advantages of contrast in style. If lace and 
silk are worn indiscriminately, what is there 
left for the full dress function ? 

This should be plain—tailor-made is the 
best—walking length and of good material. 
“Fussy” styles should not be chosen for 
street wear, and the hat or bonnet should be 
rather plain and harmonize with the gown. 

There is much more latitude for display 
permitted by the carriage dress. Rich ma- 






HER MORNING RIDE. 


359 










































360 


ETIQUETTE OF POLITE SOCIETY. 


terials, elegant wraps, costly furs, are all 
allowable here. 

Coaching parties, too, have grown to be 
occasions for most gorgeous costuming. 
Every hue of the rainbow is to be seen as 
the lofty tally-ho rolls past, until, so great 
has become the license of color and richness 
of material, that the “four hundred” are 
calling a halt, and soberer tints are beginning 
to mark this amusement. 

Do not wear too many fluttering ribbons, 
especially if occupying that coveted position 
■—the box seat. It does not add to the 
skill and accuracy of the driver at a critical 
moment to have a fluttering ribbon cut like 
a whip-lash across his eyes. 

Dress for Riding. 

The riding-habit should be made of broad¬ 
cloth or some other suitable cloth. The 
skirt should be weighted by sewing shot in 
the lower edge of the left-hand breadths. 
Equestrian tights should be worn. The habit 
is sometimes worn over another dress-skirt, 
when, in case of dismounting or accident, the 
habit-skirt can be slipped off and the rider 
still left properly attired. 

Very long skirts are not worn. The habit 
should fit perfectly and button to the throat. 
Linen collar, a pretty tie and linen cuffs are 
worn, and a leather glove with gauntlet. 
The hat should be plain and of the prevail¬ 
ing fashion. 

Evening Dress for Gentlemen. 

Gentlemen’s evening dress consists of 
black trousers, a low-cut black or white vest, 
dress or “swallow-tail” coat, and white 
necktie. The linen must be immaculate. 
A young man wears a standing collar; an 
elderly man, if he choose, may wear his 


favorite style, with due deference to the 
reigning style. One or three studs adorn 
the bosom. 

Properly speaking, white or very light kid 
gloves are a part of evening dress, but to 
say whether or not they shall be worn al¬ 
ways at a formal dinner is hardly safe. If 
worn, remove them at the table; but at a 
ball they are indispensable. On all doubt¬ 
ful occasions it is well to be provided with a 
pair, to use if wished. 

Occasions for Full Dress. 

Evening dress is to be worn at balls, 
large dinners, parties and the opera. It is 
never worn at church, save in case of an 
evening wedding. It is never worn any¬ 
where on Sunday. In a small town a dress 
suit on any occasion is apt to seem an affect¬ 
ation. Never wear a dress suit anywhere 
before six o’clock in the evening. 

“A gentleman never looks more tho¬ 
roughly a gentleman than in an evening 
dress,” says one writer on etiquette, and it is 
well for those to whom the occasion is liable 
to come to learn to wear one gracefully and 
easily. 

In France a dress suit is worn upon nearly 
all festive occasions. In England the same 
customs prevail for its use as in our own 
country. 

Morning Dress for Gentlemen. 

Black cutaway, or Prince Albert coat 
(frock coat), black vest, white in summer, 
light-colored trousers, silk or some other 
style of stiff hat, and a black necktie. A 
light coat is never worn with black trousers. 
This morning dress is worn at church, morn¬ 
ing receptions, informal parties, when making 
calls, and at places of amusement. 






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flou^e Sekutiful 


Artistic Home Decorations 



have 


HE humblest home 
can be made at¬ 
tractive and fulfil all 
the requirements of 
comfort and taste. 
Many large for¬ 
tunes are put into 
houses, and very fre¬ 
quently a needless ex¬ 
pense. Many of these 
have been so luxurious 
and there has been such a 
painful effort to make 
them sumptuous, that the 
men who have built them, 
and have spent in this way 
large and needless sums 
been made objects of 


of money, 
ridicule. 

While no one wishes to live in a hut and 
naturally desires to have pleasant surround¬ 
ings, there is a wide difference between this 
feeling and that which seeks to outdo others 


in gorgeous display. Many of the best and 
noblest people in this country have lived in 
log houses, and some of the grandest men 
America ever produced have slept in garrets 


where the snow drifted through the roof in 
winter. Comfort and convenience are the 
main things to be considered, and these, with 
a contented heart, are about all that can be 
desired. 

Naturally as the country grows older we 
have finer mansions, more costly furniture, 
more brilliant display, and adornments costly 
and magnificent. All these need not be 
called in question in the case of those who 
are able to afford the outlay. Our object 
here is to give such hints as, if followed out, 
will make any home attractive and pleasant. 

Taste and Comfort. 

Many ambitious little housewives, longing 
to possess picturesque as well as comfortable 
homes on small means, fail to give their 
surroundings the proper study. It is sur¬ 
prising how many rooms have picturesque 
possibilities little suspected or appreciated by 
their owners, that properly treated would 
convert these same apartments into abodes 
of beauty. Many a housewife has been 
annoyed beyond measure by an unsightly 
jog that made all her efforts to beautify her 
room of no avail. Do what she would, the 

361 





























362 


THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL. 


jog was there jn its uncompromising ugli¬ 
ness. 

In these days of artistic ingenuity jogs and 
niches are not only tolerated, but hailed with 
pleasure, as are other so-called defects, giv¬ 
ing opportunity, as they do, for the exercise 
of an ingenuity that converts them into 
beauties. 

Charming Colors. 

A recess in the wall, or a jog, as it is 
more frequently called, can be tastefully 
fitted up as a wall bookcase with but little 
trouble. If the walls of the room are 
papered—and it to be hoped that they are, 
as staring white walls are very inartistic— 
the jog will probably be papered too. But 
if the paper shows an aggressive pattern it 
will not serve well as a background for the 
books and ornaments, and the jog should in 
such cases be papered with 'a plain paper of 
suitable coloring. A flock paper which will 
look like a velvet lining will be preferable, 
and the color should be such as to har¬ 
monize well with the wall color. 

Maroon and golden olives make good 
backgrounds for books. If the jog runs all 
the way up to the ceiling, have a panel of 
lattice in squares let in at the top, and under 
this set a pole in sockets, secured to side 
pieces of wood nailed up for the purpose of 
securing the lattice transom. This pole 
might be a one inch brass rod, from which 
to suspend curtains before the shelves. A 
really elegant appearance will be given to 
the room if the lattice is nicely made and 
the curtains are of good color and design. 

If the room shows walls coverd with paper 
of a pronounced pattern and coloring, the 
lattice might be of mahogany color and the 
curtains of perfectly plain material. If, how¬ 
ever, the room has walls of a single color, 
the curtains may show either a set figure at 


intervals or else an all over figure, but the 
colors should be quiet and subdued. The 
shelves of this impromptu bookcase may be 
of simple pine or some other wood that can 
be stained by rubbing in thin oil paint of the 
desired color. 

If the shelves are not all needed for books, 
some may be utilized for the keeping and 
display of bric-a-brac. In a bedroom the 
jog may be turned into a clothespress, with 
shelves, or into a wardrobe or closet. 

Cosy Recesses. 

Niches may be readily converted into wall 
cabinets by means of lattice doors made to 
fit the opening, or by means of a small 
transom, with curtain hanging directly be¬ 
neath. A small jog, or niche, by means of 
fancy locked doors, may be changed into a 
medicine closet or a repository for private 
pagers. A more fanciful treatment with 
Japanese fretwork and shelves will make a 
charming wall cabinet for bric-a-brac. Much 
depends upon the size, form and location as 
to what one may make of such recesses. 

A square, stiff looking apartment may be 
made much pleasanter by a picturesque 
treatment of one or more of the corners. 
For instance, a lattice transom placed across 
the corner, with a brass pole and handsome 
curtains beneath it, will furnish a cosy corner 
in which may be placed a triangular divan, 
with two square pillows. A triangular 
wooden box, with a mattress to fit, covered 
with some oriental looking dark fabric, such, 
for instance, as a Chinese rug or a Bagdad 
couch rug, with two large square pillows to 
stand against the wall, will be very pleasing, 
or the corner may contain a table and chair, 
or a desk and chair, to be partly revealed by 
the half withdrawn curtains. 

Two corners of a large room might be ar¬ 
ranged in this manner, giving a charming 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL. 


363 


variety to the form of the room, besides giv¬ 
ing extra space for certain bits of furnishing. 
In a dining-room one or more corners may 
be artistically fitted with glass doors and 
serve for china closets. Alcoves in bed¬ 
rooms are always more pleasing when cur¬ 
tained off with some dainty furnishing re¬ 
vealed from behind the curtains, and an 
alcove in a sitting-room may be curtained 
off to form a very attractive library. 

Especially pleasing is the old-fashioned 
window, with its deeply set and paneled case¬ 
ment, affording ample space for a pleasant 
seat. An old-fashioned cottage window— 


pect, a holland shade will be necessary over 
the sash curtains. If such a window has a 
broad sill, a few potted plants will give a 
finishing touch to its beauty. The long low 
seat should have its long or divided cushion 
covered with some pretty and durable ma¬ 
terial, with several small pillows. 

High-topped sideboards have gone out 
along with that monstrosity, the bedstead 
with that towering headboard. A pretty 
and artistic fancy is the low buffet without 
any top at all, that prevailed a century ago. 
One of the prettiest effects in a dining-room 
is produced by a collection of plates hung 



ARTISTIC FIREPLACE. 


one of the long, low windows set above a 
long low seat, with paneled back and sides 
—is a treasure trove to the lover of the 
picturesque, If it is an eastern or northern 
window it will be best to have curtains across 
its whole width, run on two slender brass 
rods, the curtains to be two or three or four, 
according to the width of the window; if 
two, trimmed at the inner edge with tassel 
braid; or if four, the two centre ones thus 
treated. 

Cream swiss, powdered with large dots in 
cream color or in deep pink or yellow, will 
make beautiful curtains for such a window. 
If the window has a southern or western as- 


over such a sideboard. Indeed, you can 
scarcely use too much china in dining-room 
decoration, stopping short, of course, of any 
suggestion of a wholesale china house. 
Narrow shelves with low railings over the 
doors, the cabinet mantel with its shelves 
and nooks, a corner cabinet with glass front 
and sides, a hanging wall cabinet may all be 
used for the display of odd or pretty pieces. 

An excellent feature of modern houses— 
suburban houses in particular—is the recep¬ 
tion hall, which is generally nearly square. 
This is not difficult to furnish, and if it be of 
generous size, it is generally arranged as a 
sort of combined sitting and reception-room. 















































































































364 


THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL. 


If the hall be small, one may have a hall 
rack and a settle beneath, one with a box 
seat preferred, as this form provides a useful 
receptacle for the prompt disposal of wraps, 
mackintoshes, rubber shoes, etc., where they 
will be hidden from public view and still be 
easy of excess. 

If there is a spare corner, a “cozy” may 
be fitted up; or, if not, and a window is 
available, a broad, low seat will be an attrac¬ 
tive feature. A small, low table and a side 
table with a drawer in it, a number of odd 


sets and browns. When light is at a pre¬ 
mium, gladden the sight with its nearest 
equivalent, yellow, in its variety. This 
would be a most distracting color in the 
glaring light of the noonday sun, but when 
used upon the walls of a dark and dismal 
hall it is altogether different. Choice should 
be made of other colors that will prove 
harmonious, always the warm rich colors, 
never the cold. With such a setting any 
shade of finish in oak or mahogany wood¬ 
work will be fitting. 



RICH PIECES OF FURNITURE. 


chairs, some that are easy and some selected 
for their quaintness, must not be omitted. 
One or more growing plants add much to 
the picturesque appearance of a hall, and as 
a background for these a pretty threefold 
screen may be utilized with good effect. 

The selection of the proper scheme of 
coloring is an important consideration. When 
the hall receives a plentiful supply of sun¬ 
light at all times of the day, a cool scale 
of coloring should be selected. With a 
north room, be generous with the warm rich 
tints, the dull reds, olives and golden rus- 


We are all of us by nature fire worshiper* 
and the altar of home is, or should be, the 
glowing, open fire. Next to this are the 
great, clear windows meant to admit the 
glorious glances of the fire worshiper’s sun. 

As to the first, if you can have but one, 
the house or the fireplace, give up the house 
and keep the fire. If you wish to test the 
soundness of this advice, build a house, 
furnish it extravagantly and supply furnace 
heat to all but one room, and in that room 
build upon an ample hearth a glowing fire of 
hickory logs, and in the presence of that 






























THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 


365 


genial blaze, upon the bare floor of that un¬ 
furnished room, will gather the united house¬ 
hold. The broader this family hearth the 
better. The old English baronial halls with 
their mighty fireplaces and their great stone 
hearths had more of light and beauty than 
all our modern improvements. 


1 Folding doors between communicating rooms 
are seldom closed. An ordinary chair within 
a few feet of the space never looks well. It 
shows its back to one room or the other and 
is in the way. 

A divan is an addition to any decorative 
arrangement of either room. It does not 



SELECTING PAINTINGS FOR HOME DECORATION. 


Chairs and sofas we have without end in 
variety and beauty. Every alcove and nook 
in every possible sort of room has been 
thought of and provided for except the one 
place that exists in almost every house and 
is the one place where people are always 
wanting to sit—that is the doorway itself. 


interfere with any graceful drapery that may 
be arranged at the door. It is decidly use¬ 
ful, convenient, and gives a certain touch of 
the unusual to the room. 

Be careful of the pictures and their rela¬ 
tions to the walls. Rooms should rather be 
a setting for the groups of people in it. 

















































































366 


THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL. 


Too much gilding, too many gaudy oil 
paintings attract the eye and detract the 
mind. 

One authority objects to portraits as a 
decoration. “Their presence, if at all im¬ 
pressive. is too stimulating.” 

Picture frames should never be so gorge¬ 
ous as to distract the mind from the picture. 
Frames are to protect the picture and relate 
it to the walls. 

Group etchings together and put engrav¬ 
ings in the portfolio. Over low bookcases 
pictures should be large, and in this form 
they give a style to the room. Water colors 
look admirable if treated in this manner, and 
if two bookcases are put together so as to 
form one, divide the pictures by a bracket, 
on which place a jar of some unique pattern. 

Small rooms require medium-size pictures, 


which can be hung one above the other, and 
three may even be placed on line with good 
effect. For an ideal head in oil the frame 
should be of broad gilt. Hang it in a good 
light, and on one side group two small water- 
color pieces in the fashionable white band 
frame. For an oblong picture a small sketch 
under it looks well equipped. 

A very large and beautiful picture some¬ 
times sets the keynote of color for the apart¬ 
ment. Otherwise, subordinate them as dec¬ 
orations to the colorings of the room, as in 
the ivory and gold room. 

In a room where there are to be many 
pictures, give rather a neutral color to the 
walls, merely as a picture background. 
Where there are finely decorated walls pic¬ 
tures are rather out of place, since one dec¬ 
oration spoils the effect of the other. 





■& & 

•b THE 4 

4 * 4 

Art of Correspondence _ 

Forms for Letters 4 

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OLITENESS may be 
shown to great advan¬ 
tage in the art of writing 
or answering letters. 
Too many persons are 
guilty of neglecting their 
friends; in this way es¬ 
trangements often chill the 
friendship that has lasted long, 
and would last longer still if 
it were cultivated by those 
little attentions and courtesies 
that go so far toward making 
up the deportment of the true lady or gen¬ 
tleman. Therefore one of the first duties 
claiming our attention is that of letter¬ 
writing. 

Fond mothers and lovers are the letter 
writers of this age, almost all other corre¬ 
spondence being merely notes. At present 
no emblazoned crests or elaborate mono¬ 
grams or initial letters are used in the corner 
of note paper or stamped on our stationery. 
The frequency and speed with which com¬ 
munications now fly across a city or a con¬ 
tinent, also do away with the sealing-wax, 
and this clear red, oval fixture of our grand- 


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t> 


fathers has almost totally disappeared; this 
elegant formal and ceremonious way is- 
supplanted by what we call more modern 
style. 

There is one fashion which has never 
changed, and is always in good taste : use 
good, plain, thick note paper, folded square 
and put in a square envelope; no mistake 
can be made in using this kind of stationery- 
in any part of the world. 

Use of Capital Letters. 

There is, however, no law forbidding the 
use of monograms, some ladies still prefer it, 
and use the style most familiar to their 
friends; it is a fashion past, not of the pres* 
ent. Invariably use black ink, no other is 
in good taste; it gives the written characters 
great distinctness and is the only fashionable 
medium. 

The capital letters only set apart the sen* 
tences and paragraphs, but while their proper 
use adds greatly to the beauty of an epistle, 
their omission or improper use will make the 
pages present a perfectly absurd appearance. 

Begin every paragraph and every sentence 
following a period with a capital letter. 

367 


















368 


THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


Begin all proper names, all titles, as Presi¬ 
dent, Vice-President, General, Doctor or Cap¬ 
tain ; all names of places, as Chicago, Long 
Branch, Niagara; the words, North, South, 
East, West, and their compounds and abbrevia¬ 
tions,- North-east, S. W., with a capital letter. 

Begin the names of the Deity with a cap¬ 
ital letter. 

Begin every line of poetry, all titles of 
books, and usually each important word of 
the title, as Bancroft’s History of the United 
States, the name of any historical event, as 
the Civil War, with a capital letter. 


The pronoun I and the interjection O must 
invariably be written with a capital letter. 

Begin all the names of the month, as 
June, April, and all addresses as Dear Sir, 
Dear Madam, with a capital letter. 

Capital letters must never be placed in the 
middle of a word. 

Be very careful not to repeat often the same 
word. Tautology is a crime in writing. 

Do not underline unless in extreme cases. 

Never abbreviate unless in business. Dates 
should be given in figures, and money in pa¬ 
renthesis, thus ($15,000). Date carefully. 





To a Picnic Party. 

My Dear Sir : Buffalo, July 3, 189-. 

We are endeavoring to get up a small excursion to 
visit Niagara on the ioth of this month. Will you 
do us the favor of making one of our number ? Mrs. 

-and my family desire their compliments, and 

request me to mention that they have taken upon 
themselves the task of providing the “ creature com¬ 
forts ” for that occasion, and trust that their exer¬ 
tions will meet with unanimous approval. Should 
you have no previous engagement for that day, and 
feel disposed to join our party, a carriage will be at 
your door by 8 o’clock on Tuesday morning; and 
believe me to be, 

My dear sir, yours most sincerely. 

To-, Bsq. 

P. S.—The favor of an early answer will oblige. 


To a Boating Party. 

_. July 12, 189—. 

-, myself, and four others are going 

down to Richmond in a six-oared boat next Wed¬ 


Dear - 
Jack 


nesday. Now, you are a jolly fellow and a good 
steersman, so I hope you will give us your company 
and your services; indeed, we will take no excuse. 
We shall set out from my lodging at 9 o’clock, with¬ 
out fail. 

Yours truly, in haste, 

To a Private Dinner. 

Frankun Square, Nov. 12, 189—. 
Dear Mr. Benson : 

My old friend Richard Roy is coming to take 
a chop with me on Saturday the 15th, and I hope 
you will come and join us at six o’clock. I know 
you are not partial to large parties, so trust you will 
think us two sufficient company. 

Yours ever truly, 

G. H. Percivae. 

To a Social Party. 

Mr. and Mrs. Thompson request the pleasure of 
Mr. and Mrs, James s company, on Wednesday eve¬ 
ning next, at eight o’clock, to join a social party. 
An immediate answer will much oblige. 

Fifth Avenue, January 9th. 






















THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


369 


Answer, Accepting. 

Mr. and Mrs. James will be most happy to avail 
themselves of Mr. and Mrs. Thompson’s kind invita¬ 
tion to join their social party as requested. 

Lennox Street, January ioth. 

Answer, Declining. 

Mr. and Mrs. James greatly regret their inability 
to accept Mr. and Mrs. Thompson’s kind invitation 
to join their social party. Nothing would have 
afforded them more pleasure than to be present, but 
family affliction prevents them. 

Lennox Street, January ioth. 

To an Excursion. 

My Dear Sir : NEW YoRK ’ J ul ? 2 °- i8 9 - 

May I hope that you will allow your boys and 
girls to join mine in an excursion to Glen Cove on 
the 27th? We expect to make rather a large party, 
and have, therefore, made arrangements to dine at 
the Cove House. 

In haste, believe me, my dear sir, yours ever sin¬ 
cerely. 

Mr.-. 

To an Evening Company. 

My Dear Gladys : A few friends will be here on 
Wednesday evening next, to take a social cup of 
tea, and chat about mankind in particular. Give us 
the pleasure of your company. Delia Scott. 

Prince Street, Saturday morning. 

My Dear Delia : It affords me great pleasure to 
inform you that I shall join your party on Wednes¬ 
day evening next. Gladys Penryn. 

Spring Street, Saturday afternoon. 

To a Visit. 

ST. Paul, Minn., July 2, 189-. 
My Dear Friend : 

Being now settled at my country residence for the 
summer, I lose no time in soliciting the pleasure of 
your company, together with that of your family, 
and trust that you will make it convenient to pass a 
month or six weeks with us in our rural retirement. 

I believe that you are too well aware of my friend¬ 
ship, to doubt every thing will be done to render 
your stay with us agreeable. 

My wife desires me to inform you, that unless you 
comply with this, our mutual request, your name 
will be erased from her good books. 

Very faithfully yours. 


Accepting the Foregoing. 

My Dear Sir : Chicago, July 4, 189-. 

Your very friendly and polite invitation demands 
my immediate attention. You may be assured, that 
I never willingly resign the pleasure of enjoying 
your society ; and, on the present occasion, I am 
extremely happy to say, that I have nothing to 
prevent my acceptance of your very kind offer. 
You may, therefore, expect me and my family in 
the course of ten days. I hope we shall be able to 
prevail on you and your good lady to return with us. 

Requesting you to be assured, that I am truly 
sensible of your repeated acts of friendly attention 
towards me, I am, dear sir, with best wishes for your 
health and happiness (in which my wife unites), 

Very affectionately. 

Declining the Foregoing. 

Chicago, July 5, 189-. 

My Worthy Friend : 

I am truly obliged to you for your very friendly 
invitation, and sincerely lament that the pressure of 
my business prevents me at present from complying 
with it; though I hope this will not induce your 
amiable lady to erase my name from her good books, 
especially as it is no fault of mine, my inclination 
being decidedly in favor of the visit. 

My family unite with me in the kindest remem¬ 
brances to you all ; and I subscribe myself. 

Your obliged friend. 

To a Bachelor Party. 

Sept. 20, 189-. 

My Dear Fred : 

My festive self and half-a-dozen other good fellows 
are going to devote a few hours on Thursday even¬ 
ing to having a good time. I hope you will make 
one, as we have not enjoyed “ the feast of reason 
and flow of soul ” in each other’s company for some 
time past. 

Believe me, dear Alfred, 

Yours ever, 

To Alfred Bellville, Esq. John Barry. 

A Lady to Her Friend in the City. 

Eddington, Bucks Co., Pa., June 4, 189-. 
My Dear Friend : 

I need scarcely tell you that I always feel the 
greatest pleasure in your society, and am selfish 
enough on the present occasion to covet it for a 
month, or for a longer period, should it suit your 
convenience. Your sincere friend, 

Jennie Richman. 

To Mrs. Lftty Jones, Fifth Ave., N. Y. 


24 






370 


THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 



A Lover’s Letter. 

No. 966 Butler Ave., July 16, 189- 
My Dearest Edith : 

I can no longer restrain myself from writing to 
you, dearest and best of girls, what I have often been 
on the point of saying to you. I love you so much 
that I cannot find words in which to express my feel¬ 
ings. I have loved you from the very first day we 
met, and always shall. Do you blame me because I 
write so freely ? I should be unworthy of you if I 
did not tell you the whole truth. Edith, can you 
love me in return ? I am sure I shall not be able to 
bear it if your answer is unfavorable. I will study 
your every wish if you will give me the right to do 
so. May I hope? Send just one kind word to 
Your sincere adorer, 

Miss Edith Eanshaw. James Martin. 

A Favorable Reply. 

219 Sixteenth St., July 17. 

My Dear James : 

Thank you for your dear letter. It has made me 
very happy. My heart has long been yours, as I 
will own, although you may think less of me for the 
frank avowal, and I am blushing for myself while I 
make it. Of course we must consult our parents be¬ 
fore making any serious engagement. Meanwhile, 
believe me, 

Sincerely yours, 

Mr. James Martin. Edith. 

Making a Declaration. 

No. 20 Green St., March 26, 189-. 
My Dear Miss Jerome : 

You cannot but have been aware for some time 
past that my feelings toward you have been stronger 
than those of mere friendship. Our long acquaint¬ 
ance has given me ample opportunity to learn the 
excellencies of your character, and to prize them at 
their full value. It has also afforded you a like op¬ 
portunity to judge whether I possess those charac¬ 
teristics which you would desire in a husband. Am 


I presumptuous in hoping that you will consent to 
be my wife ? Until I receive your answer I shall 
remain 

Your anxious but 110 less ardent admirer, 

Miss Cora A. Jerome. Robert Searees. 

A Favorable Reply. 

187 Park Ave., March 27, 189-. 
My Dear Mr. Searees : 

How can I thank you for the honor you have done 
me in asking me to be your wife ? It affords me the 
deepest satisfaction to assure you that ni}/ sentiments 
toward you are most favorable, and that I shall be 
both proud and happy to regard you as my future 
husband. 

Yours, most sincerely, 

Mr. Robert Searees. Cora A. Jerome. 

Engaged to Another. 

187 Park Ave., March 27, 189-. 

Dear Sir : 

While confessing myself honored by the prefer¬ 
ence avowed for me by one whom I have every 
reason to respect as a gentlemen, I feel that it would 
be dishonorable in me to keep you in any suspense, 
where the answer must be unfavorable. 

For some time past I have been engaged to a gen¬ 
tleman, from whom I have every reason to expect 
happiness and comfort. I must, therefore, hope that 
you will henceforth regard me only in the light of a 
friend; and, with the sincere wish that such a 
partner as you deserve may speedily fall to your lot,. 

Sincerely your friend, 

Cora A. Jerome. 

Mr. Robert Searees. 

To the Lady’s Father. 

Dear Sir : 

Having made an application to your beloved 
daughter for her hand, she has given her consent, 
provided you and her mother will condescend to 
sanction it. This, I flatter myself, you will do, my 
circumstances, family, and character, being well 






WHAT SHALL THE ANSWER BE? 






















































































372 


THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


known to you both. I shall only add, that my 
happiness or misery through life depends upon your 
reply; and that I will make any settlement upon 
your dear daughter which you may judge necessary. 
My happiness will be found on the promoting of 
hers, with the possession of your esteem aud appro¬ 
bation. Entreating you to give a favorable reply, I 
have the honor, my dear sir, to subscribe myself, 

Your humble servant, 

The Father’s Answer. 

Dear Sir : 

In reply to the letter you did me the honor of 
writing, I must remark, that neither my wife nor 
myself have ever interfered with the wishes of our 
excellent daughter ; her whole conduct being gov¬ 
erned with such prudence that no room was left for 
advice. 

Your affection being mutual, we have only to 
observe that we shall be highly gratified in giving 
our girl to you, and we doubt not that you will enjoy 
as much happiness in the married state as this life 
will admit of. In regard to ourselves, you may be 
assurred that you possess our respect and affection ; 
were this not the case, we should not so readily 
resign to your protection our greatest treasure. 

My good wife entirely coincides with what I have 

said ; we shall, therefore, expect to see you on- 

next, when everything shall be arranged for your 
union. I am, dear sir, 

Yours, very affectionately, 

The Father’s Negative Answer. 

Dear Sir : 

I make no doubt of the truth of your assertions, 
but as I think my daughter too young to enter into 
such a serious engagement, I request I may hear no 
more of your passion for the present; in every other 
respect, 

I am your most obedient, 

An Apparent Slight. 

My Dearest-: 

How grieved am I that you should think me 
capable of wavering in my affection towards you, 
and inflicting a slight upon one in whom my whole 
hopes of happiness are centered ! Believe me, my 

attentions to Miss-were never intended for 

anything more than common courtesy. My long 
acquaintance with her father, and my knowledge of 
her amiable character—as well as the circumstance 

of her being a comparative stranger to the-’s,— 

such were my sole reasons for paying more attention 
to her than I might otherwise have done. 

Pray rest confident in the belief that my affection 
for you is as unchanging as my regret is great that I 


should ever have given you cause to doubt it, and 
believe me, dearest, 

Yours ever sincerely and devotedly. 


Breaking an Engagement. 

Miss Belew : DES MoINES ' J une I5 > l8 9 " 

I am fearful that we are too precipitate in forming 
a mutual engagement. Our dispositions and tastes 
are so antagonistical that there would be a continual 
conflict between our inclinations, which would be 
productive of much sorrow. 

Therefore, I desire to be released from the engage¬ 
ment, confident that we never could be happy as 
wife and husband. 

Respectfully yours, 

Paue Woodruff. 

Miss Myrtle Belew. 


Answer. 

Sir 1365 Broad Ave., June 17, 189-. 

The contents of your letter, received this day, 
will entail upon me years of misery—hopeless and 
despairing misery! A man who will so debase 
himself, who is so devoid of feeling and principle, 
deserves the execration of every honorable mind. 
I have been deceived, and the good qualities I 
thought you possessed, and that warmed my love 
into life, are now proved, by the inconsistency of 
your conduct, to have been but the hypocrite’s art. 

Farewell. 

Myrtle Bellew. 

Confessing a Change of Feeling. 

My Dear Sir : Auburn, March iS, 1S9-. 

I fear my avowal may give you some pain ; but it 
is better to be sincere and open in matters where the 
happiness of another is concerned. 

To speak plainly, then, I feel that my sentiments 
in regard to yourself are no longer what they were. 
While my esteem for your character remains un¬ 
shaken, I still cannot blind myself to the fact that I 
do not cherish that affection which a wife ought to 
feel for her husband, and without which the married 
life is one continual scene of torment and vexation. 
You will not, I am sure, give me credit for acting 
from mere fickleness—especially as I do not at present 
entertain a partiality for any other ; but you must 
pardon me when I express my firm belief that all 
correspondence between us had better cease, and 
that such letters as have passed between us should 
be returned at the first convenient opportunity. 

Assuring you that, as a friend, I shall constantly 
remember you with esteem, I remain, my dear sir, 
Very respectfully, 

Mr. E. P. Davis. Nellie H. Spenser. 








THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


373 


Proposing a Day for the Nuptials. 

Oakland, February 28, 189-. 
My Dear Blanche : 

The happy day to which I have looked forward as 
the blissful reward of our mutual constancy is not far 
distant, if the proposal I am now about to make 
should meet the approbation of yourself and parents. 
It is this: that our nuptial ceremony may be per¬ 
formed on the twenty-fifth of next month, and in the 
Third Presbyterian Church. I hope to have the 
pleasure of seeing you soon ; we can then give the 
subject a lengthened discussion. If, however, you 
should wish to write before we meet, you can mention 
briefly whether the day I have fixed will suit the 
convenience of yourself and family; and in the 
hope that I may claim shortly the privilege and 
honor of making you my bride for a long and 
happy life and of signing myself your affectionate 
husband, 

Believe me, for the present, 

Your sincerest friend and most attached 
Miss Blanche Rimmon. Raymond Beverly. 


A Favorable Answer. 

Oakland, March 1, 189-. 

My Dear Raymond : 

The affectionate letter which I have just received 
is another convincing proof of your attachment. 
Upon perusing it, I find that you have imposed upon 
me a somewhat delicate duty, but one to which you 
may conclude I feel no aversion. You wish me to 
name some day, convenient to myself and relatives,, 
for the performance of our nuptial ceremony. You 
likewise appear anxious that that day, to which we 
have looked forward as the most propitious of our 
future life, may not be protracted to a distant period. 
As far as my own choice is concerned, you may rest 
assured that I shall not interpose the least delay; 
but as I have relatives and friends, by whose con¬ 
venience I must, as you are aware, be in some meas¬ 
ure restrained, I will consult them without loss of 
time, and at the earliest opportunity you shall hear 
the decision to which we may come. 

Yours ever affectionately^, 

Mr. Raymond Beverly. Blanche Rimmon.. 



-U~+F>) 


X^etkrs of | 

V 

(^ongr&tcil&i ion 1 


1- 4?— jD Jr r jti r Jf- - - m - ^ 


To Friends, on a Marriage Anniversary. 

Montgomery, Ala., October 5, 189-. 
My Dear Mr. and Mrs. Trevelyan : 

The announcement of the fifteenth anniversary of 
your wedding recalls the long period of time through 
which it has been our happy privilege to enjoy an 
uninterrupted friendship. This is your crystal wed¬ 
ding, and you will allow me to say that I trust your 
lives will always be as bright and sparkling as the 
gifts which you will receive. 

I am sure you are proving the blessedness of mar¬ 
ried life, and. they always do who enjoy mutual con¬ 
fidence, sympathy and support. The darkness 
which at times has crossed the path along which 
you have now travelled for fifteen years has always 
had its silver lining, and my wish is that no greater 
sorrows may overtake you in the future than have 


fallen to your lot already. These you have borne 
with Christian patience, and have thus transformed 
them into benedictions. 

Accept my hearty congratulations on this anniver¬ 
sary of your married life, and may another, which 
shall be tinged with silver, and another still, en¬ 
riched with gold, fall to your lot. 

Very 7 affectionately y 7 ours. 

To a Lady on Her Marriage Engagement. 

Vicksburg, Sept. 20, 189- 

My Dear-: 

No one, I believe, can be more desirous to hear of 
your welfare and your prosperous settlement in the 
marriage state than myself. I have long been sensi¬ 
ble of your worth, your goodness of heart, your rec¬ 
titude of principle, and your warmth of friendship. 















































374 


THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


Enviable among men will be the lot of him who is 
destined to become your partner for life ; and fortu¬ 
nate, indeed, was Mr. - in that introduction 

which first presented you to his notice. As for Mr. 

-, I need scarcely observe that I approve of 

your choice, in which you have shown a discrimina¬ 
tion that does credit to your taste, and to that good 
sense which has been the guide of your past life. 

Adieu, and believe me to be, my dear-, 

Yours most sincerely and affectionately, 

To a Gentleman. 

Phii.adei.phia, Jan. 6, 189-. 

Dear Oed Feeeow : 

And so you really are to be a Benedict! Well! 
1 have no objection, provided you feel convinced 
that it is a measure likely to tend to your happiness. 
For myself, I am still a bachelor, although I do not 
know what such temptation as you appear to have 
undergone might not do towards upsetting my 
present resolutions. You know I have no antipathy 
to matrimony : but, unlike yourself, I have not inde¬ 
pendent means sufficient to render me fearless of 
consequences, and should not be disposed to involve 
any woman, whom I could like sufficiently to make 
my wife, in a doubtful state of circumstances, if not 
in a discomfort which must be painful to a man of 
proper feeling and honor. At the same time, 
believe me, I cordially sympathize with your delight 
at the prospect of an agreeable union, and wish sin¬ 
cerely that every happiness may be the result. 

Ever truly yours, 

To a Friend, on His Good Fortune. 

LouisviEEE, Ky., Feb. 10, 189-. 
My Dear Howard : 

The news of your good fortune gives me great 
satisfaction. No one can possess true friendship 
without rejoicing in the prosperity of a friend. To 
one who has always been manly, true and noble, and 
who has labored persistently toward a particular end, 
success must be extremely gratifying. 

It will ever be my delight to hear that you are 
prospering in your undertakings, and if in any way 
I can serve you, you can rely upon my best en¬ 
deavors. With every good wish for yourself and 
Mrs. Kerr. 

Ever faithfully yours, 

To a Friend on the Birth of a Son. 

ST. Eouis, Mo., June 15, 189-. 
Dear Oed Friend : 

The happy announcement that a son and heir has 
been born to you, gives me extreme satisfaction. I 
always thought you would distinguish yourself in 
some way, and would do something whereby your 


name might descend to posterity. And now, my 
w’orthy chum, it seems you have done it. 

I will not draw any picture of the c^res and 
anxieties of fatherhood, such as carrying a squalling 
youngster on your arm at 3 o’clock in the morning, 
running for the doctor when the little one has 
spasms of wind colic, opening your eyes with aston¬ 
ishment at bills for shoes, dresses and toys, but will 
content myself with sharing the joy which you feel 
over the new arrival, and reminding you that what¬ 
ever may be the cares and anxieties which children 
bring with them, in their intelligence, their artless¬ 
ness, their love, there is abundant compensation and 
delight. Wishing you and the happy mother, as 
well as the young gentleman who will soon have the 
honor of calling you papa, the best of Heaven’s 
blessings, I remain 

Yours most sincerely, 

To a Daughter on Her Birthday. 

My Dearest Chied : 

Your father, brothers and sisters all unite with me 
in sending you a thousand good wishes on this your 
fifteenth anniversary. We could all have desired 
that circumstances would have admitted of your 
spending it with us ; but feeling in these matters 
must sometimes be sacrificed for our good, and our 
selfish delights must not be permitted to interfere 
with the prospects of those dear to us. The package 
which accompanies this letter contains not only some 
trifling tokens of affection from all of us, but the 
materials for a little entertainment which, I have no 
doubt, Mrs. Boynton will allow you to give to your 
school-fellows, as I have written to beg a half-holiday 
on the occasion. God bless you, my dear child! and 
that every succeeding j^ear may see you increase in 
all that is desirable in body and mind, is the earnest 
prayer of your ever anxious parents. With best 
compliments to your mistress and teachers, 

Believe me, your ever affectionate mother, 

To Miss Eettie Thomas. Margaret Thomas. 

A Gentleman to His Son, on the Latter’s Marriage. 

Phieadeephia, Jan. 30, 189-. 
My Dear Son : 0 ^ 

It is with no small pleasure, and a slight feeling of 
parental pride, that I uow congratulate you upon 
your recent change of state. That you have my best 
and heartiest wishes for your future happiness you 
already know ; but I feel natural pleasure in again 
giving them expression ; and here I have to add that 
no parent could join in those wishes with more fer¬ 
vent sincerity than your dear and kind mother. 

Your ever affectionate father, 

John Paue Jones. 
To Henry Paue Jones, Pottstown, Pa. 






THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


375 


I 

f 





.T..A,,T..A._.A..T.„T . 

TwT^twt^T 


LETTERS OF 

doi\dole:qde 


1 ' 


T 








On the Death of a Mother. 

Tewkesbury, Mass., Nov. 8, 189-. 
My Dear Wieeiam : 

You have lost your mother. There is a very wail 
in the words. She may never be replaced. The dear 
good lady has passed away to a better land, cheered by 
the knowledge of your love and affectionate tender¬ 
ness, consoled by the thought that her teaching, 
when you were a little boy at her knee, has not been 
in vain, aud that she leaves behind her for a little 
while a sod who treads the path of rectitude and of 
honor. Dear William, ever remember that your 
darling mother watches you from on high, and as 
she was devoted to you in life, so is she devoted to 
you in death. 

God sustain you under this heavy affliction. 

Your true friend. 

Mortimer Monson. 

On the Death of a Child. 

Dearest Sister : 

I cannot write what is in my heart for you to-day ; 
it is too full—filled with a double sorrow, for you 
and for myself. Tears blind me ; my pen trembles 
in my hand. Oh ! to be near you ! to clasp you in 
my arms ! to draw your head to my bosom and weep 
with you ! Darling, God comfort you, I cannot. 

Eeizabeth. 

On the Death of a Husband. 

Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 29, 189-. 

My Dear Mrs. Bureeigh : 

Words fail to convey my feelings of sorrow on 
receipt of the intelligence of the death of my old and 
esteemed friend, your late husband. My own grief 
at the loss of a true friend teaches me how crushing 
must be your affliction. May the Almighty in his 
goodness console you in this dark hour of your 
tribulation. 

Believe me always your true and sincere friend, 

D. C. Jackson. 


On the Death of a Wife. 

Providence, R. I., Nov. 8, 189-. 
My Dear Arthur : 

I know how futile it is to address words, idle 
words, to you in this moment of supreme anguish, 
with which it has pleased God to visit you, and shall 
not say more than that the loss of your pure, good, 
and beautiful wife is a source of deep sorrow to the 
numerous friends who had the privilege of knowing 
her, and to none more than 

Yours, in deep sympathy and affection, 

Frank Foster. 

On the Death of a Son. 

Norwaek, Conn., June 3, 189-. 

My Dear Jueia : 

If God has plucked the bright blossom from your 
home it is for a purpose none of us dare divine. He 
alone can pour balm upon your crushed heart. The 
holy joy is yours of knowing that angel eyes now 
watch for your coming, and that your beautiful boy 
will receive you when “ life’s dark day is done.” 

If the tenderest sympathy could soothe you, dear 
Julia, learn that you have it from your 

Friend, 

IyAURA. 

La Fayette to Jefferson, Announcing- the Death of 
Madame de La Fayette. 

AnTEUIE, January 11, 1808. 

My Dear Friend : 

The constant mourning of your heart will be 
deepened by the grief I am doomed to impart to you. 
Who better than you can sympathize for the loss of 
a beloved wife ? The angel who for thirty-four 
years has blessed my life, was to you an affectionate, 
grateful friend. Pity me, my dear Jefferson, and 
believe me, forever, with all my heart, 

Yours, 

La Fayette. 




































376 


THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE 


On a Sudden Reverse of Fortune. 

Stanford, Conn., July 6,189-. 

My Dear Friend : 

Hackneyed phrases of condolence never yet com¬ 
forted a man in the hour of trouble, and I am not 


couraged. When Senator Benton saw the work 
of many years consumed in ten minutes, he took the 
matter coolly, went to work again, and saw the 
damaged repaired before his death. So, I kope, will 
you. There is no motto like “Try again ” for those 



A LETTER OF SYMPATHY. 


going to try their effect in your case. And yet, let 
me say, in heartfelt earnest, that I was deeply pained 
to hear of your sudden and unexpected reverse of 
fortune. Misfortune is very hard to bear when it 
falls upon one like a flash of lightning from a clear 
sky, without any warning. But do not be dis- 


whom fate has stricken down. Besides, there are 
better things than wealth, even in this world, to say 
nothing of the next, where we shall neither buy nor 
sell. Cheer up, and believe me, as of old, 

Your friend, 

J. C. Street. 



















































































































































THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


377 


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Storekeeper to Merchant. 

Malone, N. Y., Nov. 14, 189-. 
Messrs. Goodhue & Co., New York, N. Y. 

Dear Sirs : Will you please furnish me by return 
mail with your list of prices for Rubber Shoes, Arc¬ 
tics, etc. Please quote lowest rates and best terms. 
Refer to Messrs. Barnaby Bros, and Messrs. Wheeler 
& Clarke, both of your city. 

Yours respectfully, 

Joseph Bateman. 

Merchant to Storekeeper. 

New York, Nov. 16, 189-. 
Mr. Joseph Bateman, Malone, N. Y. 

Dear Sir : Herewith we hand you complete list 
of Rubber Goods, which, being of our own manufac¬ 
ture, we can guarantee to be of the best quality. We 
have marked down the prices so low we cannot offer 
better terms than cash with order or on delivery. 

Awaiting your early favors, we are, 

Yours respectfully, 

Goodhue & Co. 

Dealer Ordering Goods. 

Cleveland, O., April 8, 189-. 
Messrs. Ward Bros. & Co., Philadelphia. 

Dear Sirs : Please send me by Merchants’ 
Dispatch : 

1,000 “Favoritas” half-boxes . . . @ $46. 

1,000 “Hard Times” do. . . . @ 29. 

500 “Chicos” boxes.@ 58. 

Be careful not to send any light shades of “ Favor¬ 
itas,” as I have got nearly all the light boxes of for¬ 
mer lot still on hand, there being little demand for 
cigars of that color. 

I enclose draft on New York for $1^2 in settlement 
of my account to March 1st, the receipt of which 
please acknowledge. 

Yours respectfully, 

Philip Marsh. 


Inquiry Into Responsibility. 

St. Louis, Sept. 13, 189-. 
Messrs. Williams Bros., Little Rock, Ark. 

Gentlemen : You will obHge us by stating if Mr. 
Francis Spellman, of the firm of Spellman & Co., of 
Hot Springs, Ark., is known to you, and worthy of 
credit. 

We are, very truly yours, 

Burt, Henry & Co. 

Answer to Foregoing. 

Little Rock, Ark., Sept. 15, 189-. 
Messrs. Burt, Henry & Co., St. Louis, Mo. 

Gentlemen: Yours of the 13th inst., received, 
and we are pleased to report Mr. Spellman an old 
acquaintance, and entirely worthy of any trust you. 
may place in him. 

We are, very truly yours, 

Williams Bros. 

Requesting Settlement. 

Portland, Me., July 10, 189-. 

A. A. Knight, Esq., Bangor, Me. 

Dear Sir : We have, for several days past, been 
looking for a remittance from you, covering your 
April account, and as the necessity of meeting our 
own engagements punctually is ever before us, wc 
are obliged to remind you that prompt payments are 
requisite and indispensable to the credit system. 

We are, yours, etc., 

T. Taylor & Co. 

Apologizing for Delay. 

Bangor, Me., July 15, 189- 
Messrs. T. Taylor & Co., Portland, Me. 

Dear Sir : I regret extremely my delay in meet¬ 
ing promptly the payment of April bills, and can only 
excuse myself upon the ground of business depres¬ 
sion, and consequent difficulty in making collections. 












378 


THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


I herewith enclose, in part payment of account 
named, bank draft on your city for one hundred 
dollars ($100), which please pass to my credit. The 
balance I shall try to remit on the 25th inst. 

I remain, yours, etc., 

A. A. Knight. 

i#etter Noticing Error in Invoice. 


Requesting Letter of Introduction. 

Utica, N. Y., Jan. 15, 189-. 

I 

Mr. George Vaee. 

Dear Sir : Some time ago you were kind enough 
to express yourself desirous of serving me in the way 
of introduction. 

Would it be asking too great a favor if I were to 


Morristown, N. J., Mar. 20, 189-. 
Messrs. Pitkin & Pheeps, New York. 

GenTeemen : We call your attention to an error 
in the extension of items in your last invoice, by 



A LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION. 

which we are charged $113.50 more than the invoice 
actually amounts to. Please correct same, and oblige, 

Yours very truly, 

Case, Ceark & Co. 

Answer to Foregoing. 

Messrs. Case, Ceark & Co., Morristown, N. J. 

GENTEEMEN : We find the amount charged in your 
account correct, and believe the error must have 
occurred in taking off items from Invoice Book. 
Enclosed we hand you a correct invoice, and beg 
your indulgence for any seeming negligence. 

We are, yours, etc., 

Pitkin & Pheeps. 


solicit from you a letter to two or three of the most 
respectable builders in New York, whom I should 
like to wait upon ? 

I should esteem it a very great favor if you would 
oblige me, as I am convinced the position you 
hold among them would considerably enhance my 
chance of obtaining orders. 

Apologizing for troubling you, I remain, 

Yours very respectfully, 

E. E. Wyant. 

Soliciting Consignments. 

25 New Street, New York, Oct. 1, 189-. 

L. T. Warren, Esq., St. Joseph, Mich. 

Dear Sir : Mr. Franklin handed us your letter 
of the 25th ult., in which you asked the market 
report on apples, also expenses attending them, to 
which we reply: Greenings are offered at from $2.25 
to $2.50 a bbl., hand picked and carefully packed. 
Our commission is five (5) per cent, on sales. The 
usual charges of carting from boat or cars to store, 
and labor hire in store, amounting to about six 
cents per barrel, are additional. 

We should be pleased to hear from you further, 
and will try to make satisfactory sales should you 
entrust us with your shipments. 

We are, yours respectfully, 

Johnson, Swift & Co. 

Application for Position. 

West42d St., 

New York, March 30, 189-. 
Messrs. Stewart & Co., No. — Broadway. 

GenTeemen : In reply to your advertisement in 
to-day’s Herald for a clerk competent to take charge 
of a set of books, and conversant with the forms of 
mercantile correspondence, I beg to offer my services 
to your Firm. 

I have been in the employ of Mr. A. G. Belmont 
for the past five years, but about three months ago 
he informed me of his desire to take his son into his 
counting-house, and dispense with the services of 
one clerk. 

He permits me to refer to him for any testimonial 
of character or ability which you may require. 

Should you favor my application, believe me that 



































































































































THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


379 


it will be my constant endeavor to fulfil faithfully 
and punctually the duties required. 

I have, gentlemen, the honor to be, 

Yours very respeetfully, 

Thomas Morris. 


will prove satisfactory. Should anything, however, 
prove objectionable, we shall feel obliged if you will 
notify us promptly. 

Yours very respectfully, 


Testimonial Accompanying the Above. 

NEW York, January i, 1S9-. 

Mr. Thomas Morris being about to leave my em¬ 
ploy, it gives me great pleasure to testify to his 
ability as a book-keeper. He has been in my count¬ 
ing-house for three years, during which time he has 
always maintained the character of a conscientious, 
upright and faithful clerk. He is a fine penman, 
corrrect accountant, good correspondent, and of 
steady moral habits. 

It will afford me pleasure at any time to reply to 
any application with regard to Mr. Morris, and he 
leaves me with my best wishes for his future success. 

A. G. Beemont. 


Circular Letter. 

To our Patrons and Friends : 

We cordially and specially invite the attention of 
our patrons and friends to our new display of ( here 
state the new specialties'). We have met with such 
gracious encouragement, during the past season, and 
our efforts to meet the public demaud have received 
such liberal support, we feel doubly assured our 
present stock will prove equally as inviting, and fully 
as desirable an exhibit as any we have heretofore 
■snade. 

Signature , 
Address. 

Form of an Order to Clothiers. 

Dayton, O., Nov. 10, 189-. 
Messrs. Parsons & Co., 950 Broadway, N. Y. 

GENTEEMEN : Please send me by express, C. O. 
D., one all-wool suit for boy ten years of age, to cost 
about eight or ten dollars. Also an overcoat to cost 
about eight dollars. Please enclose rules for self¬ 
measurement with parcel, and oblige, 

Yours respectfully, 

Peete Rogers. 


Form of Printed Blank to Accompany Invoice. 


New York.18... 

M. 

Enclosed please find invoice of. 

amounting to $ .. forwarded by. 

bill of lading herewith, as per your order of. 

The goods leave us in good condition, and we trust 


Form of Account Sales. 

New York , Oct. 13, i8g —. 
Sold by HOLT & CURTIS, for Accoicnt 

E. P. BARLOW, Nashville, Tenn. 



300 Barrels Apples, Greenings @ $2.75.... 


$825 00 


Paid. 




Freight Penna. R.R. 

$75 00 



Cartage to store a nd labor. 

18 00 



Commission, 5 per cent. 

4i 25 





134 25 


Net proceeds to your credit. 


$690 75 


Excusing Payment of Renk 

265 Fiebert Street, Jan. 21, 189-. 

Dear Sir : 

From most unexpected and distressing circum¬ 
stances, of which perhaps you may, by report, have* 
become acquainted before this, I regret that I have 
been unable to pay my rent for the past three 
months. But as up to this time the payment has 
always been punctually made, I hope I may request 
your kind forbearance a short time longer. Trusting 
that you will accede to my request, 

I am, yours respectfully, 

Wileiam C. Ceark. 

To Eugene Adams, Esq. 

Demand for Payment. 

Boston, July 15, 189-. 
Mr. F. C. GlEBERT, Springfield. 

Sir : Feeling much disappointed by your failure 
to settle my account according to promise, I am 
compelled to say that the profits on my business will 
not admit of longer credit. At the same time, 
I should be sorry to inconvenience you, and will 
therefore fix the 27th inst. for payment, after which 
it will be quite impossible for me to wait, however 
unpleasant the alternative. I am, sir, 

Yours obediently, 

A. B. Jordan. 


Reply to Above. 

SprinGFIEED, July 20, 189-. 
Mr. A. B. Jordan, Boston. 

Dear Sir : I am happy to be able to enclose you 
a check on Messrs. Rice & Co., of your city, for the 
sum for which I have already been too long your 
























380 


THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 


debtor. Assuring you that unforseen disappoint¬ 
ments have been the sole cause of any want of punc¬ 
tuality, I remain, dear sir, 

Yours very truly, 

F. C. Gilbert. 

Notice of Draft. 

Philadelphia, Jan. 16, 189-. 
Messrs. NELSON & Co., Lancaster, Pa. 

Gentlemen: We have this day deposited in 
bank for collection three days sight draft on you for 
one thousand dollars ($1,000), which please honor 
and oblige, Yours truly, 

Higginson & Ely. 

Order to a Grocer. 

Scotch Plains, N. J., May 1. 189-. 
Messrs. Arnold & Van Nostrand, Plainfield, N.J., 
Dear Sirs : Please deliver to the bearer, with bill 
of cost, the following : 

28 lbs. Granulated Sugar, 

3 lbs. English Breakfast Tea, 

5 lbs. Java Coffee, roasted, not ground, 

2 lbs. Mocha, “ “ 

1 box Taylor’s Family Soap, 

5 gal. N. O. Molasses, 

1 bbl. Flour (XXX). 

Charge in account, and oblige, 

Yours, etc., 

James T. Miller. 

Order to a Dry Goods Merchant. 

JOLIET, Ill., March 2, 189- 
Messrs. Field, Leiter & Co., Chicago, Ill., 
Gentlemen : Please send me by American Ex¬ 
press the following : 

15 yards ginghams, Renfrew Madras styles, 


© 15. $ 2 * 2 5 

13 yards Glasgow checks, dress styles, @12... 1.56 

5 doz. napkins, © $3-5°. I 7 * 5 o 

y 2 doz. ladies’ hemstitched handkerchiefs, 

@$ 3 . 5 o. I# 75 

3 pair ladies’ fine hose, © $1.5°. 4 - 5 ° 

$27-56 

I inclose P. O. order for five ($5) dollars. Please 
C. O. D. balance. 

Yours truly, 


Mrs. Maria C. Clayton, 

35 Lake Avenue. 

Consignees Acknowledge Receipt of Invoices, &c. 

New York, Dec. 29, 189-. 
Messrs. Jones, Loyd & Co., 47 Cornhill, London, 
England. 

Gentlemen : We beg to acknowledge receipt of 
your esteemed favor of 18th inst. enclosing Invoice 


and Bill of Lading of Fifteen Bales of Australian 
Wool, to arrive per “Neptune,” Smith, Master. 
We thank you for the honor conferred upon us, and 
assure you that we will use our best endeavors to 
merit a continuance of the confidence you have been 
pleased to place in us. 

Hoping for a safe and quick passage for the good 
ship “Neptune,” we are, 

Yours very respectfully, 

Parker Bros 

Bill of Lading and Invoice. 

Savannah, March 21, 189-. 
Mr. Samuel Barlow, London. 

Sir : Enclosed please find invoice and bill of 
lading of cotton shipped to you per the “ Otranto,” 
the former amounts to $685.80 for which sum please 
remit us dft. on New York at 60 days. 

Awaiting the pleasure of your further commands, 
We remain, yours faithfully, 

Harding & Pierce. 

New Partner Admitted. 

Chicago, Jan. 1, 189-. 

Mr. Robert Hall. 

Dear Sir : I beg to acquaint you, that in conse¬ 
quence of my having taken into partnership my 
nephew, Charles Martin, the business of my estab¬ 
lishment will henceforward be conducted under the 
firm of Henry Martin and Nephew. Please to note 
our respective signatures at foot. 

Returning you my sincere acknowledgments for 
the proofs of confidence with which you have 
favored me during so many years, and wdiich I trust 
will be continued to our new Firm, I remain, 

Very respectfully yours, 

Henry Martin. 

Henry Martin will sign, 

Henry Martin & Nephew .. 
Charles Martin will sign, 

Henry Martin & Nephew.. 

Merchants’ Apology for not Shipping as Ordered. 

New York, April 15, 189-. 
Mr. Philip Marsh, Cleveland, O. 

Dear Sir : W e are sorry to learn by your favor of 
13th inst. that we made a mistake in the mode of 
shipment of your goods on the 10th inst. On refer- 
ring to your order, we find that you are entirely 
correct, and we will give you credit on your account 
for the $2.25 excess of freight paid by you. We 
certainly will be more careful hereafter, and beg to 
apologize for our blunder. 

Yours respectfully, 

Ward Bros. & Ca 











381 
































































































































































o 



o 



Pastimes I 



sium 


>ORK calls for play. Is it 
a duty to work ? 
No less is it a duty 
to play, to take 
recreation, to un¬ 
bend the bow, to 
turn our physical 
powers out to pas- 
send them to the gymna- 
• the playground. Now 
for a grand romp, a splendid 
game, a cordial hand-shake with 
fresh air! Come on, ye pale 
dyspeptics, sallow students, thin 
clerks, withered business men, 
lank girls and women! Let exercise stir 
your blood and paint your cheeks ! 

No violent exertions are necessary, no 
difficult feats need be attempted, no special 
form of exercise need occupy much of the 
time and attention ; but each day a well- 
directed plan is to be followed, by which the 
weak and untrustworthy parts of the body 
are to be found out, and then steadily im¬ 
proved by exercise, until finally the body 
becomes like the “one-hoss shay” in Doctor 
Holmes’ ingenious parable : 

In building of chaises, I tell you what, 

There is always somewhere a weakest spot, 

382 


In hub, tire, felloe, in spring or thill, 

In panel or cross-bar, or floor or sill, 

In screw, bolt, thoroughbrace—lurking still. 
Find it somewhere you must and will—• 

Above or below, or within or without— 

And that's the reason, beyond a doubt, 

A chaise breaks down but doesn’t wear out. 

What is true of chaises is true of animals, 
man included. What the worthy deacon 
did for his new “shay” we can do for our 
bodies, or come near to it. Said the 
Deacon : 

’Tis mighty plain 

That the weakes’ place mus’ stan’ the strain ; 

’n’ the way t’ fix it, as I maintain, 

Is only jest 

T’ make that place as strong as the rest. 

This is what we have to do with the 
vehicle in which we travel the road of life, if 
we would avoid premature collapse. 

It is by no means necessary, as many 
imagine, to give much time daily to exercise 
in order to acquire a strong and hearty body. 
On the contrary, many who, dissatisfied with 
the condition of their health and strength, 
have begun to take more exercise than be¬ 
fore, have defeated their purpose by taking 
too much exercise. 

To exhaust the frame by long walks and 
rides, or by undertaking some difficult and 
arduous system of training, would be unwise. 














































SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


383 


even if the sole object were to acquire 
strength ; but where the ultimate object is 
to increase the capacity for the work of life 
(as it must be with every man of sense), and 
this work is only indirectly dependent on 
bodily strength, it is utter folly to exhaust 
the frame by efforts for which it is unfit. 

Let it be noticed, then, that apart from 
such exercise as falls naturally into the day’s 
work, an hour a day, or even four times a 


week, devoted to systematic exercise, will 
suffice, first to restore, and afterward to 
maintain, the strength of the body. It was 
with this small amount of daily training that 
Maclaren obtained such remarkable results, 
adding girth to the chest and limbs, increas¬ 
ing the weight and muscular development, 
changing actually the shape of the bony 
framework of the body—in grown men—not 
in long periods of time, but in a few weeks. 







LAWN TENNIS 


<9 








WN TENNIS is an adaptation 
of the grand old game of ten¬ 
nis to out-door courts, which 
may be made wherever there 
is a sufficient expanse either of 
turf or of smooth ground. It 
is said to have been invented 
long ago ; but it is only quite within late 
years that it has become a favorite game 
throughout the country. It may be hoped, 
however, that it will long continue to enjoy 
its well-earned popularity, for it combines 
much of the interest and attractions of real 
tennis, with this immense advantage, that it 
can be played in the open air. 

For schoolboys it is rather to be called a 
holiday amusement than a school game. 
Where there are plenty of players available, 
cricket, foot ball or base ball is a much more 
commendable, as well as, generally speak¬ 
ing, a more convenient game ; but in holiday 
time comrades are not so easily to be found 


in abundance, and then the charms of a 
game that can be played by four, or even a 
smaller number, are soon appreciated. 

There is, moreover, this special recom¬ 
mendation of lawn tennis, that it can be 
played by girls as well as boys, and that 
ladies are not unfrequently known to be able 
to hold their own in a double game, or even 
in a single game, against really excellent 
players belonging to the stronger sex. 

The Court. 

The Court is 78 feet long, and 27 feet 
wide. It is divided across the middR by a 
net, the ends of which are attached to two 
posts, A and B, standing 3 feet outside of the 
court on either side. The height of the net 
is 3 feet 6 inches at the posts, and 3 feet at 
the middle. At each end of the court, par¬ 
allel with the net, and 39 feet from it, are 
drawn the base lines DE and FG, the ends 
of which are connected by the side lines 



















384 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


DF and EG. Half way between side lines, 
and parallel with them, is drawn the half¬ 
court line I H, forming the right and left 
courts. On each side of the net, 21 feet 
from it, and parallel with it, are drawn the 
service lines KL and MN. 

For average usefulness the dirt court, 
requiring much the least care, is best. 
Such a court is also easily made. Take any 
ordinary piece of land (50 feet by 100 feet) 
and bring it to a level, removing all stones 
and roots ; continued rolling and sprinkling 
will then produce a smooth, hard surface. 

Turf, to be kept hard and firm, requires 


G N 




18 

21 

F M 


39 

much rolling; the grass of the court must 
be of the best quality, and must be carefully 
cut and weeded ; the worn spots must be 
worked over and re-seeded, and frequent 
brush-harrowings and re-markings are nec¬ 
essary. A turf court also requires periodical 
rests of several days, if in anything like con¬ 
stant use. 

Cement courts are only useful in clubs or 
in countries where the soil is unfit for other 
kinds of court. 

In the construction of a court great stress 
is to be put upon the following points, too 
often neglected: 

1. Sufficient space about the court. At 


least 21 feet at the ends and 12 feet at the 
sides should be left clear. 

2. The ground must be hard, perfectly 
level and smooth. To effect a proper drain¬ 
age the court is too often allowed a slight 
slant; except in the hard court, however, 
drainage may be better attained by a good 
sub-soil. For turf, a foundation of about a 
foot of cinders or gravel answers very well; 
above this six inches of soil and then the 
turf. A similar sub-soil also greatly improves 
a dirt court. 

3. If possible, the court should lie north 
and south, unshaded by trees, to insure 


L _ _E 


21 

CO 

f— 




K D 

39 


equality of light. Also, the player will be 
greatly aided in following the ball if there 
can be a dark background, such as would be 
given by thick shrubbery or even a wall. 

The most durable centre net, and the one 
most in favor with experts, is a black tarred 
one with top binding of white canvas, easily 
distinguishable, even in very rapid play. It 
is held in place by the posts and centre-iron. 
A very serviceable post is made of pine, four 
inches square, buried two and a half feet in 
the ground, three feet six inches high, hav¬ 
ing a groove along the top and a cF f upon 
the outer side. 

Concerning centre-irons, there is little 























SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


385 


choice. All are likely to interfere with the 
play, but the net must be kept just three feet 
high at the centre. 

The backstops—an arrangement without 
the court to intercept balls, saving the player 


edge of the proper kind, even to the expert. 
It is generally a matter of luck with the in¬ 
experienced player. 

It is essential that the gut should be good 
(chain not too thick), the handle plain and 



OUTDOOR SPORTS. 


the trouble of going for them—are best 
made of wire netting, at least 7 feet high 
and 50 feet to 75 feet long, placed 21 feet 
behind the base line. 

The choice of a good racket is a test of 
judgment, of critical observation and knowl- 


octagonal, the splice well fitting and the 
hoop free from knots, with the grain going 
all around. The stringing should be so 
tight as to emit a distinct musical note when 
struck with the fingers. If too tight, how¬ 
ever, it will be of little use for “driving,” 




































































































386 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES 


To test the balance—an important quality 
—hold the racket loosely by the butt, and 
jerk or swing it up and down; if it comes 
up with difficulty the head is too heavy, if 
too easily it is too light. 

For men the weight varies from 14 ounces 
to 14^2 ounces; for women 13^ ounces is 
common among the best players. 

Never use any but good balls; fortourna- 



Lay the racket on a table with the smooth 
side up. Open the hand, with the thumb 
nearly at right angles to the fingers, and 
then clasp the handle in such a way as to 
make its upper right edge (if it were square) 
fit into the hollow of the joint between the 
thumb and forefinger. In closing the fingers 
on the handle do not put them directly 
round it, but with the first joint of each 



THE SOCIAL PART OF THE GAME. 


ment practice, of course, only the official 
regulation ball. Both rackets and balls 
should be kept in a dry, moderate tempera¬ 
ture; the tendency of rackets to warp may 
be counteracted by use of a racket press or 
weight that will hold them flat. 

The manner of holding ? packet is largely 
a matter of personal experiment. The main 
point at issue is the advisability of changing 
the hold of the racket during play. 


finger slanting up the handle, which will 
cause the top joints to slant down the other 
way. The first two fingers should be a little 
separated from the other fingers and each 
other. The end of the handle should be 
well within the hand, with the little finger 
round the leather rim. The thumb should 
not go round onto the ends of the fingers, 
but should slope upwards across the uppe? 
side of the handle. 







































SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


387 


The position half way between the net 
and service line is agreed by most of our 
best players to be the vantage ground of the 
court from which they must easily protect 
themselves and attack their opponents. It 
then is the point to be gained and held. 

In serving stand as near to the centre of 
the base line as possible, it is better than the 
side or defense, and gives a wider range for 


The most general return is down the side 
line, the ball striking near the base line, and 
this may be varied by a drive across court, a 
difficult stroke, which, to be effected, should 
strike within the service line. 

There should be a referee for every tour- 
nament, whose name shall be stated in the 
circular announcing such tournament. He 
shall have general charge of the matches, 





Ift 


BACKHAND STROKE. 


placing. Do not serve too swiftly to place 
well, and never make a double fault. Wait 
until you have your opponent at disadvan¬ 
tage to take the net position. 

Unless you know beforehand the pecu¬ 
liarity of an opponent’s service, stand a foot 
or two behind the base line to receive it (it is 
easier to run forward than backward), and do 
not try to protect your back-hand corner by 
giving your right hand more ground to cover. 


under the instructions and advice of the 
managing committee, with such power and 
authority as may be given him by the rules 
and by said committee. He shall notify 
the committee in case he intends to leave 
the grounds during the matches, and the 
committee shall appoint a substitute to act, 
with like powers, during his absence. 

There shall be an umpire for each match, 
and as many linesmen as the players desire. 



























































































388 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


The umpire may act as linesman also. The 
umpire shall have general charge of the 
match, and shall decide whether the player 
took the ball on the first or second bounce. 
The umpire shall also decide any question 


of interpretation or construction of the rules 
that may arise. The decision of the umpire 
upon any question of fact, or where a dis¬ 
cretion is allowed to him under the rules, 
shall be final. 



HE largest crowds ever assem¬ 
bled to witness any athletic 
contests are those which 
always gather upon the an¬ 
nual recurrence of the foot¬ 
ball contests between the 
different colleges. As many 
as 30,000 persons have witnessed some of 
the games between the young collegians who 
represent the brawn and muscle of their 
respective institutions. The game appears 
to have taken a firm hold upon the public, 
and nearly every institution of learning has its 
team, while many local and independent clubs 
are in existence in every part of the country. 

Those who are taking up the sport for 
the first time should observe certain rules 
which will enable them to become adept 
players with less mistakes than perhaps 
would otherwise fall to their lot. 

A beginner in foot ball should do two 
things. He should read the rules and he 
should, if possible, watch the practice. If 
the latter be impossible, he and his mates 
must, after having read the rules, start in 
and, with eleven men on a side, play accord¬ 
ing to their own interpretation of these rules. 
When differences of opinion arise as to the 
meaning of any rule, a letter addressed to 


some one of the players upon prominent 
teams will almost always elicit a ready and 
satisfactory answer. 

The first thing to be done in starting the 
practice, is to provide regarding the acces¬ 
sories of the game, which in foot ball are of 
the simplest kind. The field should be 
marked out with ordinary lime-lines, enclos¬ 
ing a space of 330 feet long and 160 feet wide. 

Description of the Grounds. 

While not absolutely necessary, it is cus¬ 
tomary to mark the field also with transverse 
lines every five yards, for the benefit of the 
referee in determining how far the ball is 
advanced at every down. In the middle of 
the lines forming the ends of the field, the 
goal-posts are erected, and should be eigh¬ 
teen feet six inches apart, with cross-bar ten 
feet from the ground. The posts should 
project several feet above the cross-bar. 
The ball used is an oval leather cover con¬ 
taining a rubber inner, which is inflated by 
means of a small air pump or the lungs. 

The costumes of the players form another 
very important feature, and should be of a 
proper and serviceable nature. 

The ordinary player should wear a canvas 
jacket. This can be home-made or pur- 







































THE turning point in the game 









•. . 



WINTER RECREATION AND PLEASURE 


% 


LW 






SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


389 


chased at a small expense from any athletic 
outfitter. It should fit closely, but not too 
tightly, and lace up in front so that it may 
be drawn quite snugly. Some have elastic 
pieces set in at the sides, back or arms, but 
these additions are by no means necessary. 

The trousers should be of some stout 
material, fustian for example, and well padded. 
This padding can be done by any seamstress ; 


quilting in soft material over knees and 
thighs, or the regular athletic outfitters fur¬ 
nish trousers provided with the padding. 
Long woolen stockings are worn, and not 
infrequently, shin guards, by men playing in 
the forward line. 

The most important feature of the entire 
uniform is the shoe. This may be the ordi¬ 
nary canvas and leather base ball shoe with 


leather cross-pieces nailed across the sole to 
prevent slipping. This is the most inxe- 
pensive form, but the best shoes are made 
entirely of leather, kangaroo skin preferably, 
fitting the foot firmly, yet comfortably, lacing 
well up on the ankle, and the soles pro¬ 
vided with a small leather spike which can 
be renewed when worn down. Inside this 
shoe and either attached to the bottom of it, 


or not, as preferred, a thin leather anklet 
laces tightly over the foot, and is an almost 
sure preventive of sprained ankles. 

The cap may be of almost any variety, 
and except in the cases of half-backs and 
back, does not play any very important part. 
These men should, however, have caps with 
visors to protect their eyes from the sun 
when catching a long kick. 







In Touch. 


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Touch or Bounds. 

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DIAGRAM OF FOOT BALL GROUNDS. 






























390 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


The team of eleven men is usually divided 



DROP KICK. 

kito seven rushers or forwards, who stand in 



BASE 


a line facing ther seven opponents ; a quar¬ 
ter-back, who stands just behind this line; 
two half-backs, a few yards behind the 
quarter-back; and finally, a full-back or 
goal tend, who stands a dozen yards or so 
behind the half-backs. This gives the gen- 
oral formation, but is, of course, dependent 
upon the plays to be executed. 

The succession of plays continues for 
thirty-five minutes in a regular match. Then 
intervenes a ten-minute intermission, after 
which the side which did not have the kick¬ 
off at the commencement of the match has 
possession of the ball for the kick-off at the 
second thirty-five minutes. 



BALL 



Uli national game is base ball. 

MT |[ 5 !b What cricket is to England, 
this game is to our country. 
Since it came into vogue its 
popularity, instead of dimin- 
cife ishing, has increased, and in 

g all our large cities the pro¬ 

fessional teams have had an enthusiastic fol¬ 
lowing. Immense audiences not infrequently 
assemble, composed of all classes of people, 
applauding the fine points in the game, and 
execrating the blunders made by some luck 
less player. 

Every school, every village, every hamlet 
is more or less devoted to this sport. Boys 
but! just promoted to long pants, as well as 
full-grown men, can engage in it. The rules 
are simple, the game is easily learned, the 
exercise is healthful, the spirit of rivalry is 
exhilarating, and it may be prophesied that 
the day is far distant when base ball will 


cease to be a national institution, holding 
front rank in athletics and outdoor sports. 

To enter upon a contest for the palm of 
superiority in this American game, and to 
display the skill in pitching, batting, and 
fielding which base ball requires, needs men 
of pluck, nerve, and presence of mind— 
courageous and intelligent fellows, who have 
their wits about them ; for the game, when 
played up to its highest mark is anything 
but a boys’ game in any respect, as the 
amount of fatigue involved, and the injuries 
frequently sustained, fully prove. 

Nevertheless, base ball can be played and 
enjoyed by boys as well as men, for its 
theory is simple, and when played by ama¬ 
teurs the demand for those qualifications 
which make a player excel in professional 
contests is of course not so great. 

The theory of base ball in brief is as fol¬ 
lows :—A space of ground being mafked 

























SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


391 


out on a level field in the form of a diamond, the field side take their positions the pitcher 
with equal sides, bases are placed on the delivers the ball to the batsman, who en- 


CENTRE 


LEFT 


RIGHT 



CORRECT DIAGRAM OF A BASE BALL GROUND. 


A. A. A.—Ground reserved for Umpire, Batsman and Catcher. 

B. B.—Ground reserved for Captain and Assistant. 

C. —Players’ Bench. D.—Visiting Players’ Bat Rack. 

R.—Home Players’ Bat Rack. 


four corners thereof. The contestants include 
nine players on each side—one side takes the 
field and the other goes to the bat. When 


deavors to send it out of the reach of the 
fielders, and far enough out on the field to 
enable him to run round the bases, and if 






























392 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


he reaches the home base—his starting- 
point—without being put out, he scores a 
run. He is followed in rotation by the 
others of his side until three of the batting 
party are put out, when the field side come in 
and take their turn at the bat. This goes 
on until nine innings have been played to a 
close, and then the side scoring the most 
runs wins the game. 

It will be readily seen that the theory of 
the game is simple enough, and it is this 


simplicity of construction which forms one 
of its chief attractions for the masses ; and 
yet to excel in the game as a noted expert 
requires not only the possession of the physi¬ 
cal attributes of endurance, agility, strength, 
good throwing and running powers, together 
with plenty of courage, pluck, and nerve, but 
also the mental powers of sound judgment, 
quick perception, thorough control of tem¬ 
per, and the presence of mind to act promptly 
in critical emergencies. 



RICKET is an 
English game. It 
is fast coming to 
be an American 
game. Many per¬ 
sons consider that 
it has advantages 
over foot ball and 
base ball. The 
progress of the game is slower than that of 
either of the games just mentioned, and for 
this reason is not so well suited to our Amer¬ 
ican tastes. That cricket requires skill, 
strength, patience, the mental processes of 
sound judgment and quick decision, will be 
disputed by no one. It is also a most healthful 


outdoor exercise. The expert cricket player 
must have all his physical powers in full com¬ 
mand and must be in the pink of condition. 

The wickets are now formed of three up¬ 
right stumps, made usually of ash of the best 
growth. Across these are two “ bails,” or 
pieces of wood neatly carved and turned, and 
made of almost similar material, each one of 
which connects two of the three stumps, the 
grooves on the top of each of the stumps 
serving to secure the ends of each bail. 
These are what is termed collectively a 
“wicket,” and at each end of the ground, at 
a distance of twenty-two yards, three stumps 
are placed, the two erections serving to illus¬ 
trate the distinction of “ double wicket.” 


















































A FIKIvD DAY IN ARCHERY 















HENLEY REGATTA ON THE THAMES, ENGLAND. 
























A CRITICAL MOMENT, 


















































































































































































































































































































394 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


In preparing for a match, the ground at 
each wicket must be laid out according to 
the annexed diagram. The “bowling crease” 
is meant to be a sort of check upon the 
bowler to prevent him from running past the 
stumps. Should he in delivering a ball place 
both feet on the outside of the bowling 



S. S. S. Stumps. R. c. Return Crease. 

B. c. Bowling Crease. p. c. Popping Crease. 

crease (that is, in front of the stumps), the 
ball so delivered is called a “no-ball.” The 
“return crease” is intended to indicate the 
limit sidewise of the bowler’s range. As for 
the “popping crease,” it may be described 
as a kind of check upon the batsman, for 
should he not have one foot always within 
or on the crease the wicket-keeper nay put 
down the wicket with the ball, and so 
“stump” the batsman. Accordingly, the 
striker should be very careful never to go 
out of his ground. 

Before facing the bowler, the batsman 
commonly “takes block” from the umpire. 
“Block” is a spot usually a bat’s length 
from the middle stump, with which it is sup¬ 
posed to be exactly in a line, for the purpose 
of covering the wicket from the bowler’s 
attack. 

The old bat was curved in the form of a 


butter-knife, and was obviously of little use 
except for the purpose of hitting—blocking 
or scientific play being things at that time 
not dreamt of in the philosophy of a crick¬ 
eter. The bowling was what is known as 
underhand, and the mysteries of roundhand, 
of curves, spins and the other secrets of 
attack now so skilfully employed, were ut¬ 
terly unknown, so that the great point of the 
game was to hit without thought of defence. 
And hit they did with a vengeance, if we 
can believe some of the traditions of our 
forefathers. 

To complete the equipment of a cricket 
club, it will be necessary to provide a tele¬ 
graph stand for announcing the scores, etc., 
and a set of nets for use in practice. A 
cricket club should always have one of the 
latter. You cannot always get together a 
sufficient number of players every practice. 
By using nets, however, practice can nearly 
always be had, as it is not then so requisite 
to have several players. If you have a net 
with sides you will find yourself still further 
assisted, as most of the hits will thus be 
stopped, and no long-stop will be required, 



NET PRACTICE. 


and one bowler and two fieldsmen will enable 
you to have a good practice. If you deter¬ 
mine to have a complete outfit, get the dif¬ 
ferent articles of good stuff and of good 
makers. An unwise economy is an expen¬ 
sive luxury in the end. 










































SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


395 


You will find yourself much disappointed 
if you labor under any sort of impression 
that the science of cricket can be mastered 
except after the expenditure of much time 
and patience. Do not be mislead by the 
idea that to be a good cricketer, either as 
batsman, bowler or fieldsman, is an inborn 
gift. Take the converse of that hackneyed 
proverb about a poet, and be assured that a 
cricketer is made, not born. It is in batting 
more than in any other branches of the game 
that you will find practice the great secret to 
success. 

You will ask what is the first point that 
will have to be mastered before you can 
enter on the high road to success. The an¬ 
swer is, Position. Master this one great 



POSITION. 


rudiment, and you are on the way to ad¬ 
vancement. It is not so easily mastered, 
though; so take the best advice, and if you 
can possibly secure a favorable opportunity 
to watch an expert and well-tried batsman 
at work, do not fail to take advantage of the 
chance. If you are lucky enough to see 


one of the most eminent amateur or profes¬ 
sional players at the wicket you will find the 
benefit that will accrue from such a practical 
illustration. 

Do not lose sight of the first necessity of 
acquiring a useful as well as proper attitude 
of batting. As in most things, an evil habit 



is the most expensive to a good beginner. 
An easy position is as capable of achieve¬ 
ment as an ungraceful, cramped, and crooked 
attitude, though the bent may be more in 
the wrong direction. 

You must first of all see that you form 
for yourself a position that will enable you 
to stand firmly without yielding an inch, 
while at the same time it affords the greatest 
facility for rapidity of motion either forwards 
or backwards. You must not indulge in 
eccentricities, after the fashion of the dancing 
bear, or your career will be brief. Above 
all things keep your right leg as firm as a 
rock, as this leg essentially forms the “pivot,” 
to regulate the movements of the batsman, 
and you cannot adapt yourself readily to the 















































396 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


varying necessities of the game if the muscles 
be relaxed, the knee bent, and the posture 
generally that of a cat militant. 

Be sure that you insist on this stout sup¬ 
port for your actions, for the posture of the 



THE FORWARD PLAY. 


other leg will be of minor importance, or at 
the best a matter of choice. It is marvellous 
to see the contortions in which some bats¬ 
men indulge, and still more surprising the 
success that attends some of those who affect 
the most eccentric attidudes. There are 
men who stand with their legs separated to 
the full extreme, after the form of the letter 
V in an inverted state, and others who give 
you the idea that they pay rent for the use 
of the ground, and are determined to occupy 
the very smallest possible space, so cramped 
is their attitude. 

Place your left foot about twelve inches 
in front of the right, and see that it is as 
nearly as possible at right angles with it. 
You will find that in this position your left 
eye will be just above the level of the left 
shoulder; and more than one batsman insists 
upon this as an absolute essential to the ac- 
■ quirement of a good position. Keep your 


bat well down, though not so close to the 
ground as to hinder your quick recovery in 
case of hitting; for mere defense of the 
wicket you will soon learn to consider tame 
and monotonous. 

To know precisely when to play forward 
and when to play backward at a certain style 
of ball is an achievement in itself; but to de¬ 
cide on the precise course to be pursued, 
and to act with the requisite amount of reso¬ 
lution, is a feat that will take you some time 
to accomplish with anything like certainty. 
There are some batsmen who lunge out at 
every ball, and trust to their keenness of 
vision more than to any judgment in calcula¬ 
tion to enable them to overthrow the best- 
laid schemes of a bowler. 

To get a batsman into what is called “ two 
minds” is the main aim of a bowler; and it 



THE BACKWARD PLAY. 


is this very player that renders him the most 
effectual help. Old Felix, one of the most 
thoroughly qualified writers who ever dis¬ 
coursed on cricket, speaks feelingly on this 
point: “ Every well-practiced batsman knows 















































SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


397 


there is a spot of ground—yes, there is a 
spot of ground—upon which if the' ball 
should alight it produces an indescribable 
sensation seems to be caused by the difficulty 
of being able to decide at the instant whether 
or not you should lunge out to meet it, 
smother it and kill it, or take it upon the 
back play. For when once you throw your 
body forward, in vain (should your judgment 
be incorrect) will you recover yourself in 
time enough to overtake the ball.” 

Defence, and not defiance, should be the 
motto of the young batsman, until he has 
proved himself able to take his own part 
against the attack from first to last with 
the same amount of confidence. Take care 
of the stumps, and the runs will take care 
of themselves. You must feel your way 
gently at the outset, until you have accus¬ 



tomed yourself to the style of the bowling 
to which you are opposed, and until you 
have begun to understand the plans of the 
attacking party. 


Much depends on the curve or spin that 
is imparted to the bowling, and your style of 
play will have to be so suited as to best 
frustrate the craft of the enemy who aims 



THE FORWARD CUT. 

at your destruction. The intentional bias 
given to the ball in its passage from bowler 
to batsman must cause, at any time, more 
disquietude than is occasioned when no de¬ 
flection arises from the course of the ball, 
as obviously with a spinning ball the 
batsman has a double risk to his safety, 
namely, in the pitch as well as in the devia¬ 
tion of the ball. Play steadily at first until 
you have become used to the pecularities of 
the bowling. 

A left-handed bowler usually may be ex¬ 
pected to break, or twist, from the off to a 
right-handed batsmen, so that a rule may be 
taken as conclusive on this point, and you 
will at least have your weapons ready to 
your hand for this emergency. If you 
allow the ball to touch the ground, you give 
it an opportunity of indulging in its revolu¬ 
tions, as it will take a fresh direction the 




















398 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


moment that it reaches the turf. You must 
“smother” it before you allow it a field for 
the practice of its vicious purposes, or you 
must play back, and rob it of much of its 



offensive action by the defensive policy of 
protecting your wicket with the full width of 
your bat. 

You have still to learn the art of “cut¬ 
ting,” as the action of hitting a ball by 
means of the wrist is usually denominated. 
You have still to learn one of the most 
effective hits in the possession of an expert 
batsman, and you can never hope to attain 
your diploma of the college of batsmen un¬ 
less you have to some extent mastered this 
great necessity. Much of the efficacy of 
this hit depends obviously on the batsman’s 
strength of wrist, but even with this faculty 
no great success can be achieved unless the 
eye be quick and the judgment ready to 
time the ball well as it rises from the ground. 

There are two methods of cutting, known 
respectively as the “forward cut” and the 
“late cut,” though the latter is the more 


efficacious as well as the more elegant and 
likely to confer the greater honor on the rising- 
batsman. The forward cut resembles more 
the ordinary drive to the off, with a slight 
, infusion of wrist. Take notice that in this 
hit the relative uses of the two legs are re¬ 
versed. To realize the cut proper you will 
have to make your left leg the pivot instead 
of the right, as is usual in most of the ordi¬ 
nary hits, and the right will have to be used, 
as occasion requires, to promote the correct 
timing of the ball. You will have neces¬ 
sarily to follow, as it were, the course of the 
ball, or rather to face it as you are in the act 
of hitting. 

Much of the secret of cutting consists in 
the judgment with which the ball is timed, 
and a few trials will convince you of the cor¬ 
rectness of this assertion. If your eye and 



mind act well in concert, you need have 
little fear of failure, and practice will further 
enable you to make sure of your aim. It 
may be that you will never be so proficient 




























SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


399 


as some who have become almost represen¬ 
tative batsmen by reason of this one hit ; 
for to cut brilliantly demands that you should 



HITTING THE LEG. 


be able to calculate the time and rise of the 
ball to the veriest nicety ; and flexibility of 
wrist is required rather than the possession 



of anything like herculean strength. It is 
a stroke, none the less, that you should cul¬ 
tivate and endeavor to master, although 
there are reasons why even the cut should be 
administered with caution and never abused. 


You will find here that a heavy bat will 
seriously interfere with the success of your 
efforts, so do not be misled by the idea that 
an addition of a pound or two avoirdupois 
will give you any advantage over the rest of 
your fellows. Some young players seem to 
think that it adds to their renown to wield a 
bat more sensible plodding souls reject on 
utilitarian principles. In cutting you want a 
bat that you can raise with ease, not one 



HIGH ARM DELIVERY. 

* 

that will cause the tendons of your wrist to 
ache for a week afterwards. 

If you are under the impression that you 
have mastered the art of bowling because 
you have gained a certain amount of mechan¬ 
ical precision in directing the course of the 
ball, you are very much mistaken. You 
must banish forever the notion that precision 
is all that is required to become a great 
bowler, or you will have wasted much time 
and labor that might have been more profit¬ 
ably spent. You must recognize at once the 
fact that to secure eminence as a bowler 



























































































400 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


needs gifts that all do not possess, as well as 
a degree of nerve that practice and experi¬ 
ence can alone produce. You need patience 
and resolution, as you well know, to become 



CATCHING A HIGH HIT. 


a good batsman ; but you require, in addition, 
a keen perception and a readiness to discover 
the weak points of your adversaries, or you 
will never mature into a bowler of the high¬ 
est rank. 

Do not over-bowl yourself at the outset, 
but try your strength with a low delivery, 
and a pace that will not tire or fatigue you. 
You will find at first that you will have some 
difficulty in pitching the ball far enough, 
though the distance does not seem very 
great until you have tried. You had better 
do anything than retain that fault, for short 
bowling is the worst of all, and even one long 
hop in an over is a fatal mistake that you 
must seek to overcome at all hazards. You 
will assist your future prospects, too, more 
than you can imagine, by selecting a neat 
and easy style of delivery. It may be that 


you have already formed a habit in this line 
that you cannot well eradicate, and in this 
case the advice may come a little too late. 
It is certain that the more easy and less ex¬ 
haustive the style of action, the better the 
chance of a bowler retaining his skill for any 
length of time. If you have, unfortunately, 
contracted the habit of bowling spasmodi¬ 
cally, without the measured steady swing 
that should mark the movements of a first- 
class bowler, you can hardly hope to last, 
although you may electrify the world per¬ 
chance for a few brief seasons. 

You will have to learn how best to hold 
the ball, for so much depends on its course 
after leaving your hand that every possible 
advantage in the manner of holding has care¬ 
fully to be studied. It is obvious that most 

0 



of the rotary tendency which proves so 
effectual in the case of some bowlers, is 
owing to the method in which the ball is 
held when it leaves the hand, so that no 
























SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


401 


chance should be allowed to escape in this 
direction. There are some who deem it to 
their advantage to hold the ball in the palm 
of the hand, but the plan is injudicious, and 
will in no way assist the object in view. 

The spin of the ball and the judgment 
requisite to puzzle a batsman, are matters 
entirely of experience, and can be learned 
only after the bowler has acquired the art of 
hitting the stumps with certainty. 

If you aim to be an absolute expert in the 
way of bowling, you will have to cultivate 
other faculties than those with which the 
mere possession of a certain amount of 
bodily strength has endowed you. The 
science of batting has improved so much, 
and developed so marvelously with the pro¬ 
portionate improvement in the condition of 
cricket grounds, that the old order of bowl¬ 
ing has changed in a surprising manner, giv¬ 
ing place to a new and vastly more intelli¬ 



gent state of things. Indeed, to be a skilful 
bowler nowadays requires a degree of mental 
acumen that was almost unnecessary in the 
past. 

In the majority of elementary treatises 
26 


which have been written on cricket, there 
has been little or no allusion made to field¬ 
ing, which is certainly one of the most im¬ 
portant qualifications in a good cricketer. 
A good bat may be unluckily caught, and a 



STOPPING A GROUNDER WITH ONE HAND. 


good bowler may not be on the spot for the 
day ; and then, if bad men be in the field, 
they become mere clogs upon the other men 
on their side, and do more harm than good. 
It is not, therefore, by any means a waste of 
time on the part of the youthful cricketer if 
he steadily sets to work and learns his 
duties in the field, by carefully watching the 
movements of masters in the art. 

In the first place, it will be universally 
admitted that the primary object of a man 
standing at any place is to catch the bats¬ 
man out or to save runs. But even with 
this laudable object in view, it is strange to 
see the awkward manner in which many so- 
called cricketers set about the task. Often 
in the case of a high catch they hurry up to 
the ball in a state of excitement, which pre¬ 
vents them from taking a steady look at it, 
and judging it properly. Their legs straddle 
under them, and their hands are wide apart. 
Holding a catch in such a position is only a 










402 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


matter of chance, and it is frequently the 
case that the lucky fieldsman is even more 
astonished at his success than the lookers-on. 

A golden rule for catching high hits is to 
get as well under the ball as possible, and 
judge where you think the ball will pitch. 
Keep your wrists almost together on a level 
with the lower part of your chest, but a little 
distance away from it, with the palms of 
your hands facing each other, and the tips 
of the fingers upwards, and about eight 
inches apart. By this means you will have 
a sort of box to catch the ball in, and the 
position of your hands will give you a chance 
of hugging it to your body, if you do not 
catch it clean, and the ball tries to elude 
your grasp. In the case of sharp catches, 
quickness ofjsye alone is of avail, and there 
is generally little time to make elaborate 
preparations. It therefore necessitates a 
field near the wickets keeping a very sharp 


look-out, or the chance will have been given 
and missed, before he fairly knows anything 
about it. 

Backing up the wicket-keeper, or the 
bowler, or another field, in cases where the 
ball is thrown in, or hit to them sharply, is 
the bounden duty of the careful field, and a 
conscientious carrying out of this work has 
saved many a match from being lost. It is 
not by any means necessary for a field to 
wear himself out by too great exertions, and 
running after another man’s ball; but the 
virtue of backing up should never be lost 
sight of. 

The last important point in fielding is 
throwing-in to the wicket-keeper, and many 
a good field in other respects is simply 
a nuisance to his side from the carelessness 
of his throwing-in. On all occasions the 
ball should be thrown in as low as possible, 
provided it does not roll along the ground. 






HOUGH this is the national 
game of Scotland, it is now 
largely played in England, 
Ireland and other parts of 
the world. It is an enjoyable 
and healthy amusement, in¬ 
volving as it does a great 
amount of muscular exercise and plenty of 
walking, without at the same time calling for 
those spasmodic outbursts of violent energy 
which render several outdoor games simply 
“forbidden fruit” to hundreds of boys and 
young men. 

Itisplayed over “links” (English, “downs” 


or “commons”) ; and the “course” will be 
none the less pleasing to keen golfers should 
it contain a fair sprinkling of sandpits, 
broomy knolls, and other “ bunkers ” or 
“hazards” (as they are styled), which it is 
the chief aim and prime duty of the player to 
avoid if he possibly can do so. Throughout 
the common there is a series of circular 
holes, four inches in diameter, situated at 
various distances, ranging from 80 to 500 
yards from each other, which are generally 
cut on a patch of smooth turf, to facilitate 
“ putting ’’—the gentle tapping of the ball 
as it gets near the hole. 









SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


403 


The players are either two in number, the 
commoner and simpler arrangement, or four 
(two against two, constituting what is known 
as a “foursome”), in which latter case the 
two partners strike the ball on their side 
alternately. The object of the game is to 
drive the ball from hole to hole round the 
course in the fewest number of strokes, the 
player (or pair of players) succeeding in 
“ holing ” the ball in the fewest number win¬ 
ning that hole. 

The greatest number of holes thus gained 
in one or more rounds ordinarily decides the 
match, though sometimes it is agreed to 
award victory to the smallest aggregate 
number of strokes taken to hole the course. 
Each player must be furnished with a set of 
■clubs of different lengths and shapes, to be 



DRIVING. 


employed according to the position of the 
ball or distance to be driven ; for the ball, 
having been struck from the “tee” (a snuff 
of sand, or tuft of grass, to give the requi¬ 
site elevation for a full drive to start with), 
must afterwards be struck as it happens to 
lie, and must not be touched by anything 
except a club until it reaches the hole—sav¬ 
ing in the cases provided for in the rules. 


The golfer’s tools are numerous and varied, 
consisting of the play-club , the grassed-driver, 
the long, middle, short and baffing spoons , 
the heavy and light irons, the cleek, the nib¬ 
lick, and the driving and green putters . This 
is a formidable list ; yet the beginner need 
not be disheartened. Armed with a play- 
club, a cleek and a putter, he may acquire 
such proficiency as will afford him many a 



THE CLUBS. 


The first row are the Spoon, Putter, Driver. 

The second row are the Niblick, Cleek, Sand-iron. 

good day’s sport ; and as he advances in 
skill he may complete his set. The three 
implements named may be had for thirteen 
or fourteen shillings. 

The play-club , varying in length from forty- 
four inches downward, should be selected 
inclining rather to stiffness than to spring¬ 
iness in the shaft, with a medium-weighted 
flattish head, neither too deep in the face nor 
too broad in the back. Its primary purpose 
is to drive long raking shots from the tee; 
but it is also useful in playing through the 
green, when the ball lies in a tolerably good 
position. 

It should be grasped firmly with the left 
hand at the extreme end, the right being held 
loosely to act as a guide, both hands being 
kept close to each other, the wrists easy, and 
the thumbs over, not along, the shaft, while 
the knees should be a little bent. Then the 
club should be drawn slowly back over the 
right shoulder, but without touching it, and 























404 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


brought smartly down to the ball—the swing 
describing three-fourth of a circle. The 
ascent can scarcely be too deliberate or the 
descent too rapid. But during the operation 
the eye must remain steadily fixed upon the 
ball, else it will either be missed altogether 
or struck on the top. 

No attempt must be made to press the 
shot, which is always fatal, as sureness of 
aim and farness of flight are more the result 
of art than strength. These conditions lie 
at the foundation of style, and patience and 
attention will soon carry them into success¬ 
ful practice. But of no less importance is 
the manner in which the ball is addressed. 



PUTTING. 


This depends on the stand. The feet should 
be from thirty to thirty six inches apart, the 
left toe being turned in slightly in front of, 
and nearly opposite to, the ball. A careful 
study of the proper position will prevent the 
ball being sent off the course to the right, by 
standing too near it, or to the left, by stand¬ 
ing too far from it. 

The putter is rightly regarded as the dead¬ 
liest weapon in the golfer’s armory, as it has 
decided many a hard-fought contest. Thirty- 
six inches long, it should possess an abso¬ 
lutely stiff, slender, upright shaft, slightly 


curved, with a medium head, broad-faced, 
and weighted with plenty of lead to insure 
steadiness. This club comes into play as the 
hole is approached, and necessitates dex¬ 
terous manipulation; as not only has distance 
to be judged, but the undulations of the 
ground and the impeding force of the grass 
have also to be calculated. 

Rules of the Game. 

It must be explained that when both par¬ 
ties hole the ball in the same number of 
strokes, the hole is halved and counts to 
neither. Obviously, whoever gains the ma¬ 
jority of holes wins the match, which may be 
finished, however, without completing the 
round, if one of the sides lias placed more 
holes to its credit than remains to be played. 
You are said to be “dormy” when it is im¬ 
possible for you to lose, as, for instance, if 
you are two holes ahead and there are only 
two to play, because, even should your ad¬ 
versary win the last two, the match would 
be drawn. Disparity between the competi¬ 
tors is balanced by “ odds,” which serve the 
same purpose as points in billiards—the less 
skilful getting a stroke to every hole, or 
every second or third hole, as the case may 
be. The advantage lies here, that if the ball 
is holed by each in six strokes, the player 
receiving the odds gains that hole by deduct¬ 
ing his allowance; or if he takes seven to his 
opponent’s six, it is halved. 

In conclusion, it may be desirable to point 
out that the game of golf ought to be played 
on links, commons or downs that are not 
very much frequented, as cases are on record 
where serious injury has resulted to persons 
who have accidentally received a blow from 
a golf ball. 

The costume of the golfer is simple 
enough. A cap, a jacket or short-sleeved 
roomy shooting-coat, loosely fitting trousers, 




















SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


405 


woolen socks and strong boots, are the staples 
of his wardrobe. Cricketing shoes are a 
nuisance; and as a safeguard against slip¬ 
ping, too many rough nails in the soles are 
worse than having none at all. A good 
waist belt is preferable to braces, which do 


not give the muscles of the shoulders suffi¬ 
cient freedom. Discarded white kid gloves 
will prevent blisters arising from the friction 
of the clubs; but the left hand only stands in 
need of such protection, and the fingers of the 
glove may be cut off below the second joint 


FOOT-RACING 


N order to prepare himself for a 
hundreds yards race (irrespec¬ 
tive of the training, of which 
we shall treat generally in due 
course,) the candidate cannot 
do better than begin by steady 
walking exercise, at a medium 
rate of three and three-quarter miles to four 
miles an hour, of about five miles in the day, 
to harden his muscles; but much walking 
exercise should not be indulged in within a 
fortnight of a ioo yards race, as it has a 
tendency to make the knees and ankles 
stiff. He may run about 200 yards twice 
during his walk, but should only run 
briskly, not violently ; while he is “ soft ” it 
is a great mistake to put any undue strain 
on the ligaments of the body. 

As he becomes firmer in muscle, he may 
reduce the distance which he runs, and cover 
it more rapidly, until he can run the actual 
100 yards at top speed. Still, it is wise not 
to run the course every day at his very best; 
the squeezing the last ounce out of the 
powers of the body too often tells a tale, 
even in so short a spin. If he runs the dis¬ 
tance within two or three yards of his best 
powers this will do for two days out of 
three. Every third day he may see what he 
can really do, and try for himself where¬ 
abouts in the course he best makes his one 
principal rush. 


A 600 yards race is not frequently run at 
a uniform pace ; there is some space which 
the runner covers at greater speed than any 
other. The runner should practice starts, 
which are all important in a short spin. He 
should stand thus : one foot (left for choice,) 
about its own length and three inches more 
in front of its fellow, the body leaning very 
slightly forward, and the weight on the fore 
foot. 

Mile Racing. 

For this more prepartory walking exercise 
is wanted, and the mile should be run daily 
at first, but to commence with, the pace 
should be little more than a jog, at about 
two-thirds of the runner’s real powers. The 
speed may be increased as practice pro¬ 
gresses, but the full distance should not be 
run out to the last gasp more than once 
a week, and not at all within four or five 
days, or even a week, of the race. The 
same for two miles, only that a still longer 
rest is needed between the last trial at full 
speed and the day of the race. 

A common error in all athletics is a fever 
ish desire to gain success in a moment. Th. c 
youth stands and sees the trained athlete 
exhibiting his feats of wonderful skill, and 
not only does he wish to do the same, but 
he wishes to do it immediately. He is rest¬ 
less and impatient, chafes at the long train¬ 
ing required, would perfect himself in a week 







406 


THE FINISH OF THE RACE 


























































































































































SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


407 


or a month, and fails to comprehend the fact 
that there are some things which cannot be 
done in a day. The fastest runners do not 
become so at once ; talk, with them and you 
will know what training they have under¬ 
gone. Some who have promised well drop 
out entirely and disappear, for the reason 
that their strength and muscles have been 
put to a strain that was too severe. It needs 
the very best judgment and discretion to 
develop the physical powers to their full 
■Hmit without causing them to break down 


in the process. Injury for life may be in¬ 
flicted in a contest lasting only three minutes. 

Another thing is to be considered in foot¬ 
racing : the athlete must know where his 
best chances of success lie. Some can run 
across the country all day like wild Indians 
without breaking down. Others can run 
five miles, others but one mile, and the ma¬ 
jority even less than this distance. The 
man who would be distanced in a mile run 
might win a two hundred and twenty yards 
dash from the entire field. 


ROWING 


INCE the introduction of the slid¬ 
ing seat, the art of rowing has 
undergone material changes, but 
it is open to question whether 
style has gained by the altera¬ 
tion in the seat. The sliding 
seat is an American invention, 
and consists of a seat which is 
capable of sliding backwards and forwards, 
through the motion of the oarsman’s body. 
This has the effect of reducing the swing 
forward to a great extent, as the crew slide 
forward in a more upright position than was 
formerly the case. 

The three main principles of successful 
rowing are, first, perfect time, secondly, get¬ 
ting the oar into the water square, that is, 
at right angles to it, and thirdly, rowing 
the stroke right out and using the legs 
well. With reference to “time,” all that 
can be said in the way of advice to a 
beginner is, be determined never to remove 
your eyes from the shoulders of the man in 
front of you. Follow his every motion, and 
if the time is wrong, you will not, at all 
events, be to blame. Only by observing this 
rule can the whole crew row as one man. 


Be careful not to hurry the body forward, 
under the impression that you may other¬ 
wise be late, for this only makes the boat 
roll, and nothing demoralizes a crew more 
than that. Be sure to bring your hands 
well up to your body at the end of the 
stroke, and on no account keep them there 
longer than you are able. A quick recovery 
after a stroke and the free use of the legs 
the moment the oar gets into the water are 
important agents in the acquisition of that 
“ lift ” which is so desirable to obtain in 
boat-racing. 

A well-coached crew will, when rowing, 
fairly make their boat seem to jump out of 
the water at the beginning of each stroke ; 
and the value of all work done in front of 
the rozulochs, that is, in the first part of the 
stroke before the blade of the oar comes 
level with the oarsman’s body, is almost 
beyond estimation. As regards the oai 
itself, it should be brought straight home to 
the chest, the knuckles touching the body 
about an inch or less below the bottom of 
the breast-bone, where the ribs branch off, 
thus every inch of water is made use of. 
When there, the hands should be dropped 









408 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


straight down, and then be turned over and 
shot out again along the legs, and the body 
should follow without the least pause. If 
this is not done, the oar will be feathered 


have been dropped down too low, and the 
straps must not be used too much ; a light 
touch is all that is needed. The muscles of 
the body—in this case those that cross the 



nimm 





B- \ 


i III 1 1 }\ \ ' vjj \ 



mmjmm 




f m 







A BOATING PARTY. 


under water, and thus the boat will be buried, 
water will be thrown on the next oar, and 
the recovery will be impeded. 

To effect a quick recovery the back must 
be perfectly straight, the knees must not 


stomach—must be used, and not the boat 
itself, of which the strap is a part. The 
body should be swung evenly forward from 
the hips, not with a jerk or a plunge, or 
quicker at one time than another, but freely 

























SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


409 


and easily, as if the hip-joint worked well 
and not stiffly. 

Be careful always to get the oar in square; 
if it goes into the water obliquely the blade 
will get in much too deeply, and the ship 
will roll; be sure also that the blade of the 
oar is well covered by water, but no more. 
Deep rowing makes the boat roll, and if the 
oar is not in deep enough an insufficient 
amount of work is done, and a splash is also 
caused which inconveniences the other men. 
In swinging backwards and forwards, be 


sure to do so straight between the knees. 
Many otherwise good men, screw across the 
boat, and thereby not only spoil the appear¬ 
ance of the crew, but make the boat un¬ 
steady, and so spoil the pace. Feathering 
under water is a very common fault in the 
best of crews, and it consists in commencing 
the feather before the oar is well out of the 
water. This is never the case when the 
stroke is rowed well out, and the hands 
brought well up to the body before the 
feather is commenced. 


BOXING 


Y boxing we do not mean prize¬ 
fighting, for this is only the 
brutal perversion of a healthful 
and manly sport. 

Take your position, as shown 
in the annexed figure, page 410. 
The left arm must be in ad¬ 
vance, playing backwards and forwards easily, 
the fist about on a level with the centre of 
the chest. The right arm held across the 
body, but not stiffly. 

Keep the chin down and the mouth shut. 
If you want to know the reason for this last 
recommendation being printed in italics, you 
may have your mouth open, just for once, 
and get somebody to give you a slight tap 
on the jaw. But you had better take the 
hint without trying the experiment. 

t 

The beginner should, if possible, com¬ 
mence sparring with an antagonist who 
knows something of the art; but if this is im¬ 
practicable, as in the case of a couple of lads 
at a country house who want to amuse them¬ 
selves with boxing, let both follow the rules 
carefully, and stop directly they find them¬ 
selves hitting wildly, or in any way ap¬ 
proaching to fighting at close quarters—in¬ 


fighting, as it is called. So long as they keep 
to out-fighting, which is hitting and guarding 
at arm’s length, they will be able to correct 
faults and improve themselves. 

To lead of with the left at the head is the 
very groundwork of boxing, and cannot be 
practised too carefully. It must be a dart 
forward, with the whole weight of the body 
behind the blow, and the movement never 
can be rapid enough. The object is to 
strike before the opponent can put his guard 
up, and the drawing back the hand, or the 
advance of either hand or foot, the minutest 
fraction of a second before the other would 
warn him of the attack and frustrate your 
intention. 

Take great care not to push or chop 
downwards; with big gloves on his own 
hands and on those of his opponent, the 
novice sees very little opening, and is apt to 
get into a slovenly style of hitting. Be sure, 
therefore, to clench your fist at the moment 
and dart it out like a snake’s tongue. 

In hitting with the left at the body, 
slightly draw back the arm and turn the 
elbow outwards, ducking the head to the 
right as you advance the left foot, to avoid 








410 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


being stopped by a blow in the face, and 
spring quickly back before raising the head 
again. 

The body is guarded by pressing the 
arm close to the body and receiving the 

blow upon it, or, better 
still, by divining your an¬ 
tagonist’s intention, and 
stopping him before he 
can duck with a straight 
shoot in the face. But in 
merely practising the lead 
off mentioned—head, 
head, body—the former 
guard must be adhered to. 

In loose sparring the 
body blow should gen¬ 
erally be prefaced by a 
feint at the head, in order 
to draw the adversary’s right arm up for 
the head guard, which will leave the 
“ mark ” open to your attack. The guard 
for this is to bring the left arm across the 
body to receive the blow, while the right is 
thrown up to guard the head. 



LEADING OFF WITH THE LEFT. 


Feinting with the left is done by darting 
out the left arm, and slightly advancing the 
left foot; feinting with the right by advanc¬ 
ing the left foot and drawing the right arm 
back. 

To counter is to hit at the same time as 
your adversary, the object being to take a 


light blow and inflict a heavy one. Your 
eye must always be kept fixed on your 
opponent’s, and thus you may often divine 
his intentions. When he is intent on aiming 
a blow at you he is thinking less of guarding 
himself, and if you can forestall him by the 
smallest fraction of a second, he is hit off\ as 
it were, as he delivers his attack. 

Pay especial attention to the use of the 
legs and feet, for if these get confused, their 
owner must lose his balance, and become 
powerless either for attack or defence, and 
a slight blow will suffice to knock him down. 
You require to step forwards, backwards, 
sideways as lightly and quickly as possible, 
always keeping the right foot in rear of the 
left. 



HITTING WITH THE LEFT AT THE BODY. 

Thus, when you deliver a blow the whole 
weight of your body is thrown into it; when 
you receive one, you give to it, as it were, 
and much of the force is lost. Or, if you 
step back very smartly, it falls short alto¬ 
gether, while, your left foot being still in 
advance, you are ready to step up again at 
the instant and deliver a counter blow. 

Your object should be to strengthen the 
body. One man strikes a blow equal to five 
hundred pounds; another lifts eleven hun¬ 
dred pounds; another bends his back so that 
his head rests against his heels; another 
runs eleven miles in an hour; another turns 
sixty somersets without resting. 



POSITION. 












SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


411 


We are greatly delighted with all these— 
pay our money to see them perform ; but as 
neither one of these could do what either of 
the others does, so we all know that such 
feats, even if they were at all desirable, are 
not possible with one in a thousand. The 


question is not what shall be done for these 
few extraordinary persons. Each has in¬ 
stinctively sought and found his natural 
speciality, but what are the best exercises 
for everybody? Such as develop lungs and 
muscles and perfect the whole physical man. 



VERY rider who begins cycling 
when young has, as in all ath¬ 
letic pursuits, the advantage 
over those who start later in 
life. He has the elasticity of 
frame to learn without unduly 
straining himself, and he ac¬ 
quires such proficiency that cycling becomes 
part of his ordinary motion. With the ex¬ 
ception of horse and pony riding, we can re¬ 
call at the moment no one pastime which 
appeals equally to the old and young, except 
cycling. 

Many of the pastimes of youth, such as 
marbles, leap-frog, etc., the boy, as he grows 
to manhood, ceases to care for, and on the 
other hand a youth has to grow up before 
he takes kindly to shooting and such like 
sports. But in cycling extremes of age meet, 
and both derive in their separate ways pleas¬ 
ure and physical benefit from the wheel. A 
boy only thinks of whether he likes a pas¬ 
time, and never whether it does him any 
good, physically speaking. 

When going on a tour the first thing to 


decide is what will most be enjoyed, good 
scenery and medium roads; good roads and 
medium scenery, or what ? No fixed dis¬ 
tances can be laid down, as the wind, the 
state of the roads, or the advent of rain may 
play an unrehearsed but effective part in the 
proceedings of any day. There is nothing 
that differs so much in its capabilities as the 
human stomach, and therefore the sooner 
the better a boy starts on the principle that 
he will be either a fool or a physician at forty, 
if he does not ere that period ascertain what 
he can eat to the best advantage. 

Cycling Medically Viewed. 

It must therefore be a great pleasure to 
parents to know that in the indulgence of 
cycling their children, male or female, are 
not only getting amusement, but also gaining 
health. It was unfortunate for cycling that 
the hobby-horse, which placed a man in the 
worst possible position, namely, straining his 
leg whilst it was extended to its utmost, 
should at the outset have prejudiced the 
medical profession against cycling. 













412 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


Now, however, almost without exception, 
the faculty are practically unanimous in its 
praise; many well-known members who 
could be named being absolute enthusiasts. 
The advantages of cycling are now no 
longer a moot point, and in the words of a 



well-known physician, every person “ can 
ride with benefit to himself, except those 
suffering from consumption and heart dis¬ 
ease, or who are decidedly prone to apo¬ 
plexy.” So long as a watchful eye is kept 
on the young rider to see that he does not 
overdo it and that he suffers no inconve¬ 



nience from his saddle, there is no cause for 
anxiety. 

There are not many regular schools for 
teaching nowadays, but most venders of 
machines will make arrangements for a pur¬ 
chaser to be taught by one of their men. 
Failing this, however, it only requires the 


assistance of a companion (two for choice) a 
little stronger than the learner, to enable one 



DRAISINE-I 8 1 6 . 

novice to easily teach another. The best 
preliminary step is for the learner to wheel his 



HOBBYHORSE-1 82 I. 

bicycle and letting it fall gently towards him, 
to feel it spring upright again as he turns 



lallement’s velocipede— 1866 . 

the front wheel towards him, that is, the 
same way the machine is falling. He will 
then realize better than he could whilst in 

























































































SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


413 



the saddle how a bicycle rights itself, 
wits are clearer when on terra firma. 


His 






obliged to do so at other times. Many modern 
machines are faulty in this respect—handles 

too low—as regards com¬ 
fort, appearance and health ; 
but it only requires a buyer 
to insist on a longer tube for 
adjustment of his handles to 
be comfortable. Learning 
to ride is the easiest part 
of early cycling. Mounting is the 
most difficult, and next comes dis¬ 
mounting. With a professional teacher 
inside a room the rider will be always 
on the turn, which although increas¬ 
ing his earlier difficulties, makes him a 
better rider when left alone than if he had 
learnt on a straightaway course. If he learns 


A DASH ACROSS THE COUNTRY. 

Having thus gained an idea of how a 
bicycle is kept on end, the learner, with a 
friend on each side of him, can seat 
himself in the saddle, seeing first that 
it is at a proper height. The begin¬ 
ning and end of ease in cycling de¬ 
pend on this, and the gauge is as fol¬ 
lows : When the rider is seated on 
the saddle, the centre of the bottom 
of his foot should just be able to 
touch the pedal at its lowest point. 

In pedalling, however, he uses the ball 
of his foot, that is, midway between 
the centre and the toe ends, and this 
enables him to use his ankles as well 
as his thrust of leg; but ankle action 
comes later —not in the learner’s 
stage. 

Every modern machine is made 
with handle-bars so wide that no con¬ 
traction of the chest can occur in 
holding them; but riders should 
insist on the handles being capable 
of being raised so high as to obviate 
the necessity of craning forward. 

When spurting, as later on in his 
career the novice will, he will crane for- | in the street let it be in a secluded one, with 
ward, but he should be able to avoid being | a very slight slope. Here with a friend or 


A BICYCLE RAILROAD. 






























































414 


SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 


friends to hold him up, he will soon acquire 
the balance, but if he has a fall or two it will 
give him confidence by letting him know the 
worst that can happen. It is useless going 
on learning when fatigue sets in; either rest 
awhile or stop till next day. An hour at a 
time when learning is enough for anyone. 

Between Mount Molly and Smithfield, New 
Jersey, there is a railway for bicyclists which 
will be understood from our illustration. The 
single rail is mounted on a fence, and the 
bicycle is inverted in the manner shown. 
Each passenger is his own locomotive, and 


thus combines exercise with travel. There 
is no danger of falling off and no trouble 
about steering, so that the passenger can 
freely look about him and enjoy the air. It 
is proposed to double the track for going 
and coming passengers, and to provide sta¬ 
tions at intervals with supplies of vehicles. 

The combined tricycle and boats shown 
in the figure is an American invention for 

o 

road and river travel. Twin boats are 
fastened to a tricycle having wheels fitted 
with paddles, and when in the water they 
can be guided by the steering wheel, which 


is made as a circular disc. The boats 
can be disconnected from the tricycle at will, 
and serve to hold luggage, fishing tackle, 
and other paraphernalia. 

It is evident that the bicycle has come to 
stay. No new method of locomotion ever 
leaped so rapidly into public favor. While 
there have been differences of opinion as to 
the physical advantages of cycling, the 
weight of this opinion is decidedly in favor of 
it. The exercise is healthful, when not over¬ 
done. Even walking may be overdone, and 
is liable to the same objection that might be 
made against the wheel. A 
person must know when his 
ride has been long enough, and 
knowing this he should have 
will power enough to stop. 

It is nothing uncommon now 
to see business men in all parts 
of our country making use of 
the bicycle. It gives promise 
of a more robust health and a 
better physique. 

Cycling has a short but bril¬ 
liant history of the past. In 
endurance man mounted on a 
cycle has beaten the strongest 
and fleetest of domestic animals, 
the horse, out and out in a 
twenty-four hours’ ride. What horse could 
compete against a cycler who covers, as 
some have done, over 300 miles a day? 
Horses have trotted a mile rather faster, but 
where is the horse which could cover forty 
miles under two hours, as not one but several 
cyclists have done in the fifty miles champ¬ 
ionship ? What horse could turn out morn¬ 
ing after morning, and trot or gallop to the 
tune of over a hundred miles a day, as have 
some cyclists in the past few years ? A prac¬ 
tical knowledge of cycling tends to increase 
one’s wonder at these “giant performances.” 



THE CYCLE IN USE ON THE WATER 






























THE 



Largest things 


IN THE WORLD 


IGHEST NATURAE BRIDGE in the world is 
at Rockbridge, Virginia, being 200 feet high 
to the bottom of the arch. 

Largest circueation of paper money is that of 
the United States, being 700,000,000, while Russia 
has 670,000,000. 

Largest insurance company in the world is the 
Mutual Life of New York City, having cash assets 
of $108,000,000. 

MOST remarkable ECHO known is that in the 
castle of Simonetta, two miles from Milan. It re¬ 
peats the echo of a pistol sixty times. 

Largest voecano in the world is Etna. Its base 
is 90 miles in circumference; its cone 11,000 feet 
high. Its first eruption occurred 474 B. C. 

Largest TREE in the world, as yet discovered, is 
in Tulare County, California. It is 275 feet high, and 
106 feet in circumference at its base. 

LARGEST desert is Sahara, in Northern Africa. 
Its length is 3000 miles and breadth 900 miles ; 
having an area of 2,000,000 square miles. 

Largest diamond in the world is the Braganza, 
being a part of the Portuguese jewels. It weighs 
1880 carats. It was found in Brazil in 1741. 

TaeeEST man was John Hale, of Lancashire, Eng¬ 
land, w r ho was nine feet six inches in height. His 
hand was seventeen inches long and eight and one- 
half inches broad. 

Highest MONUMENT in the world is the Wash¬ 
ington monument, being 555 feet. The highest 
structure of any kind is the Eiffel Tower, Paris, fin¬ 
ished in 1889, and 989 feet high. 

IT is ceaimed that crows, eagles, ravens and swans 
live to be 100 years old ; herons, 59 ; parrots, 60 ; 
pelicans and geese, 50; skylarks, 30 ; sparrow hawks, 
40 ; peacocks, canaries and cranes, 24. 

GREATEST cataract in the world is Niagara, the 
height of the American Falls being 165 feet. The 
highest fall of water in the world is that of the Yo- 
semite in California, being 2550 feet. 


Most ANCIENT catacombs are those of the The¬ 
ban kings, begun 4000 j^ears ago. The catacombs 
of Rome contain the remains of about 6,000,000 
human beings ; those of Paris, 3,000,000. 

Largest number of cattee ever received in one 
year was that of Chicago in the year 1884, being 
1,874,984 beeves, 30,223 calves, 5,640,625 hogs, 
749,9^ sheep, ail d 15,625 horses. It required 9000 
trains of 31 cars each, which, if coupled together, 
would reach 2146 miles. 

Largest producing farm in the world lies in the 
southwest corner of Louisiana, owned by a northern 
syndicate. It runs one hundred miles north and 
south. The immense tract is divided into conveni¬ 
ent pastures, with stations of ranches every six 
miles. The fencing alone cost nearly $50,000. 

Union arch of the Washington Aqueduct is the 
largest in the world, being 220 feet; 20 feet in excess 
of the Chester Arch across the Dee in England; 6S 
feet longer than that of the London Bridge ; 92 feet, 
longer than that at Neuilly on the Seine, and 100 
feet longer than that of Waterloo Bridge, London. 
The height of the Washington Arch is 100 feet. 

Largest ship ever built, the Great Eastern, re¬ 
cently broken to pieces and sold to junk dealers, was 
designed and constructed by Scott Russell, at Max- 
well, on the Thames. Work on the giant vessel was 
commenced in May, 1854. She was successfully 
launched January 13, 1858. The launching alone 
occupied the time from November 3, 1857, until the 
date above given. Her total length w r as 600 feet; 
breadth, 118 feet; total weight w 7 hen launched, 
12,000 tons. Her first trip of any consequence was 
made to New York in 1859-60. She has been broken 
and sold for old iron. 

In 1775 there were only twenty-seven news¬ 
papers published in the United States. Ten years 
later, in 1785, there were seven published in the 
English language in Philadelphia alone, of which 
one was a daily. The oldest newspaper published 
in Philadelphia at the time of the F'ederal conven- 

415 















416 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


tion was the Pennsylvania Gazette , established by 
Samuel Keirner, in 1728. The second newspaper in 
point of age was the Pennsylvania Journal , estab¬ 
lished in 1742 by William Bradford, whose uncle, 
Andrew Bradford, established the first newspaper in 
Pennsylvania, the American Weekly Mercury , in 
1719. Next in age, but the first in importance, was 
the Pennsylvania Packet , established by John Dun¬ 
lap in 1771. In 1784 it became a daily, being the 
first daily newspaper printed on this continent. 

Statistics of twenty leading libraries in 
this country show that, of over $500,000 spent, a 
little over $170,000 spent was devoted to books, 
while other expenses consumed $358,000. In the 
Mercantile Library of New York City it cost 14 cents 
to circulate a volume ; in the Astor, 14^ cents are 



THE EIFFEL TOWER. 


spent on each volume, or 27 cents on each reader; 
in Columbia College Library, 2i>£ cents per reader ; 
in the Library Company of Philadelphia, 26 cents 
per volume, or 10 cents per head. The largest li¬ 
brary in the world is the National Library of France, 
founded by Louis XIV., which now contains 1,400,- 
000 books, 300,000 pamphlets, 175,000 manuscripts, 
300,000 maps and charts, 150,000 coins and medals, 
1,300,000 engravings and 100,000 portraits. The 
Library of Congress is the largest in this country. 

MOST extensive mines in the world are those of 
Freiberg, Saxony. They were begun in the twelfth 
century, and in 1835 the galleries, taken collectively, 
had reached the unprecedented length of 123 miles. 
A new gallery, begun in 1838, had reached a length 
of twelve miles at the time of the census of 1895. 
The deepest perpendicular mining shaft in the 


world is located at Prizilram, Bohemia. It is a lead 
mine, 3280 feet deep. The deepest coal mine in the 
world is near Tourney, Belgium ; it is 3 ^ 4 2 f ee t in 
depth, but, unlike the lead mine mentioned above, 
it is not perpendicular. The deepest hole ever bored 
into the earth is the artesian well at Potsdam, which 
is 5,500 feet in depth. The deepest coal shaft in the 
United States is located at Pottsville, Pa., 1800 feet. 
From this great depth 400 cars, holding four tons 
each, are hoisted daily. The deepest silver mine in 
the United States is the Yellow Jacket, one of the 
great Comstock system at Virginia City, Nevada; 
the lower levels are 2700 feet below the hoisting 
works. 

Largest stone bridge on the face of the earth 
is that finished in May, 1885, at Lagang, China. 
Chinese engineers had sole control of its construc¬ 
tion. It crosses an arm of the China Sea, is nearly 
six miles in length, is composed entirely of stone, 
and has 300 arches, each 70 feet high. It is the most 
colossal structure ever reared by man, yet we sneer 
at “ heathen Chinee.” The largest truss iron bridge 
in the world crosses the Firth of Tay, Scotland. It 
is 18,612 feet in length and composed of 85 spans. 
The longest wooden bridge in the world is that cross¬ 
ing Lake Ponchartrain, near New Orleans, La. It is 
a trestle-work 21 miles in length, built of cypress 
piles which have been saturated with creosote oil to 
preserve them. The highest bridge in the United 
States is over Kinzina Creek, near Bradford, Pa. It 
was built in 1882, has a total span of 2,051 feet and 
is 301 feet above the creek bed. 

‘‘Centennial ox,” bred by Samuel Barkley of 
Somerset County, Pa., was the largest specimen of 
the bovine the world has ever seen. He weighed 
4900 pounds the day he arrived in Philadelphia. 
This mountain of beef was of mixed stock, being 
short-horn, native “ scrub,” and Ayrshire, the short¬ 
horn predominating. After the exhibition was ended 
the giant ox was butchered and exhibited as “ show 
beef” at Philadelphia during the holidays of 1876. 
A short-horn steer weighing 4100 pounds was slaugh¬ 
tered at Detroit in 1874. A. >L Meal, of Moberly, 
Mo., formerly owned the largest cow in the world. 
Mr. Meal disposed of her in 1883, the Cole Circus 
Company being the purchasers She weighed the 
day of sale 3296 pounds. Mr. John Pratt, of Chase 
County, Kan., was formerly the owner of a cow 
weighing 3200 pounds. She was of the common 
“ scrub ” stock and stood nineteen hands high. 

Great Pyramid of Cheops is the largest struc¬ 
ture of any kind ever erected by the hand of man. 
Its original dimensions at the base were 764 feet 
square, and its perpendicular height in the highest 
point 488 feet; it covers four acres, one rood, and 



















VIEW OF THE NATIONAL CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 


27 


417 






















































































































































































































































































































































































418 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD 


twenty-two perches of ground, and has been esti¬ 
mated by an eminent English architect to have cost 
not less than ^30,000,000, which in United States 
currency would be about $147,200,000. Internal 
evidence proves that the great pyramid was begun 
about the year 2170 B. C., about the time of the birth 
of Abraham. It is estimated that about 5,000,000 
tons of hewn stone were used in its construction, and 
the evidence points to the fact that these stones were 
brought a distance of about 700 miles from quaries in 
Arabia. 

Largest and grandest temple of worship in 


until the year 1880. The cost, in round numbers, is 
set down as $70,000,000. 

Capitol Building at Washington, D. C., is the 
largest building in the United States. The corner 
stone was laid December 18, 1793, by President 
Washington, assisted by other Masons. It was par¬ 
tially destroyed by the British in 1814. The present 
dome was begun in 1855 and finished in 1863. The 
flag of the United States first floated from it Decem¬ 
ber 12, 1863. The cost of the entire building has 
been something over $13,000,000. Its length is 715 
feet 4 inches ; width, 324 feet. It covers 3^ acres 



st. peter’s and the Vatican, rome. 


the world is the St. Peter’s Cathedral at Rome. It 
stands on the site of Nero’s circus, in the northwest 
part of the city, and is built in form of a Latin cross. 
The total length of the interior is 612^ English feet; 
transept, 446^ feet; height of nave, 152^ feet; 
diameter of cupalo, 193 feet; height of dome from 
pavement to top of cross, 448 feet. The great bell 
alone without the hammer or clapper weighs 18,600 
pounds, or over 9^ tons. The foundation was laid 
in 1450 A. D. Forty-three Popes lived and died 
during the time the work was in progress. It was 
dedicated in the year 1826, but not entirely finished 


of ground. The distance from the ground to the top 
of the dome is 307 l / z feet; diameter of the dome, 
1 35 % feet—making fifth as to size with the greatest 
domes of the world. 

Largest and costliest private mansion in 
the world is that belonging to Lord Bute, called 
Montstuart, and situated near Rothesay, England. 
It covers nearly two acres ; is built in gothic style ; 
the w alls, turrets and balconies are built of stone. 
The immense tower in the center of the building is 
120 feet high, w r ith a balcony around the top. The 
halls are constructed entirely of marble and alabaster. 




















































































































































































THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


419 


and the rooms are finished in mahogany, rosewood 
and walnut. The fire-places are all carved marbles 
of antique design. The exact cost of this fairy 
palace is not known, but it has never been estimated 
at less than $8,000,000. 

Largest body oe fresh water in the world is 
Lake Superior. It is 400 miles long and 180 miles 
wide; its circumference, including the windings of 
its various bays, has been estimated at 1800 miles. 
Its area in square miles is 32,000, which is greater 
than the whole of New England, leaving out Maine. 
The greatest depth of this inland sea is 200 fathoms, 
or 1200 feet. Its average depth is about 160 fathoms. 
It is 636 feet above sea level. 

Famous Coreiss engine, the largest ever con¬ 
structed, and the one used to drive the machinery 
in the great hall at the Centennial of 1876, is now in 
the shops of the Pullman Car Company at Pullman, 
near Chicago, Ill. The writer is aware that this dif¬ 
fers from other statements that have been made, it 
being generally supposed that the Emperor of Brazil 
bought the engine and removed it to his own coun¬ 
try. He did talk of buying it, but the bargain was 
never consummated. This tireless giant works in an 
upright position, is over 40 feet high, of 1400 horse¬ 
power, and has two 40-inch cylinders and a io-foot 
stroke. 

Largest ferry-boat ever constructed was named 
the Solano, and is now in use daily conveying trains 
across the Straits of Carquinez, between Benecia and 
Port Costa. The Solano is 460 feet long, 116 feet 
wide, and 20-foot depth of hold. She has 8 steel 
boilers, 4 rudders and a tonage of 3841 tons. On 
her decks are 4 railway tracks, with capacity for 48 
ordinary freight cars and 2 locomotives, or 28 pas¬ 
senger coaches of the largest build. 

Highest buieding in the world, not counting the 
Eiffel Tower, the Washington Monument and the 
City Hall, Philadelphia, is the Cologne Cathedral. 
The height from the pavement to the top of the 
cupola is 511 feet. It is 511 feet long, exactly the 
same as the height, and 231 feet wide. It was begun 
August 15th in the year 1248, and was pronounced 
finished August 14, 1880, over 600 years after the 
corner-stone was laid. 

Highest mountain on the globe is not, as is 
generally supposed, Mt. Everest, that honor belong¬ 
ing to a lofty peak named Mt. Hercules on the Isle 
of Papua, New Guinea, discovered by Capt. Lawson 
in 1881. According to Lawson, this monster is 
32,763 feet in height, being 3781 feet higher than 
Mt. Everest, which is only 29,002 feet above the 
level of the Indian Ocean. 

Largest State in our grand republic is Texas, 
which contains 274,356 square miles, capable of sus¬ 


taining 20,000,000 of people, and then it would not: 
be more crowded than Scotland is at present. It 
has been estimated that the entire population of the 
globe could be seated upon chairs within the boun¬ 
dary of Texas, and each have four feet of elbow 
room. 

Mississippi River, from the source of the Mis¬ 
souri to the Eads jetties, is the longest river in 
the world. It is 4300 miles in length and drains an 
area of 1,726,000 square miles. The Amazon, which 
is, without doubt, the widest river in the world, in-- 
eluding the Beni, is 4000 miles in length and drains’ 
2,330,000 square miles of territory. 

Largest custom-house in this or any other land 
is in New Orleans. It was begun in 1848 and over 
thirty years elapsed before it was finished and ready 
for use. It is built of Quincy granite, the interior 
being finished in finest marble. It has 111 rooms 
height from the pavement to the top of the cornice 
is 80 feet, and to the top of the light on the dome 
187 feet. The dome itself is 49 feet square and 61 
feet high ; estimated total cost of building, $4,900,000. 

Largest hotel in the United States, and prob¬ 
ably the largest in the world, is located at San 
Francisco, Cal. It is 9 stories high and cost $3,500,- 
000. It is named the Palace, and has accommoda¬ 
tions for 1,500 guests. 

Finest theatre in the world is in Paris. It is 
of solid stone, finished with marble floors, and 
covers about four acres of ground. La Scala, of 
Milan, has the largest seating capacity, while the 
Auditorium at Chicago, completed in 1889, seating 
7000 people, ranks second in that respect. 

A block OF coal exhibited at the Iowa State Fair 
is thought to be the largest even mined ; it weighed 
7000 pounds. 

Largest bound book ever made is owned by 
Queen Victoria. It is iS inches thick and weighs 63. 
pounds. It contains the jubilee addresses of con¬ 
gratulation . 

Largest COAL breaker in the world is in opera¬ 
tion at Edwardsville Colliery, Luzerne County, Pa. 

It prepares for market 4000 mine cars of coal every 
ten hours. 

GREATEST elevation ever attained by balloonists 
was 37,000 feet—about 7 miles. The aeronauts were 
James Glaisher, F. R. S., and Mr. Coxwell. The 
ascent was made September 5, 1862, at Wolverhamp¬ 
ton, England. 

Longest single span of wire in the world is 
used for a telegraph in India. It is stretched over 
the River Kistuah, between Bezorah and Sectaua- 
grum. It is over 6000 feet long, and is stretched 
from the top of one mountain to the top of another,, 
each mountain being nearly 2000 feet high. 



420 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


Two LARGEST castings in the world are in Japan, 
'one at Nara and the other at Kamakura. Both are 
statues. The one at Nara is 53 feet and 9 inches 
from the base to the crown of the head. It was first 
cast in the eighth century, but was afterward de¬ 
stroyed and recast in the year 1223. The Kamakura 
statue is 47 feet high. 

Sydney (Australia) eighthouse is provided 
with the largest electric light in the world. It has 
a power of 180,000 candles and may be seen from 
ships 50 miles at sea. The next largest is in the 
Palais d’lndustrieandhas a power of 150,000 candles. 
San Jose, California, has the most powerful elec¬ 
tric light in the United States, one of 24,000 candle 
power. 

Stone pavement in front of the residence of the 
late William H. Vanderbilt, in New York City, is 
made up of the largest slabs of flagging stone ever 
put in a single pavement. The stones were taken 
from quarries in Pike County, Pennsylvania, west of 
Port Jervis, N. Y., and from the Bigelow quarries in 
Ulster County, N. Y. The large slab immediately in 
front of the residence is the largest slab of its kind 
•ever transported from any quarry and cost the 
millionaire $9200; the entire cost of the pavement 
vas $47,000. 

Greatest individuae land proprietor in 
the world is Wilson Waddingham, w T ho in 1SS7 pur¬ 
chased 163,000 acres of land in San Miguel County, 
Jfew Mexico. His present landed interests amount 
to 1,500,000 acres, about 500,000 acres more than are 
Maimed for the Duke of Westminster. In 1896 
the largest producing farm in the world was one of 
the same number of acres (1,500,000) situated in the 
southwest corner of Louisiana. This immense farm 
is operated by a northern syndicate, with J. B. Wat¬ 
kins as manager. 

GREATEST FORTRESS, from a strategical point of 
view, is the famous stronghold of Gibraltar. It oc¬ 
cupies a rocky peninsula jutting out into the sea, 
about three miles long and three quarters of a mile 
wide. One central rock rises to a height of 1435 
feet above the sea-level. Its northern face is almost 
perpendicular, while its east side is full of tremend¬ 
ous precipices. On the south it terminates in what 
is called Europa Point. The west side is less steep 
than the east, and between its base and the sea is the 
narrow, almost level span on which the town of 
Gibraltar is built. The fortress is considered im¬ 
pregnable to military assault. The regular garrison 
in time of peace numbers about 7000. 

BIGGEST cavern is the Mammoth Cave, in Ed¬ 
monson County, Kentucky. It is near Green River, 
about six miles from Cave City, and twenty-eight 
from Bowling Green. The cave consists of a succes¬ 


sion of irregular chambers, some of which are large, 
situated on different levels. Some of the§e are tra¬ 
versed by the navigable branches of the subterranean 
Echo River. Blind fish are found in its waters. 

Largest hanging bele in the world is in a 
Buddhist monastery, near Canton, China. It is 
eighteen feet high and forty-five feet in circumfer¬ 
ence, and is of solid bronze. It is one of the eight 
great bells wdiicli w r ere cast by command of the Em¬ 
peror Yung-lo about A. D. 1400, and is said to have 
cost the lives of eight men, who were killed during 
the process of casting. The whole bell, both inside 
and out, is covered with an inscription in embossed 
Chinese characters about half an inch long, covering 
even the handle, the total number being 84,000. The 
characters tell a single story—one of the Chinese 
classics. 

Largest stationery engine in the world 
is at the famous zinc mines at-Friedensville, Pa. It 
is knowm as the “ President,” and there is no pump¬ 
ing engine in the w'orld that can be compared with 
the monster. The number of gallons of water raised 
every minute is 17,500. The driving wheels are 
thirty-five feet in diameter and w^eigh forty tons each. 
The sweep rod is forty feet long, the cylinder no 
inches in diameter, and a piston-rod eighteen inches 
in diameter, with a ten-foot stroke. 

Largest gun in the United States is the 20- 
inch Rodman, smooth bore, at Fort Hamilton, New' 
York Harbor. Its dimensions are as follows: Ex¬ 
treme length, 243! inches ; maximum diameter, 64 
inches; minimum diameter, 34 inches; length of 
bore in calibers, 10.50 inches. The service charge 
is 200 pounds of powder, and the weight of the pro¬ 
jectile is 2000 pounds. There is also a wrought iron 
lined rifled 12} inch gun at Sandy Ilook. Its weight 
is 89,350 pounds; extreme length, 262} inches; 
maximum diameter, 55 inches; minimum diameter’ 
2 7-55 inches , length of the bore in calibers, 18.53 
inches. The gun is used for experimental purposes 
iu testing powder. 

The Longest Tunnels in the World. 

Mount St. Gothard Tunnel, Italy, is 48,840 feet 
long, or nearly ten miles long, and the longest in the 
world. 

Mount Cenis Tunnel, Italy, is 39,840 feet long, 
or about seven miles long. 

Hoosac Tunnel, Massachusetts, is 25,080 feet 
long, or about four and one-half miles. 

Nochistongo Tunnel is 21,659 feet long or 
about four miles. 

Sutro Tunnel is 21,120 feet long, or four miles. 
Thames and Medway, England, is ij,SSo feet 
long, or about two miles. 






LARGEST PILLARS IN THE WORLD-RUINS OF KARNAK, EGYPT, 


421 






















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































422 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


Largest Steam Hammer in the World. 

The greatest steam hammer in the world, con¬ 
structed at the Bethlehem Iron Company’s works for 
the manufacture of armor plate, was designed after 
the hammer of Schneider & Co., of Le Crusot, 
France, which, next to this one, is the largest 
hammer in the world. It has a stroke of 125 tons, 
while the Schneider hammer is only capable of 
striking a ioo-ton blow. The hammer is used for 
forging ingots into armor plates. These ingots are 
cast of metal weighing from 100 to 150 tons, and by 
this stupendous piece of mechanism are forged into 
the desired sizes by 125-ton blows. 

The hammer stands in the centre of a very large 
building and over a year was spent in its construc¬ 
tion. A pit 58 by 62 feet was dug for the founda¬ 
tion and on walls 30 feet high the anvil stands. To 
give the foundation a certain elasticity a layer of 20 
steel slabs on top of Ohio white oak timbers was 
made and the surface w r as rendered perfectly smooth. 
It was of course entirely out of the question to cast 
in a single piece the iron required and the anvil was 
built by depositing on top of the steel slabs and their 
timbers 22 blocks of solid cast iron. The average 
weight of these blocks is 70 tons, and the entire 
weight of the mass of iron and steel forming the 
anvil and foundation is nearly 1800 tons. 

The hammer itself is a majestic looking structure, 
superimposed over the cyclopean mass of iron, form¬ 
ing the anvil—huge, substantial and powerful, rising 
to a height of 90 feet. 

Most Notable Bridges of the World. 

Brooklyn Bridge was commenced, under the 
direction of J. Roebling, in 1870, and completed in 
about thirteen years. It is 3475 feet long and 
135 feet high. The cost of building was nearly 
$15,000,000. 

Cantilever Bridge, over the Niagara, is built 
almost entirely of steel. Its length is 910 feet, the 
total weight is 3000 tons, and the cost was $900,000. 

First Niagara Suspension Bridge was built by 
Roebling in 1852-53, at a cost of $400,000. It is 245 
feet above water, 821 feet long, and the strength is 
estimated at 1200 tons. 

Bridge AT Havre de Grace, over the Susque¬ 
hanna, is 3271 feet long, and is divided into twelve 
•wooden spans, resting on granite piers. 

Britannia Bridge crosses the Menai strait, 
"Wales, at an elevation of 103 feet above high water. 
It is of wrought iron, 1511 feet long, and was finished 
in 1850. Cost, $3,008,000. 

New London Bridge is constructed of granite, 
from the designs of L. Rennier. It was commenced 


in 1824, and completed in about seven years, at a 
cost of $7,291,000. 

Old London Bridge was the first stone bridge. 
It was commenced in 1176 and completed in 1209. 
Its founder, Peter of Colechurch, was buried in the 
crypt of the chapel erected on the centre pier. 

CoalbrookdalE Bridge, England, is the first 
cast-iron bridge. It was built over the Severn in 
1779 - 

Bridge AT Burton, over the Trent, was formerly 
the longest bridge in England, being 1545 feet. It is 
now partly removed. Built in the twelfth century. 

The Rialto, at Venice, is said to have been built 
from the designs of Michael Angelo. It is a single 
marble arch, 98 X feet long, and was completed in 
I59i. 

Bridge of Sighs, at Venice, over which con¬ 
demned prisoners were transported from the hall of 
judgment to the place of execution, was built in 1589. 

Bridge of the Holy Trinity, at Florence, was 
built in 1569. It is 322 feet long, constructed of 
white marble, and stands unrivaled as a work of art. 

Covered bridge at Pavia, over the Ticino, was 
built in the fourteenth century. The roof is held by 
100 granite columns. 

ST. Louis Bridge, over the Mississippi, is 1524 
feet long, exclusive of approaches. There are three 
arched spans of cast steel, the centre arch being 520 
feet, with a rise of 47 feet; and the side spans 502 
feet each, with a rise of 46 feet. The width on top, 
between rails, is 50 feet. The piers rest on the bed¬ 
rock of the river, 136 feet below high water mark. 
Captain James B Eads was the engineer. 

Rush Street Bridge, Chicago, Ill., erected in 
1S84, at a cost of $132,000 is the largest general traffic 
drawbridge in the world. Its roadway will accom- 
date four teams abreast, and its footways are seven 
feet wide. 

Victoria Bridge, Montreal, one of the most 
famous in the world, is nearly two miles in length. 

Cleveland (O.) Viaduct is 3211 feet in length, 
64 feet wide, 42 feet of which is roadway ; the draw¬ 
bridge is 332 feet in length, 46 feet wide, and is 68 
feet above ordinary stage of water. 

The Greatest City in the World. 

London, England, is the greatest city the world 
ever saw. It covers within the fifteen miles radius 
of Charing Cross (Strand) 700 miles. It numbers 
within these boundaries 5,656,000 of inhabitants. It 
comprises over 2,000,000 foreigners from every 
quarter of the globe. It contains more Roman 
Catholics than Rome itself; more Jews than the 





THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD 


423 


■whole of Palestine; more Irish than Dublin ; more 
Scotchmen than Edinburgh ; more Welshmen than 
Cardiff; more country-raised persons than the coun¬ 
ties of Devon, Warwickshire and Durham combined. 


London has 49,000 persons added annually (by 
birth) to its population ; has over 1000 ships and 
10,000 sailors in its port every day ; has as many 
beer shops and gin palaces as would, if placed side 



THE GREAT SUSPENSION BRIDGE BETWEEN NEW YORK AND BROOKLYN 


n UUIUTmnun w. 


jrv'f ” ' 



* 

! 

ism 

i|H 

' \ ‘ fill 



Has a birth every five minutes, has a death in it 
every eight minutes ; has seven accidents every day 
in its 8000 miles of streets; has on an average 
40 miles of streets opened and 15,000 new houses 
built in every year. 


by side, stretch from Charing Cross to Portsmouth, 
a distance of seventy-eight miles ; has 38,000 drunk¬ 
ards annually brought before its magistrates ; has 
seventy miles of open shops every Sunday; has 
influence with all parts of the world represented by 























































































































































































































































































424 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 



ONE CF THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA. 


a yearly delivery in its postal districts- 
of 298,000,000 of letters. Eight hun¬ 
dred and fifty trains pass Clapham 
junction every day, and the trans¬ 
portation (underground) railroad runs 
1211 trains every day. 

The London Omnibus Company 
have over 700 ’busses, which carry 
56,000,000 passengers annually. It is 
more dangerous to walk the streets of 
London than to travel by railroad or 
to cross the Atlantic from New York 
to Liverpool. In 1886, 130 persons 
were killed and 2000 injured by 
vehicles in the streets. There are in 
London 15,000 police, 15,000 cabmen, 
15,000 persons connected with the 
post-office. The cost of gas for light¬ 
ing London annually is $3,000,000. 
London has 400 daily and weekly- 
newspapers. The ancient city of Lon¬ 
don was first founded by Brute, the 
Trojan, in the year of the world 2832, 
so that since the first building it is 3007 
years old. The drainage system of 
London is superb, and the death rate 
very low. 

The Largest Trees in the World. 

The big trees of Calaveras and Mari¬ 
posa Counties, in California, belong to 
the same genus as the common red¬ 
wood. This giant of the Sierras is 
not a handsome tree, either when 
young or aged; the branches are short, 
the spray less graceful than the coast- 
redwood, the leaves small and awl- 

* 

shaped, but the cones are several times- 
larger, and the wood is of a duller 
reddish hue. The forests were first 
seen by white men in the spring of 
1852, when a hunter named - Dowd 
conducted a party of miners to the 
locality where the big trees grew. 
In the several groves where they have- 
been found, there are many trees from 
2 75 to 335 feet high, and from 25 to 
34 feet in diameter. The area of Mari¬ 
posa Grove is two miles square, and ; t 
contains 427 of the monster trees. 

The largest in the Calaveras Grove 
is “The Keystone State,” and is 325 
feet high, and its girth six feet from 
the ground is 45 feet. There are some 
in the Mariposa Grove which are not so 
high, but which have a greater circum- 






































































































STATE, WAR AND NAVY BUILDING, WASHINGTON 















































































































THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


425 


ference. “The Grizzly Gian for example, being 
93 feet at the ground, and over 64, eleven feet above. 
Some dozen miles south of the Mariposa Grove 
is the Fresno Grove, which is said to contain 
about 600 trees, the largest 81 feet in circum¬ 
ference ; while about fifty miles north of the 
Calaveras, in Placer county, a small grove has been 
discovered. Careful computations have been made 
of the ages of these trees, and some cautious scientists 
admit, in regard to one of them, that “its age can¬ 
not have exceeded 1300 years ! ” 

The Largest Park in the World. 

The Yellowstone National Park extends sixty-five 
miles north and south and fifty-five miles east and 
west, comprising 3575 square miles, and is 6000 feet 
or more above sea level. Yellowstone Lake, twenty 
miles by fifteen, has an altitude of 7788 feet. The 
mountain ranges which hem in the valleys on every 
side rise to the height of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, and 
are always covered with snow. This great park con¬ 
tains the most striking of all the mountains, gorges, 
falls, rivers and lakes in the whole Yellowstone 
region. 

The springs on Gardiner’s River cover an area of 
about one square mile, and three or four square 
miles thereabout are occupied by the remains of 
springs w’hich have ceased to flow. The natural 
basins into which these springs flow are from four to 
six feet in diameter and from one to four feet in 
depth. The principal ones are located upon terraces 
midway up the sides of the mountain. The banks of 
the Yellowstone River abound with ravines and 
canyons, which are carved out of the heart of the 
mountains through the hardest rocks. 

The most remarkable of these is the canyon of 
Tower Creek and Column Mountain. The latter, 
which extends along the eastern bank of the river 
for upward of two miles, is said to resemble the 
Giant's Causeway. The canyon of Tower Creek is 
about ten miles in length, and is so deep and gloomy 
that it is called “The Devil’s Den.” Where Tower 
Creek ends the Grand Canyon begins. It is twenty 
miles in length, impassable throughout, and inac¬ 
cessible at the water’s edge, except at a few points. 
Its rugged edges are from 200 to 500 yards apart, and 
its depth is so profound that no sound ever reaches 
the ear from the bottom. 

The Grand Canyon contains a great multitude of 
hot springs of sulphur, sulphate of copper, alum, 
etc. In the number and magnitude of its hot 
springs and gevsers, the Yellowstone Park surpasses 
all the rest of the world. There are probably fifty 
geysers that throw a column of water to the height 
of from 50 to 200 feet, and it is stated that there are 
not fewer than 5000 springs- 


The temperature of the calcareous springs is from 
160 to 170 degrees, while that of the others rises to 
-200 or more. The principal collections are the 
upper and lower geyser basins of the Madison River 
and the calcareous springs on Gardiner’s River. The 
great falls are marvels to which adventurous trav¬ 
elers have gone only to return and report that they 
are parts of the wonders of this new’ American won¬ 
derland. 

The Washington Monument. 

The corner-stone w T as laid by President Polk, July 
4, 1848, and December 6, 1884, the cap-stone was set 
in position. The foundations are 126JJ feet square 
and 36 feet 8 inches deep. The base of the monu¬ 
ment is 55 feet 1 y z inches square, and the w’alls 15 
feet X inch thick. At the 500-foot mark, w’here the 
pyramidal top begins, the shaft is 34 feet 5X inches 
square and the walls are 18 inches thick. 

The monument is made of blocks of marble 2 feet 
thick, and it is said there are over 18,000 of them. 
The height above the ground is 555 feet. Th# 
pyramidal top terminates in an aluminum tip, which 
is 9 inches high and weighs 100 ounces. The mean 
pressure of the monument is 5 tons per square foot 
and the total weight, foundation and all, is nearly 
81,000 tons. The door at the base, facing the capi- 
tol, is 8 feet wide and 16 feet high, and enters a 
room 25 feet square. 

An immense iron frame-w’ork supports the machin¬ 
ery of the elevator, which is hoisted with steel wire 
ropes, 2 inches thick. At one side begin the stairs, 
of w’hich there are 50 flights, containing 18 steps 
each. Five hundred and twenty feet from the base 
there are 8 windows, 18x24 inches, 2 on each face. The 
area at the base of the pyramidal top is 11S7X feet, 
space enough for a six-room house, each room to be 
12x16 feet. The Cologne Cathedral is 511 feet high; 
the pyramid of Cheops, 486 ; Strasburg Cathedral, 
474 ; St. Peter’s at Rome, 448 ; the Capitol at Wash¬ 
ington, 306, and Bunker Hill Monument, 221 feet. 
The Washington Monument, therefore, is the highest 
structure in the w 7 orld, except the temporary Eiffel 
Tower. The total cost was not far from $r,500,000. 


Height of Principal Monuments and Buildings. 


Places. 

Names. 

Feet. 

Paris. 

..Eiffel. 


Wash., D. C. 

..Washington Monument. 

. 555 

Philadelphia. 

..Public Buildings. 

. 545 

Egypt. 

.Pyramid of Cheops. 

. 4S6 

Belgium. 

..Antwerp Cathedral. 

. 476 

France. 

..Strasburg Cathedral. 

. 474 

Egypt. 

. Pyramid of Cephrenes. 

. 456 

Rome. 

..St. Peter’s Church. 

. 44 & 

















426 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


Places. 


Names. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Germany.St. Martin’s Church at Landshut. 411 

England.Salisbury Cathedral..-. 400 

England.St. Paul’s Church, London. 365 

Italy.Cathedral at Florence. 3S6 

Lombardy.Cathedral at Cremona. 397 

Germany.Church at Fribourg. 386 

Spain.Cathedral of Seville. 360 

Lombardy.Cathedral of Milan. 355 

Holland ..Cathedral of Utrecht. 356 

New York.Trinity Church. 284 

“China..Porcelain Tower, Nankin. 260 

Paris.Church of Notre Dame. 224 

Massachusetts.Bunker Hill Monument. 221 

Italy.Leaning Tower of Pisa. 179 

Baltimore.Washington Monument. 175 

Paris .Monument, Place Vendome. 153 

Italy .Trojan’s Pillar, Rome. 151 

Paris.Obelisk of Luxor. no 


Capacity of the Largest Churches and Hall. 


St. Peter’s Cathedral....Rome. 

Cathedral of Milan.Milan. 

St. Paul’s Church.Rome. 

St. Paul’s Cathedral.London ..... .... 

Church of St. Petronio. Bologna. 

Cathedral of Florence...Florence. 

Cathedral of Antwerp... Antwerp. 

Mosque of St. Sophia...Constantinople 
St. John’s Lateran.Rome. 

Cathedral of Notre 1 p ar j s 

Dame./ .. 

Cathedral of Pisa.Pisa. 

Church of St. Stephen..Vienna. 

Church of St. Dominic. Bologna. 

Church of St. Peter.Bologna. 

Cathedral of Vienna.Vienna. 

St. Peter’s Cathedral....Montreal. 

Auditorium.Chicago. 


54,000 

37,000 

32,000 

25,000 

24,000 

24,000 

24,000 

23,000 

22,000 

21,000 

13,000 

12,000 

12,000 

11,400 

11,000 

10,000 

8,000 


The Highest Mountains. 


Xuncfoainyunga, Himalayas. 28,170 

Sorata, Andes. 25,380 

Illimani, Bolivia. 21,780 

Chimborazo, Ecuador. 21,444 

Hindoo-Koosh, Afghanistan. 20,600 

Cotopaxi, Ecuador. 19,408 

Antisana, Ecuador. 19,150 

St. Elias, British America. 18,000 

Popocatapetl, Mexico... 17 ,735 

Mt. Roa, Hawaii. i6,oco 

Mt. Brown. 15 > 9 °° 

Mont Blac. T 5 » 77 ^ 

Mowna Roas, Owhyhee. 15 , 7 °° 

Mt. Rosa, Alps, Sardinia. 15, 55 ° 


Pinchinca, Ecuador. i5> 2 oo 

Mt. Whitney, California. I 5 >°°° 

Mt. Fairweather, Alaska. J 4,796 

Mt. Shasta, California. 14 , 45 ° 

Pike’s Peak, Colorado. I 4 > 3 2 ° 

Lit. Ophir, Sumatra. 13,800 

Fremont’s Peak, Wyoming. 13 , 57 ° 

Long’s Peak, California. I 3 > 4 °° 

Mt. Ranier, Washington. 13, 000 

Mt. Ararat, Armenia. 12,700 

Peak of Teneriffe, Canaries. 12,236 

Miltsin, Morocco. 12,000 

Mt. Hood, Oregon. 11 > 57 ° 

Simplon, Alps. n, 54 2 

Mt. Lebanon, Syria. 11,000 

Mt. Perdu, France. 10,950 

Mt. St. Helen’s, Oregon. 10,158 

Mt. Etna, Sicily. 10,050 

Olympus, Greece. 9,754 

St. Gothard, Alps. 9,080 

Mt. Sinai, Arabia. 8,000 

Pindus, Greece. 7,677 

Black Mountain, New Caledonia. 6,467 

Mt. Washington, New Hampshire. 6,234 

Mt. Marcy, New York. 5,467 

Mt. Hecla, Iceland. 5,000 

Ben Nevis, Scotland. 4,400 

Mansfield, Vermont. 4,280 

Peaks of Otter, Virginia. 4,260 

Ben Lawers, Scotland. 4,030 

Parnassus, Greece. 3,850 

Vesuvius, Naples. 3>93 2 

Ben Lomond, Scotland. 3,280 

Mt. Carmel. 2,000 


Height of Twenty-four of the Loftiest Volcanoes 


of the 

World. 

Height 


Name of Volcano. 

in feet. 

Where Located. 

Sahama. 


..Peru. 

Llullaillac. 


..Chili. 

Arequipa... 


..Peru. 

Cayambi. 


..Equador. 

Cotopaxi. 


.Peru. 

Antisaua.. 


..Ecuador. 

San Jose. 


..Chili. 

Mt. St. Elias. 


..Alaska. 

Popocatepetl. 


.Mexico. 

Orizaba. 


..Mexico. 

Altar. 


..Ecuador. 

Sangai. 


..Ecuador. 

Klintcheoskaia. 


..Kamtschatka. 

Iztacihuate. 


..Mexico. 

Toluco. 


..Mexico, 

Shasta. 


..United States. 
















































































































































THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


427 


Name of Volcano. 

Height 
in feet. 

Where Located. 

Fuj iyama. 


...Japan. 

Mauna Kea. 

•-13, 953 -- 

...Sandwich Islands. 

Mauna Loa. 

....13,760... 


Teneriffe. 

....12,236... 

...Canary Islands. 

Mt. St. Helens. 

....12,000... 

...United States. 

Mt. Hood. 

....11,225... 

...United States. 

Peak of Tahiti. 

....10,895... 


Mt. Etna. 

....10,874... 

...Sicily. 


Three of the best known volcanoes of the world, 
Vesuvius, 3978 feet; Hecla, 3970 feet, and Stromboli, 
3000 feet, are of much less elevation than many 
others altogether unfamiliar. 

Greatest Known Depth of the Ocean. 

The greatest depth which has been ascertained by 
sounding is five miles and a quarter (25,720 feet, or 
4620 fathoms), not quite equal to the height of the 
highest known mountain. The average depth be¬ 
tween 60 degrees north and 60 degrees south is 
nearly three miles. 

Deepest Lake in the World. 

In the Cascade Mountains, about seventy-five 
miles northeast of Jacksonville, Ore., the seeker for 
the curious will find the Great Sunken Lake, the 
deepest lake in the world. This lake rivals the 
famous valley of Sinbad the Sailor. It is said to 
average 2000 feet down to the water on all its sides. 
The depth of the water is unknown, and its surface 
is as smooth and unruffled as a mammoth sheet of 
glass, it being so far below the mountain rim as to be 
unaffected by the strongest winds. It is about 15 
miles in length and about 4 % wide. 

For unknown ages it has lain still, silent and 
mysterious in the bosom of the great mountain 
range, like a gigantic trench scooped out by the 
hands of a giant genie. A hunting and surveying 
party recently left Jacksonville with the intention of 
ascertaining the exact depth of this mysterious body 
of water, and to find out, if possible, whether or not 
fish are to be found within its ghostly precincts. 

The Longest Rivers in the World. 

EUROPE. 


Name. Miles. 

Volga, Russia. 2,500 

Danube.. 1,800 

Rhine. 84° 

Vistula. 7 °° 

ASIA. 

Yeneisy and Selenga. 3,580 

Kiang. 3> 2 90 

Hoang Ho. 3 ,° 4 ° 


Name. Mile*. 

Amoor. 2,500 

Euphrates. 1,900 

Ganges. 1,850 

Tigris. 1,160 

AFRICA. 

Nile. 3,240 

Niger. 2,400 

Gambia. 1,000 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

Amazon and Beni. 4,000 

Platte. 2,700 

Rio Madeira. 2,300 

Rio Negro. 1,650 

Orinoco. 1,600 

Uruguay. 1,100 

Magdalena. 1.000 

NORTH AMERICA. 

Mississippi and Missouri. 4,300 

Mackenzie. 2,800 

Rio Bravo. 2,300 

Arkansas. 2,070 

Red River.. 1,520 

Ohio and Allegheny. 1,480 

St. Lawrence. 1,450 


Size of Lakes, Seas and Oceans. 


Eakes. 

Superior. 

Michigan. 

Ontario. 

Champlain.. 

Erie. 

Huron. 

Cayuga.. 

George. 

Baikal. 

Great Slave. 

Winnipeg. 

Athabasca. 

Maracaybo.. 

Great Bear. 

Ladoga. 

Constance. 

Geneva. 

Lake of the Woods, 

Seas. 

Mediterranean. 

Carribbean. 

China. 

Red. 

Japan.'.. 

Black. 


Miles Miles 
Long. Wide. 

380 120 

330 60 

l8o 40 
123 12 
270 50 

250 90 

36 4 

36 3 

360 35 

300 45 

240 40 

200 20 

150 60 

150 40 

125 75 

45 10 

50 10 

70 25 

Miles 

Long. 

. 2,000 

. 1,800 

. 1,700 

. 1,400 

. 1,000 

. 932 








































































425 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


Seas. 

Caspian. 
Baltic.... 
Okhotsk. 
White... 
Aral_ 

Oceans. 
Pacific .... 
Atlantic. 
Indian. .. 
Southern 
Arctic ... 


Miles 

Long. 

. 640 

. 600 

. 600 

. 450 

. 250 

Miles 

Square. 

So, OOO, OOO 
40,000,000 
20 , 000,000 
10 , 000,000 
5,000,000 


The Greatest Catastrophes of History. 


One instance shows how the human race has been - 
depleted from this cause. In the Kingdom of 
Naples, from 17S3 to 1857, a period of 75 years, the 
loss of life by earthquakes was 111,000 or at the rate 
of more than 1500 a year, out of a population of' 
6,000,000. The country surrounding the Mediter¬ 
ranean and the intertropical area from which the 
American Cordilleras spring, may be regarded as the 
centers of earthquake activity, though some of the 
greatest earthquakes of all time have occurred in 
Eastern Asia and the East Indies. 

Floods and Freshets 

The list of losses by great floods and freshets in 
history is as follows : 


In China, where some of the greatest rivers in the 
world flow between artificial banks at an elevation 
considerably above the surrounding country, there 
have been overflows that caused the destruction of 
hundreds of thousands of lives. There have been 
similar disasters in India, where, as in China, tLe 
rivers had made beds for themselves with alluvial 
banks higher than the plains across which they 
flowed. But aside from these the colossal calamity 
at Johnstown, Pa., in June, 1SS9, and through the 
fated Conemaugh Valley, leads all disasters in this 
country in the appalling muster roll of the dead, 
numbering over 6000. In past centuries the greatest 
loss of life has been by earthquake, and the follow¬ 
ing list embraces the loss in historic calamities : 


Year. Place. Lives Lost. 

1S71 China. 3,000 

1574 Mill River, 

Mass. 150 

1575 Egypt, the 

Nile. 250 


Year. Tlace. Lives Lost. 
1S79 Marcia, Spain 1,000 
1SS7 Yellow River, 

China.100,000 

1S89 Johnstown, 

Pa. 6,111 


Greatest Conflagrations of the Present Century. 

But the greatest destruction of life and property 
by conflagrations, of which the world has anything 
like accurate records, must be looked for within the 
current century. Of these the following is a partial 
list of instances in which the loss of property 
amounted to $3,000,000 and upward : 

Property 

Cities. Destroyed 


Dates. 



Persons 

1 

Persons 

1802 Liverpool. 

Year. Place. 

Killed. 

Year. Place. ' 

Killed. 

1805 St. Thomas.. 

1137 Sicily. 

15,000 

1792 Country be 


1812 Moscow, bsrned five days ; 30,800 

1158 Syria. 

20,000 

tween Santa 

houses destroyed.. 

1268 Cilicia. 

50,000 

Fe andPana 


J * • ' . 

1820 Savannah. 

1456 Naples. 

40,000 

ma.. 

40,000 

1822 Canton, nearly destroyed. 

1531 Lisbon . 

40,000 

1805 Naples. 

6,500 

1835 New York (“ Great Fire”). 

1626 Naples . 

70, COO 

1822 Aleppo. 

20,000 

1837 vSt. John, N. B. 

1667 Schamaki. 

80,000 

1829 Murcia__ 

5,000 

1838 Charleston, 1158 buildings. 

1692 Jamaica . 

4,000 

1830 Canton. 

6,000 

1842 Hamburg, 4219 buildings, 100 lives 

169T Sicily. 

100,000 

1S42 CapeHaytien 

4,000 

lost. 

1703 Aquila, Italy 

4,000 

1S57 Calabria. 

10,000 

1845 New York, 35 persons killed. 

1703 Yeddo Japan 

200,000 

1859 Quito. 

5,ooo 

1845 Pittsburgh, 1100 buildings. 

1706 TheAbruzzi. 

15, 000 

i860 Mendozi, 


1845 Quebec, May 2S, 1650 dwellings... . 

1716 Algiers. 

20,000 

South Am- 


1846 St. Johns, Newfoundland.. 

1726 Palermo. 

6,000 

erica. 

7,000 

1848 Constantinople, 2500 buildings 

1731 Pekin. 

100,000 

1868 Towns in 


1S4S Albany, N. Y., 600 houses. 

1746 Lima and Cal- 


Peru and 


1849 St. Louis. 

loa. 

18,000 

Ecuador.... 

25,000 

1851 St. Louis, 2500 buildings.... 

1754 Grand Cairo. 

40,000 

1875 San Jose de 


1751 St. Louis, 500 buildings. 

1755 Kashan, Per- 


Cucuta, Co- 


1851 San Prancisco, May 4 and 5, many 

sia. 

40,000 

lombia. 

14,000 

lives lost. 

1759 Syria. 

20,000 

18S1 Scio. 

4,000 

1851 San Francisco, June 

1784 Ezinghian, 


1886 Charleston... 

96 

1S52 Montreal, 1200 buildings 

Asia Minor. 

5, 000 



1862 St. Petersburg.. . 


, 000,000 

, 000,000 


35,000,000 


3,000,000 


10 , 000,000 

3,000,000 

5,000,000 

5,000,000 











































































THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


429 


Property 

Dates. Cities. Destroyed. 

1862 Troy, N. Y., nearly destroyed. 

1665 Constantinople, 2800 buildings 

burned.. 

1866 Yokohama, nearly destroyed..._ 

1865 Carlstadt, Sweden, all consumed 


but Bishop’s residence, hospital, 

and jail; 10 lives lost. 

1866 Portland, Me., half the city. $11,000,000 

1866 Quebec, 2500 dwellings and 17 
churches. 

1870 Constantinople, Pera suburb. 26,000,000 

1S71 Chicago, 250 lives lost, 17,430 

buildings burned, on 2124 

acres.. . 192,000,000 

1871 Paris, fired by the Commune. 160,000,000 

1872 Boston... 75,000,000 

1877 Pittsburgh, caused by riot. 3,260,000 

1877 St. Johns, N. B., 1650 dwellings, 18 

lives lost. 12,500,000 

1SS9 Seattle, Wash. 20,000,000 


From the above it appears that the greatest fires 
on record, reckoned by destruction of property, are : 


Chicago fire, of Oct. 8 and 9, 1871.$192,000,000 

Paris fires, of May, 1871. 160,000,000 

Moscow fire of Sept. 14-19, 1812. 150,000,000 

Boston fire, Nov. 9-10, 1872. 75,000,000 

Hamburg fire, May 5-7, 1842. 35,000,000 


Taking into account, with the fires of Paris and 
Chicago, the great Wisconsin and Michigan forest 
fires of 187 r, in which it is estimated that 1000 human 
beings perished and property to the amount of over 
$3,000,000 was consumed, it is plain that in the an¬ 
nals of conflagrations that year stands forth in gloomy 
pre-eminence. 

Chicago’s Great Fires. 

There were 2100 acres of land burned over, nearly 
all of which area was thickly covered with buildings. 
There were nearly 18,000 buildings destroyed, of 
which about 2400 were stores and factories; and 
there were but few short of 100,000 people rendered 
homeless by the calamity. The extreme length of 
the burnt district was 3^ miles, and its greatest width 
a little over a mile. The fire of July, 1874, originated 
on South Clark street, between Taylor and Twelfth, 
and spread northeast to Michigan avenue. It was 
estimated that in this fire about fifty acres were 
burned over, many of the new buildings which had 
been erected after the great fire of 1871 having been 
leveled. 

The loss of property in the great fire of 1871 was 
$192,000,000, after allowing $4,000,000 for salvage on 


foundations of buildings. This estimate does not 
include the shrinkage of real estate values, or the 
large loss to mercantile interests by the interruption 
of trade consequent upon the destruction of stocks 
and business facilities. Mr. Colbert estimated the 
grand aggregate not very much below $290,000,000. 

The loss occasioned by the fire of 1874 was estima¬ 
ted as follows : The net loss to insurance companies 
was officially placed at $2,244,970, or 40 per cent, of 
the entire loss, making an estimated total loss of 
$5,612,425. The cash contributions to Chicago with¬ 
in three months after the fire amounted to $4,200,000. 

Most Noted Facts in Turf History. 

The richest stake ever run in America was the 
Futurity stake of 1890, run at Sheephead Bay, L. I., 
August 30, and won by August Belmont’s cli. c. Po¬ 
tomac (2) by St. Blaise, dam Susquehanna, by 
Leamington. The value of the stake was $77,700, 
of which $68,450 went to the winner, and $4500 to 
the second horse, Masher, b. c., by Ill Used also 
owned by Mr. Belmont, who in addition received 
$2500 for breeding first and second, making his 
winnings $75,450. Stathmeath, the third horse, re¬ 
ceived $2250. 

The Lancashire plate run at the Manchester, 
Eng., September meeting of 1SS9, and won by the 
Duke of Portland’s b. c. Donovan, was worth nearly 
$80,000 to the winner. 

Largest amount ever won by an American two- 
year-old, $78,650, Potomac, b. c., by St. Blaise, 1S90. 

The greatest winning three-year-old was Hanover, 
by Hindoo. He won twenty races and $89,827. 

Miss Woodford, br. m., foaled 1880, by imported 
Billet, dam Fanny Jane, by Neil Robinson, won 
more money than any animal that ever ran on the 
American turf, winning in five years forty-eight 
races, worth $118,970. 

In 1886 the stable of Dwyer Brothers won $208,- 
549.16 in purses and stakes—more money than was 
ever won by any other single racing establishment 
in America. 

The greatest sale of thoroughbreds ever had in 
this country was that of P. Lorillard in 1886, at 
which twenty-seven head sold for $149,050, the 
highest price being $29,000, the lowest $300. 

King Thomas, by King Ban, was the highest 
priced yearling ever sold at auction, L. O. Appleby 
paying $38,000 for him at the Haggin sale in New 
York, June 25, 1888. The following day Mr. Apple¬ 
by sold the colt to Senator Hearst, of California, for 
$40,000. 

Highest price ever paid for a horse, $105,000, for 
Axtell, br. s., record, 2.12, three years old, by Wil¬ 
liam L. (son of George Wilkes), dam Lou, by Mam- 























430 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


brino Boy. Purchased from C. W. Williams, of In¬ 
dependence, Iowa, by John W. Conley, of Chicago, 
and others. 

Dimensions of Bartholdi’s Statue of Liberty. 

The figure of this statue, which is made of re¬ 
pousse, or hammered work—that is, thin sheets of 
copper beaten into shape and fastened about an iron 
skeleton—is no }4 feet high and weighs 100,000 
pounds. The uplifted torch, however, is raised 26 
feet, and adding to this the pedestal, the tip of the 
torch is raised 220 feet from the ground. The 
pedestal is of stone, 82 feet high. Some idea of the 
enormous proportions of the statue may be given 
from the fact that the forefinger is 8 feet long, and 
4 feet in circumference at the second joint. The 
head is 14 feet high and 40 persons can stand in it. 


The distance from the farthest poim of polar dis¬ 
covery to the pole itself is 6 deg. 46 min., or in 
round numbers, 460 miles. It is 30 miles less than 
from Chicago to Omaha, by the lines of the Chicago, 
Milwaukee and St. Paul railway, over which the 
traveller rides in 24 hours. But this polar radius, 
though only 460 miles in extent, is covered by ice 
gorges and precipices of incredible difficulty ; and 
frost is so severe that no instrument of human in¬ 
vention can measure its intensity, and it blisters the 
skin like extreme heat. 

The greatest progress that has ever been made 
across these wildernesses of storm, of fury and de¬ 
solation, was at the rate of five or six miles in a day, 
the explorers often necessarily resting as many days 
as they had before travelled miles in a single day, 
debarred by the obstacles that they had encountered. 


The Dimensions of the Great Wall of China, and of 

What it is Built. 

• 

It runs from a point on the Gulf of Liantung, an 
arm of the Gulf of Pechili in Northeastern China, 
westerly to the Yellow River, thence makes a great 
bend to the south for nearly 100 miles, and then runs 
to the northwest for several hundred miles to the 
Desert of Gobi. Its length is 1250 miles. For the 
most of this distance it runs through a mountainous 
country, keeping on the ridges, and winding over 
many of the highest peaks. In some places it is 
only a formidable rampart, but most of the way it is 
composed of lofty walls of masonry and concrete, 
or impacted lime and clay, 25 feet in thickness, and 
25 feet in height. 

The top of this wall is paved for hundreds of miles, 
and crowned with crenelated battlements, and towers 
30 to 40 feet high. In numerous places the wall 
climbs such steep declivities that its top ascends 
from height to height in flights of granite steps. An 
army could march on the top of the wall for weeks 
and even months, moving in some places ten men 
abreast. 


Most Northern Point Reached by Arctic Explorers. 


The following table shows the furthest points of 
north latitude reached by Arctic explorers up to and 
including the Greely expedition : 


Year. Explorers. 

1607—Hudson. 

1773—Phipps (Lord Musgrove). 

1806—Scoresby... 

1827—Parry. 

1874— Meyer (on land). 

1875— Markham (Nare’s expeditio: 

1 876— Payer.83d 07m 

i 884—Lockwood (Greely’s party). 83d 24m cos 


North 

Latitudes. 

.Sod 

23m 

oos 

.8®d 

48m 

00s 

.8id 

I2U1 

42s 

. 82 d 

45 m 

30s 

.82d 

09m 

oos 

.83d 

20m 

26s 

.83d 

07m 

oos 

83d 

24m 

cos 


The Coal Area of the World. 

The coal area of the world is distributed as follows t 

Sq. Miles. Sq. Miles. 

United States.192,000 Germany. 1,800 

British America ... 18,000 Belgium. 518 

Great Britain. 12,000 Rest of Europe.100,000 

Spain . 4,000 China. 2,000 

France . 2,00^ Japan. 5,000 

Railroad Facts. 

The cost of railroads in the United States has been 
$9,000,000,000. 

One million persons are employed by the railroads 
of the United States. 

The cost of a high-class eight-wheel passenger lo¬ 
comotive is about $8500. 

The cost of a palace sleeping-car is $15,000, or if 
“ vestibuled,” $17,000. 

The average cost of constructing a mile of railroad 
in the United States at the present time is about 
$30,000. 

f he average daily earning of an American locomo¬ 
tive is about $100. 

The “ consolidation locomotive weighs about 50 
tons, and is able to draw on a level over 2400 tons. 

The longest mileage operated by a single system 
is that of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe—about 
8000 miles. 

The line of railroad which extends farthest east 
and west is the Canadian Pacific, running from 
Quebec to the Pacific Ocean. 

There are 60 miles of snow-sheds on the Central 
Pacific Railroad. 

The highest railroad in the United States is the 
Denver and Rio Grande at Marshall Pass—10,852 
feet. 






















THE BARTHOLDI STATUE OF LIBERTY 


431 







































































432 


THE LARGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD. 


The longest American railroad tunnel is the 
Hoosac Tunnel on the Fitchburg Railroad —/\]/ 2 
miles. (The St. Gothard Tunnel in Europe is over 
9 miles in length.) 

There are 208,749 railroad bridges in the United 
States, spanning 3213 miles. 

The longest railroad span in the United States is 
the Cantilever span in the Poughkeepsie bridge over 
the Hudson River—548 feet. 

The highest railroad bridge in the United States is 
the Kinzua Viaduct on the Erie road—305 feet high. 

The Manhattan Elevated Railroad of New York 
carries the largest number of passengers of any 
American road, over 200,000,000. 

A steel rail lasts, with average wear, about eigh¬ 
teen years. 

The Fastest Locomotive Ever Built. 

The largest and fastest passenger engine ever 
built, was by the Rhode Island Locomotive Works, 
for the New York, Providence and Boston Railroad 
Company. The main driving wheels are six feet in 
diameter, and set but seven feet six inches apart. 
This arrangement makes her run easily on curves. 
The cylinders are eighteen inches in diameter, with 
twenty-four-inch stroke. The boiler is fifty-four 
inches in diameter at the smoke-stack, with a wagon 
top. It extends to the very end of the cab, and 
necessitates the elevation of the engineer’s seat to a 
height far above the fire door. The fire requires three 
tons of coal before the engine pulls out of the 
round-house to make her trips, and four tons will be 
carried on the tender. The tank of the latter will 
hold 4000 gallons of water, and the total weight of 
the engine proper is 93,000 to 95,000 pounds. 

She looks to be enormously high as she sets up 
well in the air, and her short smoke-stack adds to 
her apparent height. Everything about her is steel. 
There is not a particle of brass or bright work about 
her. She makes the run from Providence to Groton, 
Conn., a distance of 62.5 miles, including a dead 
stop at Mystic drawbridge, as required by the sta¬ 
tutes of Connecticut, in just 62.5 minutes, pulling at 
the same time eight cars, four of which are Pull¬ 
man’s. 

One Railroad in Palestine. 

There is but one railway within the province of 
the Jerusalem consulate. This connects Jerusalem 
with the seaport, Jaffa, and it is 53 miles long. Its 
simple Oriental name is Chemin de Fer Ottoman de 
Jaffa a Jerusalem. It is a French corporation, but 
is practically controlled by the Turkish government. 

The line is in fair condition, but the accommoda¬ 
tions for passengers are very bad, and would not be 
tolerated by the traveling public of Europe or the 


United States. It is difficult to keep the line m 
good condition, owing to the heavy grades and short 
curves among the mountains. In the distance of 
53 miles the ascent is nearly 2500 feet, most of 
which is made during the last half of the distance. 
The road is single track and narrow gauge. The 
daily service consists of one passenger and one 
freight train each way. The first-class fare between I 
the termini is #3, and a round-trip ticket is sold 
for $4. 

There are numerous railway lines in South Africa, 
the railroad-building industry having in recent 
years assumed very extensive proportions. Owing 
to the soft nature of the soil and the frequency of 
the rains, most of the roadbeds are in a state of 
chronic instability. There is regular railway com¬ 
munication between Pretoria and Cape Town, a dis¬ 
tance of 1040 miles. The first-class passenger fare 
is 6 cents a mile. 

The Great Siberian Railway—a through line 
across Siberia 4715 miles long—is now under con¬ 
struction in three sections. This is one of the 
biggest railway engineering enterprises ever under¬ 
taken, involving, as it does, the tunneling of great 
mountains and the building of enormous viaducts 
and bridges. The Cheliabinsk-Omsk line is fast 
nearing completion. The Middle Siberian section, 
the construction of which was begun in 1893, is now 
well under way, and it is hoped that it will be fin¬ 
ished very soon. The main trunk of the great line 
is under contract to be completed not later than 
1900. 

To Sweden is given the distinction of owning 
more railway mileage per capita than any other 
country in Europe, and a Swedish road enjoys the 
further distinction of being the only railway in the 
world that enters the polar circle. 

The Seven Wonders of the World. 

The “ pyramids ’ first, which in Egypt were laid ; 
Next “ Babylon’s garden,” for Amytis made ; 

Then “ Mausolo’s tomb ” of affection and guilt; 
Fourth, the “ temple of Dian,” in Ephesus built; 

The “colossus of Rhodes,” cast in brass, to the sun ; 
Sixth, “Jupiter’s statue,” by Phidias done ; 

The “pharos of Egypt ” comes last, we are told, 

Or the “ palace of Cyrus,” cemented with gold. 

• 

The Wonders of the Nc\ World. 

The group of natural objects that have beeti 
classed as the seven wonders of the new world are, 
Niagara Falls, Yellowstone Park, the Mammoth Cave, 
the Canyons and Garden of Gods, Colorado ; the 
Giant Trees, California | the Natural Bridge, Vir¬ 
ginia, and the Yosemite Valley. 




Affirmation of the Quakers first accepted as an 
oath, 1702. 

Air-guns invented 1646 ; for throwing shells, 1886. 

Amphitheatre in Rome built A. D. 69. 

Amphyctionic Council or General Assembly of 
Greece established B. C. 1497. This is the first in¬ 
stance on record of a free representation of indepen¬ 
dent states meeting to deliberate and settle their con¬ 
cerns by force of reason in place of arms. 

Arithmetic by the Arabian figures introduced 
into Europe by the Saracens of Spain in the ninth 
century of the Christian era. 

Assassination of Lincoln, April 14, 1S65. 

Baffin’s Bay, separating Greenland from North 
America, discovered by Captain Baffin in 1662. 

Balloons said to have been invented by Gusmac, 
a Jesuit, 1729, but probably invented much earlier, 
and first used in France by Montgolfier, who 
ascended in one November 23, 1782. 

Banks in the United States commenced in the 
early part of the Revolutionary War. The first by a 
number of gentlemen in Philadelphia, June 17, 1780, 
with a capital of 1839,160; instituted for the purpose 
•of supplying the American army wfith provisions. 

Barometers invented 1626. 

Bayonets invented at Bayonne, in France, 1670. 

Blood, circulation of, through the lungs, first 
made public by Michael Servetus, a French physi¬ 
cian, in 1553. 

Books in the present form were invented by Atta- 
lus, King of Bergumus, 887 ; the first supposed to be 
written in Job’s time. 

Bread first made with yeast by the English, 1650. 

Bricks first used in England by the Romans—the 
size ordered by Charles I., 1625. 

Burning-glass and common mirrors date back to 
1680. 

Cable, first Atlantic, operated 1858. 

Canals are of very ancient date, the first of which 
w*e have any record being that in Egypt between the 
Nile and Red Sea 


Cards invented in France ; first used for amuse¬ 
ment by Charles VI., 1380. 

Carriages first introduced into Vienna 1515, into 
London 1580. 

Chess, the game of, invented B. C. 608. 

China, first voyage to, from the United States, 
1784. 

China, porcelain, first spoken of in history 1591. 

Chloroform was discovered in America and 
Germany, 1831. In 1847 it was brought into promi¬ 
nent notice as an anaesthetic by Sir James Simpson, 
of Edinburgh. 

COLLEGE, Harvard is the oldest in the United 
otates, established 1638. 

Cotton first raised in Virginia 1621, first exported 

1741. 

Christmas day first observed as a festival, 98. 

Circumnavigators of the globe ; the first was 
Magellan, or rather by his fleet, as he was himself 
slain on the voyage, 1522. 

Clocks, called water clocks, first used in Rome, 
B. C. 158. 

Cloth, coarse woolen, first made at Kendal, 1390. 

Coal discovered near New Castle, Eng., 1234. 

Coffee first brought into England, 1644. 

Coin, silver, coined at Rome, B. C. 269. 

Colleges as places of public instruction, in which 
academical degrees were granted, first established at 
Paris, 1215. 

Commerce first mentioned in the book of Genesis, 
when Joseph’s brethren sold him to a caravan of 
Ishmaelites. 

Compass in use in Europe as early as 1180; varia¬ 
tion first observed by Columbus and his companions, 
1492- 

Congress, Continental first met in Philadelphia, 
vSeptember 5, 1774. 

Copper mines found in New York, 1722. 

Councils. The first Nicene, when 328 fathers 
attended against Arius, 325 ; at Nice, when Pope 
Adrian presided and 350 fathers attended, 787. 

433 


28 







434 


DATES OF FIRST OCCURRENCES. 


Christianity was propagated in Spain in 36; in 
Britain, 60 ; or, as others say, in the 5th century ; in 
Franconia and Flanders, in the 7th century ; in 
Lombardy, Thuringia and Hesse, in the 8th century ; 
in Sweden, Denmark, Poland and Russia, in the 9th 
century ; in Hungary and Sclavonia, in the 10th 
century ; in Vandalia and Prussia, in the nth cen¬ 
tury ; in Pomerania and Norway, in the 12th cen¬ 
tury ; in Livonia, Lithuania and part of Tartary, in 
the 13th century; in Sclavonia, part of Turkey, and 
the Canary Isles, in the 14th century ; in Africa, at 
Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th century ; 
made great progress in Prussia, both the Indies and 
in China, by the Protestant faith, in the 16th cen¬ 
tury ; reinstated in Greece, &c., &c., in the 17th 
century. 

DELFT earthenware first made at Faenza, 1450. 

Distillation of spirituous liquors began in the 
12th century ; in Ireland, 1590. 

Electricity, first idea of, given by two globes of 
brimstone, 1467 ; electric spark discovered at Ley¬ 
den, 1746 ; first known it would fire spirits, 1756. 

Emancipation Proclamation, by President Lin¬ 
coln, January 1, 1863. 

Engraving on metal plates known in Europe, 
B. C. 504 ; on wood, invented in Flanders, 1423 ; 
on steel, became common about 1830 ; lithographic, 
invented by Senefelder, a German, about 1796. 

Envelopes were first used in 1839. 

Etching on copper, with aqua fortis, invented 
-512. 

Fire engine, to force water, invented 1663. 

Flag, American, first used at Cambridge, Mass., 
by Washington, January 1, 1776. Legally estab¬ 
lished by Congress, June 14, 1777 - 

Gas, use of, introduced into London for lighting 
shops and streets, 1814 ; first into the United States, 
at Baltimore, 1821. 

Gilding with leaf gold invented by Margaritone, 
1273. 

Gypsies quitted Egypt, when attacked by the 
Turks, in 1515, and wandered over all Europe. 

Glass, the art of making it, known to the Romans 
at least before 79 ; known to the Chinese about 200 ; 
introduced into England by Benedict, a monk, 674 ; 
glass windows began to be used in private houses in 
England, 1180; glass first made in England into 
bottles and vessels, 1757 ; the first plate glass for 
looking glasses and coach windows, made at Lam¬ 
beth, 1673 ; in Lancashire, 1773 ; window glass first 
made in England, 1557 - 

Gold was first discovered in California, in 1848. 

GRIST mills invented in Ireland, 214. 


Gunpowder invented, 1330; first made in Eng* 
land, 1418. 

Habeas Corpus Act in England passed, 1641 ; 
attempt made in the Senate of the United States to 
suspend it, but rejected by the House of Representa¬ 
tives, 1806. - 

Hackney coaches first used, 20 in number, in 
London, 1625. 

Hair powder in use in England, 1590 ; a guinea 
per year tax on those who wear it, 1795. 

Handkerchiefs first manufactured at Paisley in 
Scotland, 1748, when $So,ooo worth were made. 

Hats invented at Paris, 1404 ; first made in Lon¬ 
don, 1510. 

Heraldry had its rise about the year 1100. 

Hour glasses were invented in Alexandria, 240,. 
and introduced at Rome 158 years B. C. 

Hudson’s Bay discovered by Captain Hudson, 
1607. 

Indigo first produced in Carolina, 1747. 

Infallibility. The dogma of Pagal Infallibility 
promulgated in 1870. 

Inoculation first tried on criminals, 1741; vacine 
discovered by Dr. Jenner, 1799. 

Insurance on shipping began in England, 1560. 

Iron discovered by the burning of Mt. Ida, 
1406 B. C. ; first cast in England, at Backstead, Sus¬ 
sex, 1544; first discovered in America in Virginia, 

1715. 

Iron steamship, the first was built in 1830. 

Jupiter’S SATELLITES discovered by Jansen, 1590. 

Juries first instituted by Ethelred II., King of 
England, 979 ; the plaintiff and defendant, in those 
times, used to feed them ; whence the .common law 
of denying sustenance to the jury after hearing 
evidence. 

Kerosene first used for illuminating in 1826. 

Kingdom, origin of, by Nimrod at Babylon, 2233 
years B. C. 

King’s evil supposed to be cured by the touch of 
the Kings of England, the first king being Edward 
the Confessor, 1058. It was dropped by George I. 

Kissing the Pope’s foot first practiced, 709. 

Knitting stockings invented in Spain about 
1550 . 

Knives first made in England, 1563. 

Lamp for preventing explosion by fire-damp in 
coal mines, invented by Sir Humphrey Davy, 1815. 

Lancastrian schools of education established 
in most of the principal towns of England, 1810. 




DATES OF FIRST OCCURRENCES. 


435 


, Lawns and thread gauze were manufactured 
at Paisley in 1784. 

LETTERS invented by Memnon, the Egyptian, 
1822 B. C. 

Liberty Beet, the most famous bell in America, 
relic most prized by the nation, hung in the tower of 
Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 1776, and was 
rung when the Declaration of Independence was 
adopted. It was cracked while tolling for the death 
of Chief Justice Marshall, 1835, and has never been 
put to public use since. It was exhibited at the 
World’s Fair, Chicago, 1893, and at the Atlanta Ex¬ 
position, 1895. 

Linen first made in England, 1253 ; the rich 
people wore linen, the poorer woolen shirts. 

Locomotive, the first use of one in this country 
was in 1820. 

Locusts, the country of Palestine infected with 
such swarms of, that they darkened the air, and 
after devouring the fruits of the earth, they died, 
and their intolerable stench caused a pestilential 
fever, 406. A similiar circumstance occurred in 
France, 873 ; a large swarm of, flew over the city of 
Warsaw, June 17, 1816; swarms of, made their ap¬ 
pearance near Aschersleben, June 24, 1816. 

Looking-glasses made only at Venice, 1300. 

Looms, the power loom invented by the Rev. Mr. 
Cartright, a clergyman of Kent, England, 1787. 

Lotteries, the first mentioned by historians for 
sums of money, 1630. 

Magnifying-GEAsses first made in England by 
Roger Bacon, 1260. 

Mammoth, first fairly complete one discovered 
near the jouth of the Lena, in Siberia, 1S06. 

Maps and geobes invented by Anaximander, 600 
B. C. 

MarbeE paper, a German invention belongingto 
the 17th century. 

Matches, friction, first used in 1829. 

MeckeEnburg Declaration of Independence is¬ 
sued May 31, 1776. 

Microscopes first used in Germany, 1621 ; the 
double ones, 1624; solar microscopes invented, 1740. 

Mieitary Academy, West Point, founded by 
Congress, March 16, 1802. 

Missouri Compromise passed March 3, 1820, and 
appealed May 24, 1854. It restricted slavery to 
south of 36° 30L 

Monastery, the first founded where the sister of 
St. Anthony retired, 270 ; the first founded in 
France, near Poictiers, by St. Martin, 360 ; Constan¬ 
tine IV. sends for a great number of friars and nuns 


to Ephesus, orders them to change their black habits 
for white and to destroy their images ; on their 
refusal he orders their eyes to be put out, banishes 
them, and sells several monasteries, appropriating 
the produce, 770 ; they were totally suppressed by 
Act of Parliament in 1539. 

Money, first mentioned as a medium of commerce 
in the twenty-third chapter of Genesis, when Abra¬ 
ham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in 
the year of the world 2139 ; first made a.t Argos, 894 
B. C.; has increased eighteen times its value from 
1290 to 1640 ; and twelve times its value from 1530 to 
1800. 

Monroe Doctrine declared in the message of 
President Monroe, December 2, 1823. Re-asserted 
by President Cleveland in a message to Congress 
concerning the boundary line dispute between Vene¬ 
zuela and Great Britain, December, 1895. 

Mormons, sect of, founded by Joseph Smith, 
1830 ; removed from Nauvoo to Salt Lake Valley, 
Utah, July 24, 1S47. 

Musicae notes invented in 1070 ; improved, 1330 ; 
printed, 1502. 

Nantes, Edict of, tolerating Protestants, 1598 ; 
revocation, 1685. 

NEEDEES first made in England by a native of 
India in 1545. 

New Orleans, battle of, January 8, 1815, Jackson 
defeating the British. Captured by Farragut, April 
26, 1862. 

Newspaper, the first authentic copy was printed 
in 1494 ; first daily, Frankfort Gazette , 1615. The 
first English was the Weekly Newes , 1622 ; the first 
in France, Gazette de France , 1631. The first adver¬ 
tisement appeared in 1648. The first American 
newspaper was printed in Boston, September 25,1690, 
and was called Publick Occurrences , Foreign and 
Domestic. The first continuously printed in America 
was the Boston News Letter , 1702 ; first daily, The 
Pennsylvania Packet , 1784. 

Nullification Ordinance passed by South 
Carolina, November 19, 1832. The proclamation of 
President Jackson denouncing the same was issued 
December 10, 1832. 

Organs were invented in 750. 

Oxford University, England, founded by Al¬ 
fred, 886. 

Painting, earliest account of, in the reign of 
Ninus, about 2000 B. C. 

Paper currency established in America May 15, 
1775. Paper money first used in America, 1740. 

Paper made of cotton was in use in 1000 ; made of 
linen rags, 1319 ; made from straw, 1800. 




436 


DATES OF FIRST OCCURRENCES. 


Parchment invented by King Attalus of Per- 
gamus, 8S7 B. C. 

Patent Right Law first enacted in United States, 
April 15, 1790. 

Paving with stones first introduced, in Paris, 
1186. 

Pearls, artificial, were invented 1686. 

PENS for writing were first made from quills in 
635. The substitution of steel for quill pens took 
place early in the present century, yet strange to 
say, nothing is known with certainty of the person 
who first invented the metallic pen. Fountain pens 
and glass pens are of recent date. 

Pennypost set up in London and suburbs, by one 
Murray, an upholsterer, 16S1, who afterwards as¬ 
signed the same to one Dockwra ; afterwards claimed 
by the government, who allowed the latter a pension 
of ^200 a year, in 1711; first set up in Dublin, 
1774; it was improved considerably in and round 
London, July, 1794 ; made a two-penny post in 1801. 

Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in 
16S2. Riots, native American and Irish, May 6 to 8, 
1844. First National Convention of the Republican 
Party, 1856. 

Phonograph invented in 1877 by Thomas A. 
Edison. 

Phosphorous first made in 1677. 

Photographs were first produced in England in 
1802 ; perfected in 1841. 

Pianoforte invented about 1710 in Italy. 

Pins were brought from France, and first used in 
England by Catherine Howard, Queen of Henry 
VIII. Before that time both sexes used ribbons, 
loop-holes, laces with points and tags, hooks and 
eyes, and small skewers made of gold, silver and 
brass. Pins were first made by machinery in 
America in 1832. 

Pipes of lead, for water, first cast in 1539. 

Pistols first used by the cavalry in 1544. 

Pitch and tar first made from pit coal at Bristol, 
in 1779. 

Plaster of Paris. Casting with it from the 
face invented in 1470. 

Porcelain of Saxony greatly improved in 1767. 

Port-holes introduced for ships of war in 1545. 

Post-office first established between Vienna and 
Brussels in 1516. Posts established regularly between 
London and all the principal towns throughout Eng¬ 
land in 1635. Postage stamps were introduced in 
England in 1840 ; in the United States in 1847. 

PoTTERY improved greatly by Wedgwood in 1763. 


Prince of Wales, the title of, first given to the 
king’s eldest son, 1286. 

Printing. The Assyrians and Babylonians used 
clay tablets, and wooden blocks were used by the 
Chinese as early as 952. Printing from movable 
types was invented by Faust in 144 L aQ d made 
public by Gutenberg in 1454, although the invention 
is also claimed for L. Kostcr, of Haarlem, as early as 
1423. The first Bible was printed by Faust and 
Schoffcr, in 1456, and they also printed the first 
book with date, a Latin Psalter, 1457 * Wooden type 
first introduced into England, by William Caxton, a 
London merchant, in 1477 - The first English press 
was set up in Westminister Abbey, where it remained 
until 1494. The first American book, “ Escala 
Espiritual,” was printed by Juan Hablas, Mexico, 
about 1535. The first press in the United States was 
that of Stephen Daye, at Cambridge, Mass., 1639. 
Printing in colors was first introduced in 1626. 

Pyramids first erected about 2170 B. C. 

Quicksilver first used for refining silver ore, in 
1540. 

Railroad. The first passenger railroad was 
opened in England, September 27, 1825 ; the first in 
America, Baltimore and Ohio, 1828, although freight 
was moved by rail at the granite quarries, of Quincy, 
Mass., as earlv as 1826. The first steam railroad 
was operated in the United States in 1830, from 
Albany to Schenectady—16 miles. 

Reformation in Germany, 1517; in England, 

1532. 

Republican Party. The first convention was 
held at Pittsburgh, February 22, 1856. 

Resumption of Specie Payments in the United 
States—Act approved 1875 ; took effect January 1, 
1879 - 

Ribbon looms. It has been asserted that these 
looms were first known to the Swiss, but others 
claim their invention for a German in the town of 
Dantzic in the 16th century. 

Ruling-machines invented by a Dutchman m 
London in 1792. 

Saddles. Pliny informs us that one, Pelethro- 
nius, was the first to introduce a piece of leather 
fastened to the back of a horse for the accommoda¬ 
tion of its rider. For a long time these cloths and 
pieces of leather were regarded as unmanly, and 
were, therefore, regarded by soldiers with great 
scorn. The old German races despised the Roman 
cavalry for riding on such effeminate contrivances. 
Saddles of the kind now used appear to have been in 
use in 385. Side-saddles first used in 1380. Pre¬ 
vious to their introduction women always rode 
astride. 





The “ Maine ” was one of the Largest of the United States Warships. By its Destruction in the Harbor of 

Havana over 240 lives were lost. 



























DATES OF FIRST OCCURRENCES. 


437 


Sailcloth first made in England in 1590. 

Salting HERRINGS after the Dutch method first 
used in 1416. 

Saltpeter first manufactured in England, in 
1625. 

Saws. The inventor of the saw is said, by the old 
Greek writers, to be Talus or Perdox. Pliny ascribes 
the invention to Doedalus, but Hardouin affirms that 
the passage in which he does so refers to Talus, and 
net *0 Doedalus. Talus was the son of a sister of 
Doedalus, and the invention is said to be due to his 
using the jawbone of a snake to cut through a piece 
of wood. His master grew jealous of the honor 
Talus won by this invention, and caused him to be 
privately put to death. 

Schools, public or common, first known in 
America, were established in the New England 
States about 1642. 

Sedan chairs introduced into England in 1734. 

Sewing-machine first patented in England, in 
1755. The first complete machine was constructed 
by an American, Elias Howe, in 1846. 

Sextant invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, 
in 1550. 

Shay’s Rebellion, in Massachusetts, 1786-87. 

Sleeping-cars were first used in 1858. Pull¬ 
man’s patent dates from 1864. 

Soap first made in London and Bristol in 1524. 
The first express mention of soap appears in Pliny 
and Galen. The former speaks of it as an invention 
of the Gauls. 

Speaking-trumpets invented by Kircher, a Je¬ 
suit, in 1652. 

Spinning-wheel invented at Brunswick, 1530. 

Spectacles invented by Spina, a monk, of Pisa, 
in 1299. 

Stamp Act enacted March 22, 1765 ; repealed 
March 19, 1766. 

STATUTES of the United States first revised and 
codified in 1873. 

Steam. The steam engine boiler was discovered 
by the Marquis of Worcester in 1663. Newcom- 
men’s engine was patented in 1705, and the inven¬ 
tion was perfected by James Watt in 1773. The high 
pressure engine was invented by an American, 
Oliver Evans in 1779. The first steam vessel of 
which there is any record was that of Papin (France), 
in 1707. Then follow those of Jonathan Hulls 
(England), 1736; William Henry (Conestoga River, 
Pa.), 1763; James Rumsey (Md.), 17S6; John 

Fitch (Delaware River), same year. In 1806 Robert 
Fulton constructed the Clermont, which plied regu¬ 


larly between New York and Albany, at a speed of 
five miles per hour. The first steamer crossing the 
Atlantic made the voyage from Savannah to Liver¬ 
pool in twenty-five days, A. D. 1819. 

STEEL. The invention of steel is of very great 
antiquity and the process of hardening iron is de¬ 
scribed in the Old Testament (Isaiah xliv, 12). The 
helmet of Hercules, described in Hesiod, appears to 
have been of steel. Homer refers to the process of 
hardening steel by immersing it, while red hot, in. 
cold water. 

Stereotype printing invented by William Gid, 
a goldsmith, of Edinburgh, in 1735. 

Stirrups, according to a statement made by the 
Emperor Mauritius, were first used in the 6th cen¬ 
tury. Hippocrates and Galen speak of a disease 
which, in their time, was occasioned by long and 
frequent riding, because the legs hung down without 
any support. 

Sugar is first mentioned in 625 by Paul Eginetta, 
a physician. It came originally from China and the 
East; was produced in Sicily in 114S, in Maderia in 
1419, in the Canary Islands in 1503, and in the West 
Indies by the Portuguese and Spaniards in 1510. In 
1641 it was cultivated at Barbadoes. Sugar-refining 
■was first carried out by a Venetian in 1503, and this 
process was adopted in England in 1569. Sugar 
cane was first cultivated in the United States in 
1751, near New Orleans, the first sugar mill being 
constructed in 1858. 

Sunday-schools were first established bv Robert 
Raikes, Gloucester, England in 1781. 

Sun-dials invented 558 B. C. The first in Rome, 
308 B. C., was that erected by Papirius Cursor, when 
time was divided into hours. 

Tanning leather. A new and more expeditious 
method than that previously in use was invented in 

1795 . 

Tax. The first tax levied on the people was by- 
Solon, 540 B. C. 

Tea first known in Europe in 1610, being brought 
from India by the Dutch. 

Telegraphs (mechanical) invented in 1687. First 
used by the French in 1794, and by the English in 

1796. The first electric telegraph was operated from 
Paddington to Drayton, England, in 1835, the same 
year in which Morse’s telegraph was invented. The 
first telegraph line in operation in America was be¬ 
tween Baltimore and Washington in 1844. The 
first submarine cable was laid in 1851, between 
Dover and Calais, and the first Atlantic cable was 
operated in 1858. 






438 


DATES OF FIRST OCCURRENCES. 


Telephone. A. Graham Bell first presented a 
speaking telephone at the Centennial Exposition, 
Philadelphia, in 1876. 

Telescopes. The first reflecting telescope made 
on the principle discovered by Sir Isaac Newton in 
1692. 

Temperance society, the first in this country 
was organized in Saratoga County, N. Y., in March, 
1S08. 

Thread first made at Paisley, Scotland, in 1722. 

Thermometers first invented by Drebel, a 
Dutchman, in 1620 ; improved by Reaumur in 1730, 
and by Fahrenheit in 1749. 

Tobacco was first introduced into England, from 
Virginia, in 1583. 

Union of England and Scotland, 1707; Great 
Britain and Ireland, 1801. 

Vaccination. See Inoculation. 

Ventilators first introduced by the Rev. Dr. 
Hales in 1740. 

Violins of the modern kind invented about 1477. 
Introduced into England by Charles II. 

Wall-papers first used in Spain and Holland in 
1555. Flock or velvet wall-papers were first used in 
1620. 

War ships. In 1814 Sir Robert Seppings intro¬ 
duced various most important improvements for the 
construction of war ships. The lower parts of the 
frames of ships of war were then, for the first time, 
filled in, a system of diagonal trussing was intro¬ 
duced, the stern was altered in form, so that it no 
longer remained open to the fire of an enemy, and 
the upper decks were enlarged. Sir W. Symonds 
altered them so as to decrease the quantity of ballast 
required in 1832. In the International Exhibition of 
1851 various improvements in this direction were 
shown, but great iron-cased ships were not then 
thought of. In July, 1854, the first of a new class of 
screw, gun vessels was launched for use during the 


Russian war. To operate with these, vessels cu iron 
were constructed to bombard the fortresses in the 
Baltic. The first French iron-cased ship was a frigate 
called the “Cloire,” and this was quickly followed 
by the first English ship of that kind, the “War¬ 
rior.” Since then vessels of this kind have been 
subject to a variety of alterations and experiments 
tending to improve both their strength and their 
sailing qualities. The first battle between iron ships 
of war occurred in the war for the Union, the Mer- 
rimac and Monitor being the contestants. 

WaTCHES were invented at Nuremberg in 1477, 
and were first introduced into England from Ger¬ 
many in 1577. 

Water mills for grinding corn are said to have 
been invented by Belisarius when Rome was be¬ 
sieged by the Goths in 555. Pliny, however, men¬ 
tions wheels turned by water. 

Weather-cocks. The earliest mention of a 
weather-cock is that made by Vitruvius, concerning 
that on the tower built at Athens by Andronicus 
Cyrrhestes. 

Wild-fire invented by a Greek in 663. 

Wilmot Proviso, to restrict slavery, offered in 
the House of Representatives, August 8, 1846, by 
David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania. 

Wire invented at Nuremberg in 1351. 

Wire-drawing. The first record we have of this 
art is probably that contained in Holy Writ, where 
we are told that gold was beaten and cut to threads, 
so that it could be interwoven in cloth. The present 
mode of forming metallic threads, that known as 
wire-drawing, was first known in the 14th century. 

Woolen cloth. Although the making of woolen 
cloth is one of the most ancient arts, its manufacture 
was not known in France until 1646, when it was 
made at Sedan. It was first made in England in 
1331, but was not dyed or dressed until 1667. 

Yellowstone National Park established by 
Act of Congress, February 28, 1871. 




THE COUNTRIES 

OF THE 

-»» -k- *® 

WORLD 

— - -■'«❖«»** - - <«« ►— 

Historical and Statistical Information. 



# CONDENSED history of the 
nations of the globe, containing 
information relating to the forms 
of government and present con¬ 
dition of the people, is not only 
of interest to the general reader, 
but also furnishes information of greac value. 
In this way the ends of the earth are brought 
near. A panorama of past events, including 
those of most recent date, passes before the 
eye. Here, also, means are afforded for ob¬ 
taining that culture which cannot be com¬ 
plete without a knowledge of the world at 
large. 

It must have occurred to every student of 
history that there are great masses of rub¬ 
bish of no account, which are, in fact, a hin¬ 
drance and vexation. Only by condensing 
the voluminous records of the past, and 
bringing them within a narrow compass, 
are we able to trace the golden chain of 
events. 

The following pages present the essential 
facts of history, enabling the reader to obtain 
a clear and intelligent idea of those annals 


which preserve the life and deeds of nations 
The aim has been to depict great historic 
features, furnishing a record of the most 
important transactions, and otherwise gather¬ 
ing into this treasury of knowledge such 
information as will be of the greatest prac¬ 
tical value. This comprehensive survey of 
the countries of the world forms a ready 
hand-book for everyday use. 

A Fountain of Knowledge. 

That a knowledge of history, ancient and 
modern, forms an important part of educa¬ 
tion, is conceded by every thoughtful person. 
For this reason the study of this subject is 
required in all our schools and academies, 
and it is admitted that a finished education 
demands a thorough acquaintance with his¬ 
tory, no less than with the common branches 
universally taught, or with the sciences and 
ancient languages. This subject is one of 
the great sources of the world’s knowledge 
and wisdom, and while it has its dry details 
and facts, it is also invested with romance, 
the charm of which never dies. 


439 





































440 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


The comprehensive history of nations in¬ 
cludes their origin and certain great features 
which have resulted from political changes. 
We behold revolutions, sanguinary battles, 
struggles for better forms of government, 


the peaceful achievements of diplomacy, and 
mark the great convulsions, victories and 
enterprises, which have changed the pages 
that record the annals of the past, and, as it 
were, have formed the world anew. 




MERICA, including a vast extent 
of territory, embracing every 
variety of climate, and bearing 
within it, besides its precious 
ore and gems, the germs of im¬ 
mense wealth, remained undis¬ 
covered until the nth of October, 1492, 
when Christopher Columbus, a native of 
Genoa, who had sailed from Spain with three 
small vessels under the patronage of Ferdi¬ 
nand and Isabella, the Castilian monarch, 
first beheld a light on the shore of the new 
continent, two hours before midnight. On 
the next day he set foot in the New World. 

The Christian adventurers did not fail 
to kneel upon the sand and offer up their 
thanks for having been preserved through 
the perils of a long voyage. This island was 
called Guanahani, by the natives, a name 
which Columbus altered to St. Salvador, 
and was one of the Bahama Islands. 

It is worthy of remark that the vast con¬ 
tinent which Columbus discovered was not 
called by his name, but derived its appella¬ 
tion from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine 
navigator, who made some subsequent dis¬ 
coveries, in company with Alonzo de Ojeda, 
in 1499. Columbus did not rest satisfied 
with his first successful voyage or the fame 
which he acquired by it, but he undertook 


others. He was, however, in the end, the 
victim of jealousy and ingratitude. The 
Spanish colonists at Hispaniola became dis¬ 
contented and preferred complaints against 
him, sending home accusations and remon¬ 
strances by every ship that sailed to Spain. 

The Discoverer in Irons. 

In consequence of this, Don Francisco de 
Bobadilla was sent out by the court, and in¬ 
vested temporarily with the chief power, 
being permitted to use his own judgment in 
quelling the disturbances of the colonies. 
This person scrupled not to arrest Columbus, 
and put him in irons, from which he would 
not suffer himself to be freed, when he was 
sent to Spain. 

“ No,” said he, when the attendants offered 
to remove them; “the truth must be ap* 
parent, and my patrons are too noble, too 
generous to overlook me. Then, if fortune 
again smiles upon me, these will serve as 
affecting memorials of sorrow past; I wil> 
not part with them, and I even wish that, 
when I am no more, they ma> be suspended 
over my sepulchre.” When he again set 
foot in Spain, he might have exclaimed, in 
the language of the poet: 

“ Are these the wreaths of triumph you bestow 
On those who bring you eonquest home and honor? 











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^tone* 


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^^b^nsfiel, 
atcli ito.cbesov Yi( 


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Austin: 


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tomo 'A ColMbia , 
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Ciudad Porfirio 


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lidianol;. 


Tampa 


Santa Totna> 


Alamo*-. 


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Charlotte Uarlv\ 


Hidalgo 


Lanijiazos 


Arctic. 


Circle 


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Pt.Isabel 


Mont erei 


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UNITED STATES 


iatecas. 


pinai 


Scale of Milei 


ISLE OF 
' PINES 


Puerto 

iprineij 


Aguasl/ 

CalienVes 


San Luis 
Potosi i 


HoAgtin 


Tampico 


C.S.AntonU 


Scale of Miles 


from 


Greenwich 90 


100 Longitude 
























































































































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THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


441 


Columbus was liberated immediately by 
royal order, and received at court with great 
respect. But though Bobadilla was recalled, 
Columbus in vain supplicated to be restored 
to his government; he was put off by vague 
promises, and the post finally given to Don 
Nicholas Ovando, a practical as well as ac¬ 
complished man. Thus after three moment¬ 
ous voyages, and the acquisition of much 
fame, he found himself displaced and thwarted 
in a point in which he conceived his honor 
concerned, and his hard-earned authority 
torn from his possession. 

But it was not the nature of Columbus to 
sink under his misfortunes ; on the contrary 
with four small caravels, the largest being 
but of seventy tons burthen, he set out on 
his fourth voyage of discovery with the 
intention of completing the circumnavigation 
of the globe, visiting the Indies, of which 
Vasco da Gama had given so inspiriting an 
account. 

A Singular Occurrence. 

Leaving Cadiz on May 9, 1 502, he reached 
Martinique, one of the Windward Islands, 
June 15. Having touched at Cuba, he pur¬ 
sued a southwesterly course, until he reached 
Guanaja, an island on the coast of Honduras, 
whose inhabitants had attained a pretty high 
degree of civilization. Their persons were 
covered with cotton garments dyed with a 
variety of bright and pleasing colors. 

He mentions a curious occurrence as taking 
place here. He had been presented, among 
other animals; with a peccary, or American 
pig, and one of those monkeys with prehensile 
tails, indigenous to America. The peccary 
being thrown in the way of the monkey, the 
latter, by a dexterous use of its tail, confined 
the jaws of the pig in such a manner as to 
expose it helplessly to the action of the 
monkey’s claws. “ This appeared to me so 


strange,” Columbus writes to his patrons, 
“ that I thought fit to write it down for the 
information of your majesties.” 

The Spaniards entertained the most exag¬ 
gerated ideas of the wonders of the New 
World. To most of them, it appeared a realm 
of magic, a fairyland, in which supernatural 
occurrences were by no means infrequent. 
Thus Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512 fitted 
out three ships from Porto Rico, of which 
he was governor and set forth in search of 
an Indian fountain which was fabled to 
restore all who bathed in it, even if they 
were tormented by the infirmities of extreme 
old age, to the freshness, vigor and beauty 
of youth. Although he failed to find the 
fountain, he made the discovery of Florida. 

Extinction of the Red Men. 

From the time of the first European settle¬ 
ments in this part of America, the number 
of the Indians has diminished rapidly, and 
they are now reduced to a mere handful, 
whom the wave of emigration is fast rolling 
to the shores of the Western Ocean. They 
have seen their hunting grounds diminished,, 
their forests swept away by their white foes,, 
and the smoke of the Christian village rising; 
where once their council-fires blazed. 

The discovery of America awakened the 
enterprise of various nations of the Old 
World, and they fitted out numerous expe¬ 
ditions to conquer and colonize. North 
America, which is of vast extent, its surface 
containing about eight millions of square 
miles, fell into the hands of the English, 
French and Spanish. Mexico, so valuable 
for its mines of gold and silver, inhabited at 
the period of its discovery by intelligent and 
peaceable nations, was conquered by Fer¬ 
nando Cortez, a Spanish general, who scrupled 
not to make use of the basest treachery, and 
to shed the blood of the natives like water. 



442 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


to accomplish his purposes. Mexico was for 
a long time attached to Spain, to which it 
furnished immense wealth, but at present has 
a republican government which it can hardly 
be said to enjoy, the country is in such an 
unsettled state. 

The eastern shores of North America, 
were settled principally by the English. In 
spite of the hostility of the Indians, the rav¬ 
ages of disease and hardship, the colonies 
increased rapidly. The population of the 
middle portion of North America, now called 
the United States, was estimated, in 1775 at 
about 3,000,000. The number of the colonies 
was thirteen. Poverty and oppression had 
first driven them from their native land. 


Settlement of the Colonies. 

The following dates of the settlement of 
the colonies, are given for reference : 

Virginia, 1607. 

New York, by the Dutch, 1614; occupied 
by the English, 1664. 

Plymouth, 1620; incorporated with Mas¬ 
sachusetts in 1692. 

Massachusetts, 1628. 

New Hampshire, 1623. 

New Jersey, by the Dutch, 1624; occupied 
by the English in 1664. 

Delaware, by the Dutch, 1627; occupied 
by the Englisn in 1664. 

Maine, 163c*; united with Massachusetts 
in 1677. 

Maryland, 1633. 

Connecticut, 1635. 

New Haven, 1637 ; united with Connecti- 
c ^ in 1662. 

Providence, 1635 ; 

Rhode Island, 1638 ; 

North Carolina, 1650. 

South Carolina, 1670. 

Pennsylvania, 1682. 

Georgia, 1733. 


united 1644. 


The English settlers in the northern parts 
of America, were influenced by different 
motives from those which actuated the Span¬ 
iards who quitted their native country for the 
shores of the New World. The latter were 
urged onward by a reckless spirit of adventure,; 
by the promptings of heated imaginations, 
and by the most insatiable cupidity. The 
former were impelled by far worthier motives. 
Many causes operated together in the mother 
country, to favor emigration among the 
resolute and hardy. 

The people of England had been led to 
examine the nature of the power to which 
they were subjected, and the monstrous doc¬ 
trines of prerogative and religious intolerance, 
were denounced by many who had courage 
to think and speak for themselves upon the 
subjects. The friends of republican institu¬ 
tions multiplied with great rapidity, the natural 
result of the progress of literature, and the 
increase of wealth with the commons. In 
1628 the wealth of the House of Commons 
far exceeded that of the House of Lords. 

The English Puritans. 

At the same time, the reformation which 
had been carried into effect by Henry VIII, 
while it had purged the country of many 
abuses long complained of, had established a 
form of worship which was regarded by 
many as little better than that which had 
given way before it. Those who refused to 
conform to the established form, contempt¬ 
uously termed Puritans by their opponents, 
and anxiously sought scope for the exercise 
of religious rights, and, since the immunities 
they demanded were not granted them at 
home, determined to seek refuge from perse¬ 
cution in a remote quarter of the globe. 

King James granted, in 1606, letters patent 
to two companies, called the London and 
Plymouth Companies, by which possession 





THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH 


443 








































































































































































































































































































444 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


was given them of the territories lying be¬ 
tween the 34th and 45th degrees of north 
latitude; the southern part to the London, 
and the northern part to the Plymouth Com¬ 
pany : the king himself having undertaken 
to frame for them a code of laws. 

Three ships were provided by the London 
Company, on board of which were 105 
persons, who were expected to remain at 
Roanoke, which was the place of their desti¬ 
nation. They made a settlement on a pen¬ 
insula and called it Jamestown. This was 
the first permanent settlement made by the 
English in Virginia. 

Story of Captain Smith. 

Shortly after, the company received sup¬ 
plies from England, and an accession to their 
numbers, swelling the number to 200. Two 
vessels were freighted for England; one 
loaded with a yellow and brilliant sand, 
common in many places in the vicinity, but 
supposed by the colonists to contain a large 
proportion of gold; the other vessel was 
loaded with tobacco. The most efficient 
member of the council was Captain Smith, 
who was taken by the Indians while on an 
exploring expedition. 

He was led to the place of execution, and 
his head placed upon a stone, while Pow¬ 
hatan, the Indian chieftain, stood over him 
with uplifted club, regardless of the earnest 
solicitations of his daughter Pocahontas, 
then about 13 years of age. The princess, 
finding her entreaties unavailing, fell upon 
Smith, folded him in her arms, and laid her 
face upon his, determined to meet death 
with him she could not save. Moved 
by this touching devotion, Powhatan re¬ 
lented, and, two days afterwards, sent Smith 
to Jamestown. 

In 1609, the destruction of the whole 
colony was planned by the Indians, but 


their plans were defeated by the exertions 
of the princess Pocahontas, who, in a dark 
night, went to Jamestown, and put the presi¬ 
dent upon his guard. Pocahontas married 
an English gentleman by the name of Rolfe, 
embraced the Christian religion, and was 
baptized by the name of Rebecca. She 
died four years after at Gravesend, on her 
return with her husband from England. In 
1619, twenty negroes were brought to Vir¬ 
ginia in a Dutch vessel, and sold to the colo¬ 
nists, whence one may date the commence¬ 
ment of the slaveholding system. 

In 1614 Captain Smith was sent from 
England to explore North Virginia. He 
ranged the coast from Penobscot to Cape 
Cod, making observations on the shores, 
harbors, islands and headlands ; and made a 
map of the country, which on his return to 
England, he showed to Prince Charles (after¬ 
wards Charles I), who gave it the name of 
New England. 

Arrival of the Pilgrims. 

The Rev. Mr. Robinson with his flock, of 
the Reformed Church of the North of Eng¬ 
land, removed to Amsterdam in 1606, and 
soon after to Leyden. A variety of motives 
led his congregation to turn their attention 
to the New World ; the principal were, the 
enjoyment of perfect liberty of conscience 
“ the preservation of ecclesiastical affairs dis¬ 
tinct from those of the State;” and a hope 
of laying the foundation of an extensive 
empire, that should be purged from all 
religious impurities. 

Having made an arrangement with the 
Virginia Company, they sailed from Ply¬ 
mouth, Eng., on September 6, 1620, and on 
November 10th anchored in Cape Cod har¬ 
bor. Perceiving that they were so far north 
as to be without the territory of the South 
Virginia Company, some hesitation arose; 




THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


445 


but the winter was at hand, and it was now 
too late to go in search of a settlement 
within the jurisdiction of that company. 

Previous to their landing, after prayer 
and thanksgiving, they formed themselves 
into a body politic, binding themselves by a 
written covenant to be governed by the 
decisions of a majority. This instrument 
was subscribed by 41 persons, who, with 
their children and domestics, composed a 
company of 101 persons. Mr. John Carver 
was chosen, without one dissentient voice, 
governor for one year. 

Saved from Famine. 

Parties were sent on shore to make dis¬ 
coveries. Some Indians were seen but could 
not be overtaken. A considerable quantity 
of corn was found in heaps of sand, secured 
in baskets, which served for seed the ensuing 
spring, and tended to save the adventurers 
from famine. On December 6th, Carver, 
Standish, Winslow, Bradford and others, 
sailed to various places, to discover a suit¬ 
able situation for a settlement. Monday, 
December 11, O. S., they landed at what was 
afterwards called Plymouth, and from the 
excellence of the harbor, and the favorable 
appearance of the land, resolved to com¬ 
mence a settlement here. 

In 1637 the troops of Massachusetts and 
Connecticut had several engagements with 
the Pequot Indians, and finally subdued 
them. This year was made famous by a 
great theological disturbance caused by Ann 
Hutchinson, a woman of considerable talents, 
who was accused of maintaining heresies, 
and supporting them by lectures frequently 
given to large audiences. The result was a 
synod of the ministers, elders and mes¬ 
sengers of the churches, who, after three 
week’s deliberation, condemned as heretical 
eighty-two opinions which had been dis- I 


seminated in New England, ind some ban¬ 
ishments took place, among them that of 
Mrs. Hutchinson, her husband and children. 

In 1750 a number of noblemen, merchants 
and others, of London, together with some 
influential Virginia planters, formed a society 
under the name of the Ohio Company, for 
the purpose of commerce with the Indians 
and the settlement of parts of the country. 
The French Governor in Canada fearing the 
valuable fur trade of the French would be 
destroyed, infringed upon the possessions of 
the Ohio Company, who laid their griev¬ 
ances before Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor 
of Virginia. 

The Assembly of Virginia determined to 
demand, in the name of the King, that the 
French should desist. George Washington, 
then in his 22d year, was despatched to the 
French Commandant to convey the demand. 
As this was not complied with, the British 
determined to attack Fort du Quesne (now 
Pittsburg), and Washington commanded the 
expedition, which, although unsuccessful, 
reflected upon him great credit. 

•4 ,< 

Brave to the Last. 

On the arrival of Braddock, in the spring 
of 1775, various military operations were 
planned. An expedition against Canada 
was successful, but the conquered territory 
was speedily relinquished by the victors. 
General Braddock’s expedition against Fort 
du Quesne was disastrous in the extreme. 
Heedless of the advice of Washington, who 
cautioned him against an ambush, he pressed 
forward, and was surprised by the Indians. 

Instead of retreating or scouring the 
woods, Braddock vainly endeavored to form 
his men; and continued with wanton bravery 
on the spot where he was first attacked, till 
three horses were shot under him; when he 
received a shot through the lungs and fell. 




44G 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 




The remains of the army immediately 
fled, bearing away the body of their rash 
and unfortunate commander. Every mount¬ 
ed officer except Washington, was either 
killed or wounded, and he was provident¬ 
ially preserved, fcr an Indian had marked 
him as a victim, and fired at him several 
times with a rifle that had never before de¬ 
ceived him; 64 out 85 officers, and half the 
privates were killed. But Washington bore 
off the wreck of the forces with consummate 
skill and undaunted courage. The war was 
continued until 1763, and, although the 
military operations were occasionally un¬ 
successful, the bravery of the British and 
provincial troops prevailed, and the fall of 
Quebec gave a death blow to the hopes of 
the French. 

Events Preceding the Revolution. 

We now come to the commencement of 
those acts which created that patrotic feel¬ 
ing in the .colonies, which resulted in the 
Declaration of their Independence. 

In 1674 the Parliament of Great Britain 
passed an act, the preamble to which ran 
thus: “ Whereas it is just and necessary that 
a revenue be raised in America, for defraying 
the expenses of defending, protecting and 
securing the same, etc.” The act then pro¬ 
ceeds to lay a duty on clayed sugar, indigo, 
coffee, silk, molasses, calicoes, etc., being 
the produce of a colony not under the 
dominion of his majesty. To this the 
colonists submitted; though not without 
complaint and remonstrance. 

Massachusetts recommended a colonial con¬ 
gress, to consult for the general welfare. A 
congress from most of the colonies, consisting 
of twenty-eight members, met at New York ; 
remonstrated against the Act of Parliament; 
petitioned for its repeal; and made a declar¬ 
ation of the rights of the colonies ; declaring 


that taxation and representation were insepar¬ 
able ; and that Parliament had no right to 
take their money ^without their consent. 

In 1767, the Chancellor of the Exchequer 
brought into Parliament a bill for imposing 
a duty to be collected in the colonies on glass, 
paper, painter’s colors and tea. 

The Tea Thrown Overboard. 

The colonists were again violently excited. 
The corresponding committees, which had 
been forming throughout the colonies for the 
last two years, excited resistance, declaring 
such as aided directly or indirectly in these 
violations of liberty, enemies to their country. 
The consequence was that the cargoes of tea, 
sent to New York and Philadelphia, were 
sent back: and those sent to Charleston, 
stored, but not offered for sale. The tea 
ships, intended for the supply of Boston, after 
the inhabitants had tried in vain to have them 
returned, they being consigned to the re¬ 
lations of Governor Hutchinson, were entered 
by about seventeen persons in the disguise 
of Indians, and three hundred and forty-two 
chests of tea were thrown into the dock, no 
other damage being done. 

In January, 1775, the Earl of Chatham 
brought forward a conciliatory bill in the 
House of Peers, which was rejected two to 
one. Lord North, the Prime Minister, intro¬ 
duced a bill for restraining the trade of the 
New England colonies. Receiving informa¬ 
tion of the general opposition in the southern 
colonies, he introduced another bill, equally 
restraining their trade, but excepting North 
Carolina, Delaware and New York. 

The time had how come for testing the 
nerve of the colonists. An attempt was 
made by the British troops to seize the mili¬ 
tary stores at Concord, April 19, but they 
had to encounter the armed opposition of the 
militia at Concord and Lexington. Boston 





THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


44? 


was now blockaded. Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point were taken. The battle of BunkeFs 

- n i 

Hill followed, and an unsuccessful expedition 
against Canada preceded the Declaration of 
Independence. 

On May io, 1775, the Continental Con¬ 
gress met at Philadelphia, and on June 15, 
unanimously elected George Washington, 
theri a member from Virginia, Commander- 
in-Chief of the forces raised, and to be raised, 
for the defence of the colonies. June 7, 1776, 
Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, made a 
motion in Congress, for declaring the colonies 
free and independent. After much debate, 
on the Fourth of July, the thirteen colonies 
were declared free and independent, under 
the title of The United States of America. 

Gallant Defence of the Fort. 

An attempt was made in June and July, 
with 3000 British troops, under the com¬ 
mand of General Clinton and Sir Peter Parker, 
to destroy the fort on Sullivan’s Island, near 
Charleston (S. C.). The fort was defended 
by Colonel Moultrie with about 400 men. 
After an action of ten hours, the British were 
forced to retire with a loss of about 200 men. 
Ten Americans were killed and 20 wounded. 

Soon after the evacuation of Boston by 
the British troops, March 17, Washington 
made his headquarters at the city of New 
York, with the principal part of the army. 
British troops to the number of 24,000 men 
under Lord Howe, and his brother, Sir 
William Howe, landed, August 22, on Long 
Island near the Narrows, about nine miles 
from the city. The American forces, at this 
time, amounted to upwards of 17,000 men, 
and those principally raw recruits. 

A battle was fought on Long Island, 
August 27, in which the Americans were 
defeated. The battle of White Plains took 
place on October 28. The retreat of the 


American forces through the Jerseys and 

# 4 c- 1 

apross the Delaware followed ; the battles 
of Trenton, December 26, and Princeton,, 
January 3, 1777, were also among the events 
of this period. 

The campaign of 1777 closed under better 
circumstances. General Burgoyne surren¬ 
dered at Saratoga, October 17. In 1778 a 
treaty of commerce and alliance was made 
between Louis XVI and the Commissioners 
of the United States, on February 6th. 
French troops soon after arrived. Various 
military operations ensued. In the Southern 
States, where there was no regular American 
army, the partisan warfare kept up by Marion, 
Sumter, Morgan, and Green, thinned the 
ranks of their enemies. On October 19, 1781, 
Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. The 
fall of this large British army may be con¬ 
sidered as the closing of the war. 

Public Thanksgiving. 

General Washington ordered divine service 
in the different divisions and brigades. Con¬ 
gress went in solemn procession to the Dutch 
Lutheran Church in Philadelphia, returned 
thanks to Almighty God for the success 
of the combined armies, and recommended 
a day of general thanksgiving and prayer 
throughout the United States. 

Savannah was evacuated in July, 1782, and 
Charleston in December. Great Britain ac¬ 
knowledged our independence November 30, 
1782. Holland acknowledged the independ¬ 
ence of the United States in April; Sweden 
in February, 1783 ; Denmark in the same 
month ; Spain in March ; Russia in July. 

The debt of the United States, at the close 
of the war, was $40,000,000. Congress had 
power to make war, and to create debts, but 
no power to carry on the war, nor ability to 
pay debts, but by appeals or recommenda¬ 
tions to thirteen independent sovereignties^ 






448 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


whose unanimity alone, seldom to be expected 
could support public credit, or give efficacy 
to the proceedings of Congress. 

The new Federal Government was estab¬ 
lished in 1789. Washington was unani¬ 
mously chosen first President, and John 
Adams Vice-President. Mr. Jefferson was 
selected for the Department of State. 

Depredations by France. 

The Indian War and an insurrection in the 
western part of Pennsylvania, on account of 
the tax on domestic spirits were favorably 
terminated. The insults and maritime dep¬ 
redations committed by the French, induced 
America to take up arms in defence of her 
rights, but a change of rulers in France pre¬ 
vented the effusion of blood. On the retire¬ 
ment of Washington, John Adams was 
elected to succeed him, and in 1801, Thomas 
Jefferson was chosen the third President of 
the United States. 

The claim of searching American vessels, 
and impressing from them British seamen, 
and the British orders in council prohibiting 
the exportations of the United States, together 
with other outrages committed by the Brit¬ 
ish, produced a declaration of war against 
Great Britain in June, 1812. The successes 
of the British were but few and trifling, while 
the American navy triumphed in a series of 
brilliant exploits, and the gallant defence of 

New Orleans by Gen. Andrew Jackson, 
crowned the American arms with laurels. 

Peace was concluded at Ghent, December 24, 
1814. 

The next great event of national import¬ 
ance was the war with Mexico. What is 
now known as Texas was claimed by that 
country. The territory was sparsely settled, 
mainly by adventurers from the Southern 
States. In 1836 Texas revolted from Mexico 
and established a Republic. In 1845 Texas 


was annexed or re-annexed to the United 
States and admitted as a State. A dispute 
with Mexico at once arose as to its Western 
boundary and war followed, the Union forces 
being commanded by Gen. Zachary Taylor 
and Gen. Winfield Scott. The war resulted 
disastrously to the Mexicans under Gen. 
Santa Anna, and a treaty of peace was con¬ 
cluded in 1848. 

The Irrepressible Conflict. 

The subject of slavery created a growing 
agitation throughout the country, which 
resulted in the formation of the Republican 
party in 1856, with Col. John C. Fremont 
as its candidate for the Presidency. It 
sprang rapidly into power, but failed to 
obtain a majority of the votes of the Elec¬ 
toral College. The agitation of the subject 
of slavery continued with great vigor and 
bitterness. Upon the election of Abraham 
Lincoln as President in i860, eleven of the 
Southern States seceded and formed an in¬ 
dependent government. 

The people of the North resisted the dis¬ 
memberment of the Union and the great 
Civil War followed. In January, 1863, 
President Lincoln, by proclamation declared 
the slaves in the part of the South then in 
rebellion, free. The character of the strug¬ 
gle was at once changed in the eyes of for¬ 
eigners, and the sympathy of the outside 
world turned gradually to the North. The 
struggle between the North and the South 
was one of vast magnitude. Sanguinary 
battles were fought on land and water. At 
length the Federal forces, under Gen. Ulysses 
S. Grant, were victorious, and on April 9, 
1865, the Confederate army, under Gen. 
Robert E. Lee, surrendered at Appomattox 
Court House, Va. 

On April 15, 1865, President Lincoln was 
assassinated at Washington, and an attempt 





THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


449 


was made upon the life of Mr. Seward, Sec¬ 
retary of State. The war had cost the nation 
some $ 10,000,000,000. 

The seceded States were again taken into 
the Union on conditions contained in the 
13th, 14th and 15th amendments to the Con¬ 
stitution, abolishing slavery, and giving the 
negro the right to vote. In 1867 the United 
States purchased Alaska from Russia, the 
principal result of which up to the present 
time has been recurring complications with 
Great Britain as to the right to capture seals. 

The Democratic Party. 

From Lincoln onward till 1884, the presi¬ 
dents had all been Republicans—Johnson, 
Grant, Hayes, Garfield and Arthur. In 1884 
the Democratic party, reorganized and con¬ 
taining many of the young men of the North 
who had grown up since the war, elected its 
candidate, Mr. Cleveland, over Mr. Blaine. 
In 1888 the Democrats made the campaign 
on the basis of a reformed tariff in the direc¬ 
tion of less protection. The Republicans 
won, Mr. Harrison becoming President, and 
by passing what are known as the McKinley 
Bill and the Administrative Bill reformed the 
tariff in the direction of protection to Ameri¬ 
can industries. 

In 1890 a House of Representatives over¬ 
whelmingly Democratic was elected. 

In 1892 the election resulted in the return 
of the Democratic candidate, Mr. Cleveland, 
by a very large majority over Mr. Harrison. 
Mr. Cleveland was inaugurated on March 4, 
1893. 

On the first of May following, the World’s 
Fair was opened at Chicago, the object of 
which was to commemorate the four hun¬ 
dredth anniversary of the discovery of Amer¬ 
ica by Columbus. 

The elections of November, 1894, resulted 
in Republican victories all over the Union. 

The Presidential campaign of 1896, which 

29 


was one of unusual excitement on account 
of the monetary questions involved, resulted 
in the election of Hon. William McKinley 
as President and Hon. Garret A. Hobart as 
Vice-President, the former of Ohio and the 
latter of New Jersey. Mr. McKinley was 
inaugurated March 4, 1897. 

The insurrection which broke out in Cuba 
in 1895 continued, and was a subject of grave 
consideration by our Government. On the 
15th of February, 1898, the United States 
battleship Maine was destroyed in the harbor 
of Havana, resulting in the death of 266 offi¬ 
cers and men. This unfortunate incident had 
much to do in precipitating the war with 
Spain, which was declared by the United 
States, April 21, 1898. 

Naval Battle of Manila. 

The coast of Cuba was at once blockaded by 
the North Atlantic squadron. On May 1st, 
the United States Asiatic fleet, under Admiral 
Dewey, destroyed the Spanish squadron in 
the harbor of Manila, gaining thereby a great 
naval victory. Subsequently, on the 13th of 
August, Manila was bombarded and occupied 
by forces under Admiral Dewey. 

An attack on Santiago de Cuba by United 
States troops under command of General 
Shafter resulted in the capture of that city in 
the early part of July. On the 3rd of the 
same month the Spanish squadron, under 
Admiral Cervera, attempted to escape from 
the harbor of Santiago and was totally de¬ 
stroyed by the United States fleet. A treaty 
of peace between Spain and the United States 
followed, which was signed by the Commis¬ 
sioners of the two countries on December 
10th, and ratified by the United States Senate, 
February 6, 1899. 

The United States forces captured Iloilo, 
the capital of the Island of Panay, on Febru¬ 
ary nth. The Islands of Negros and Cebu 
submitted on the 21st. 






450 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 



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THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


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THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 



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AUTOGRAPHS OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
























GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. 







COAT-OF-ARMS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF NEW JERSEY. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF DELAWARE. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF RHODE ISLAND. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF VIRGINIA. 









COAT-OF-ARMS OF NEW YORK. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF MARYLAND. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF CONNECTICUT. 



1 


453 


























































COAT-OF-ARMS OF NORTH CAROLINA. 




COAT-OF-ARMS OF OHIO. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF INDIANA. 




COAT-OF-ARMS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF TENNESSEE. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF LOUISANA. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF MISSISSIPPI. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF ALABAMA. 


4o 4 












































































COAT-OF-ARMS OF MAINE. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF ARKANSAS. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF IOWA. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF TEXAS. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF CALIFORNIA. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF OREGON. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF MISSOURI. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF MICHIGAN. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF FLORIDA. 




COAT-OF-ARMS OF WISCONSIN. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF MINNESOTA. 



COAT-OF-ARMS OF KANSAS. 


455 



























































COAT-OF-ARMS OF WEST VIRGINIA. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF UTAH. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF MONTANA. 


'OAT-OF-ARMS OF COLORADO. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF SOUTH DAKOTA. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF NORTH DAKOTA. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF IDAHO. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF WASHINGTON. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF NEVADA. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF WYOMING. 


COAT-OF-ARMS OF NEBRASKA. 


4 50 






















































































U. S. REVENUE. 





FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. 






















































































































































ECUADOR. 


DENMARK. 


RUSSIA. 




FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. 

---—©• g&e*—- 0 —----- 














































































































































PHILADELPHIA CITY. 


SWEDEN. 


LIBERIA. 






BELGIUM. 


MEXICO. 


EGYPT. 


FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. 
















































































































































SWITZERLAND. 




CHINA. 







PERSIA. 


HAYT1. 


NEW GRANADA. 


FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. 


















































































































































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


457 


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N 1534 Jacques Cartier, a French 
navigator, a native of St. Malo, 
set out from that port with two 
small vessels of twenty tons 
each, landed on the shores of 
Gaspe (now part of the prov¬ 
ince of Quebec), and took 
possession of the country in the name of 
his sovereign, Francis I. He went again in 
the following year (1535), passed up the 
gulf and river, which he named the St. Law¬ 
rence, and reached Stadacone, the site of 
the present city of Quebec. Continuing his 
voyage, he arrived at Hochelago, another 
Indian town, and gave it the name of Mont 
Royal, since corrupted into Montreal. 

After passing the winter at Stadacone, he 
returned to France. But little or nothing 
was done to promote the colonization of the 
country until 1608, when Samuel de Champ¬ 
lain, a Frenchman of gentle birth, maritime 
and military experience, and much religious 
enthusiasm, visited Canada for the third time, 
with the object of extending Christianity and 
developing trade and commerce, and founded 
the city of Quebec, the name of which is 
said to be derived from an Indian word 
kebec, “ the rock.” 

The control of the immense region, ex¬ 
tending eastward to Acadia (Nova Scotia), 
westward to Lake Superior, and down the 
Mississippi as far as the Gulf of Mexico, 
was from this time until 1763 claimed by 
France. Recollet and Jesuit missionaries 
traversed it in all directions, suffering great 
hardships in their endeavors to convert the 
Indians. Their work was watched with 


much enthusiasm in France, and it is ad¬ 
mitted that they were the first explorers of 
the country and the pioneers of civilization 
in the Far West. 

The claims of France were not, however, 
undisputed, as is shown by the grant of a 
charter in 1670 by Charles II to Prince 
Rupert and his company, known ever since 
as the Hudson Bay Company of the exclu¬ 
sive right of trading in the territory watered 
by streams flowing into Hudson Bay. As 
already mentioned, they gave up their ex¬ 
clusive rights in 1869 on certain conditions, 
among others, a money payment of ^300,000 
and a large grant of land. 

Long and Bitter Struggle. 

The struggle between Great Britain and 
France for supremacy in North America was 
long and bitter, but it terminated finally in 
1763 by the cession to the former under the 
Treaty of Paris of Canada with all its de¬ 
pendencies, except the Islands of St. Pierre 
and Miquelon, which were retained as fishing 
stations, not to be fortified or garrisoned. 
Hudson Bay with the adjacent territory, 
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland had been 
previously transferred to England by the 
Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The population 
of Canada in 1763 was about 70,000, of 
Nova Scotia, 8000. 

No time was lost in attempting to adapt 
British institutions to the new possession ; 
but considerable friction occurred for some 
years, and it was not altogether allayed by 
the passing in 1774 of what is known as the 
Quebec Act. This gave the French-Cana- 


















458 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 


dians the free exercise of their religion, and 
secured their civil rights, laws and customs. 
It annexed large territories to Quebec, in¬ 
cluding that part of the United States now 
forming Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, 
Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, which passed 
from Great Britain in 1783. 

Quebec was eventually in 1791 divided 
into Upper and Lower Canada; but this did 
not prove satisfactory in either province, 
leading to conflicts between the popular 
and elected assemblies and the nominated 
or official councils, and ultimately to the 
unsuccessful rebellion in 1837-38. 


The representatives from each province in 
the united parliament were equal in number. 
Upper Canada, however, made greater pro¬ 
gress than Lower Canada (the population 
in 185 1 was 952,004and 890,261 respectively, 
and in 1861, 1,396,061 and 1,111,566), and 
agitated for an additional number of members 
and claimed other concessions, but the de¬ 
mands were always opposed by the latter. 
The consequence was frequent legislative 
deadlocks and continual difficulties. Such 
was the state of things in 1864. 

It is now necessary to refer to the other 
colonies on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. 



UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO. 


In accordance with Lord Durham’s rec¬ 
ommendations, the two provinces were re¬ 
united in 1840 (population of Upper Canada, 
450,000; of Lower Canada, 650,000), but 
the union was not a success politically, 
although it indirectly led to the great con¬ 
federation in 1867. It should be mentioned 
that the inhabitants of Upper Canada consisted 
largely of United Empire loyalists, who re¬ 
mained loyal to British institutions, and who 
left the United States at the close of the War 
of Independence, while those of Lower Canada 
were almost exclusively French-Canadians. 


In 1770 St. John Island (renamed Prince 
Edward Island in 1780), and in 1784 New 
Brunswick, were formed out of Nova Scotia 
into separate colonies. In 1858, owing to 
the rush for gold and the influx of popula¬ 
tion, British Columbia was make a crown 
colony, and in 1866 Vancouver Island was 
joined to it. In 1864 the maritime pro¬ 
vinces were discussing the desirability of 
local confederation, and advantage of the 
opportunity was taken by Canada to pro¬ 
pose a broader scheme to cover all British 
North America, and after several confer- 



















































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 


450 


ences a basis of union was agreed upon 
which resulted in the formation of the Do¬ 
minion. 

Since the confederation of the provinces, 
the chief events have been as follows : The 
Red River Rebellion, which collapsed in 
August, 1870; treaty of Washington, 1871, 
dealing with fisheries and the mutual use of 
certain canals ; outbreak of half-breeds under 
Louis Riel in March, 1885, resulting in the 
speedy suppression of the rebellion and Riel’s 
execution ; and the treaty for the settlement 
of the fisheries dispute, signed by the British 


and corruption were made in Newfoundland 
during the same year and the ministry was 
compelled to resign, April 11. Much excite¬ 
ment was caused throughout the country on 
account of the Manitoba school question in¬ 
volving the sectarian issue ; judgment was 
pronounced in favor of the minority, Febru¬ 
ary 6, 1895. This was followed by a re¬ 
medial order which was adopted by the 
Cabinet Council, March 19. 

After a heated campaign the New Bruns¬ 
wick elections resulted in a complete victory 
for the government, by a vote of 35 to 8, 



PARLIAMENT HOUSE, OTTAWA. 


and United States representatives February 
15, 1888. Sir John MacDonald died June 
7, 1891, his funeral being attended by a vast 
concourse of people. In October the Do¬ 
minion Government refused to acquiesce in 
the copyright treaty between England and I 
the United States, claiming that the treaty 
was not international. 

The voting in Ontario on the Prohibition 
Plebiscite resulted in a prohibition majority 
of 81,769. This was in 1894 and shows the 
widespread agitation at this time upon the 
question of temperance. Charges of bribery 


October 17, 1895. Canada exports chiefly 
coal, gold, copper, iron, phosphates, salt, 
mineral oils and gypsum. Gold mines are 
worked in Nova Scotia and other parts of 
the country. The fisheries, as regards the 
area of water available, are the largest in the 
world. A bounty is offered by the govern¬ 
ment for the vessels making the largest 
catch. The canal and river improvements 
have cost large sums of money and are 
works of great utility and importance. 
English is generally spoken in the Dominion, 
but in some parts of the province of Quebec 



































































460 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 


French is the only language understood. 
In the Dominion, Quebec and Manitoba 
Parliaments, members may address the 


House in either language. In Quebec prov¬ 
ince the speeches are usually in French, which 
seems to retain a strong hold upon the people. 



MEXICO 












W HEN the Spaniards, under Cortez, 
commenced the conquest of Mexico 
in 1519, they found the native In¬ 
dians far advanced in civilization, wealthy and 
hospitable. They had some knowledge of 


declared itself independent in 1820, and ha- 
so continued to the present time. 

In 1825 a treaty of commerce was formed 
with Great Britain. The expulsion of the 
Spaniards was decreed in 1829, and a Span- 



ENTRY OF THE FRENCH INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO. 


art and architecture, and some ideas of civi¬ 
lized life. They had an instinctive dread of 
the foreigners, and yet treated them with 
kindness. The country continued under the 
jurisdiction of a Spanish viceroy, until it 


ish expedition against Mexico was unsuc¬ 
cessful. On the nth of May, 1833, after a 
revolution such as have been common in 
Mexico, Santa Ann was made President. 
This resulted in the independence of Mexico,, 








































































































































































































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


461 


which was recognized by Brazil in 1830 and 
by Spain in 1836. 

In 1845 occurred the war between Mexico 
and the United States respecting the posses¬ 
sion of Texas, and the Americans having 
been victorious, a treaty of peace was rati¬ 
fied May 19, 1848. Since this time there 
has been no rupture of peaceful relations 
between the two countries. 

In 1863 an assembly of notables at the 
city of Mexico decided on the establishment 
of a limited hereditary monarchy, with a 
Roman Catholic Prince as Emperor, and 
offered the crown to the Achduke Maxi¬ 
milian of Austria. The attempt, aided by 
the French, proved unsuccessful, and after a 
condition amounting to civil war; the Repub¬ 
lican element of Mexico was successful, and 
Maximilian was seized and shot, June 19, 
1867. The city of Mexico which was held 
by the monarchial party was taken by the 


opposing forces after a siege of sixty-seven 
days, and the Republic was re-established. 

During the same year the Mexican Con¬ 
gress assembled, Jaurez acting as provisional 
president; he was re-elected in December of 
the same year. A series of insurrections 
followed through the efforts of different 
parties to obtain control of the government. 
The insurgent Diaz defeated the government 
troops, entered the city of Mexico and 
assumed power as provisional president in 
November, 1876. Diaz retained the presi¬ 
dency of the Republic, and continued his 
administration. 

Mexico is rich in mines and is a largr 
exporter of coffee and tobacco. In addi¬ 
tion to these, the chief agricultural product? 
are maize, barley, wheat, beans, cotton, 
sugar cane, rice, cocoa and vanilla. Large 
numbers of cattle are reared in Mexico for 
the United States and other countries. 



« T is a well-known fact of history 
that the western part of Eng¬ 
land was known to the Phoeni¬ 
cians, and was resorted io by 
them for its tin, about four cent¬ 
uries B. C. ; hence the whole 
^ country received the name of the 
Cassiterrides (“ Tin Islands ”). When invaded 
by Caesar, B. C. 55, it was called Britain , or 
sometimes Albion. The Romans subdued all 
England, and some parts of Scotland and 
Wales, but did not reach Ireland, though its 
existence was known to them. 


In the third century of the Christian era, 
adventurers from the opposite coasts of Ger¬ 
many settled in various parts, and joined with 
the Britons in forcing the Romans to abandon 
the Island, A. D. 410, after a rule of about 
400 years, traces of which still remain in 
every quarter. The Britons, being divided 
into as many hostile states as they had cities, 
were unable to resist the fresh hordes (now 
called Saxons and Angles) that poured into 
the island, and about 459 the kingdom of 
Kent was founded. 

The Britons still fought stubbornly, but 






































































































































































462 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


were gradually driven westward, and by the 
year 584 the kingdom of Mercia was estab¬ 
lished, being the last of the seven kingdoms 
founded by the invaders, whence the name 
of the Heptarchy. In 827, Egbert, king of 
Wessex, obtained the supremacy over his 
rivals, and declared himself King of England. 


His descendants, of whom Alfred the Great 
yas the most illustrious, held the throne for 
more than 200 years, but the country suffered 
greatly during the time from the ravages of 
the Danes, who, under Canute and his sons, 
became its ruler for 25 years (1017-1042). 
The Saxon line was restored in the person 
of Edward the Confessor, to whom Harold 


succeeded; but his death in the battle of 
Hastings, 1066, gave England into the hands 
of the Norman kings, who reigned from 1066 
to 1154. 

Then came the Plantagenets (11 54 “ 1 4 ^ 5 ) \ 
the Tudors (1485—1603); and the Stuarts 
(1603—1714), to whom the House of Bruns¬ 
wick succeeded on the death of Q"ueen 
Anne. The conquest of Ireland was 
begun in the year 1170, but can hardly 
be regarded as completed till the sur¬ 
render of Limerick in 1691. Wales 
was conquered by Edward I. in 1282, 
and formally annexed to England by 
Henry VIII. in 1536. 

Alliance with France. 

Scotland successfully resisted the 
efforts of Edward I. to subjugate it, 
maintained for ages a close alliance 
with France, and in 1603 gave a ruler 
to England in the person of James 
VI., who became James I. of Great 
Britain, a title then first assumed. 
This was but a personal union, but the 
political union of the two kingdoms 
was effected under Queen Anne in 
1707. Ireland which had been hith¬ 
erto only styled a lordship, was de¬ 
clared a kingdom in 1542, and this 
kingdom declared a member of the 
triple monarchy of Great Britain and 
Ireland by the Act of Union, 1801. 

Early in the present century there 
was a determined and successful effort 
by the Irish Catholics to obtain religious 
emancipation. At length the leaders of the 
Whig party made common cause with the 
classes hitherto excluded from government, 
and backed at once by the traders and 
artisans, forced upon an unwilling Parliament 
the Great Reform Bill of 1832, which marked 
an important epoch in English history. 


































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


463 


From this time there has been a marked 
change both in the position of England and 
in the character of the questions which have 
excited public interest. Still mistress of the 
sea, and possessed through its colonies of an 
empire distributed in every corner of the 
globe, England has found enough to do in 
the preservation and improvement of this 
gigantic dominion, and has as far as possible 
abstained from interference in continental 
quarrels. 

Vast Power and Influence. 

Once and again it has shown its influence. 
In 1848, the year of revolutions, and in the 
subsequent consolidation of Italy, its sympa¬ 
thies were not hidden, but there was no 
thought of active interference. It allowed 
the great American Republic to settle its 
disputes uninterrupted, save by sympathy at 
first shown to the South. It adopted the 
same attitude of non-intervention in the 
Prussian wars against Denmark, against 
Austria and against France. It has onl); . 
been in questions which seemed to touch the 
safety of its eastern empire that it has drawn 
the sword. 

The Crimean War was avowedly for the 
maintenance of Turkey as a check upon 
Russia, which was threatening the road to 
India. Of the same class have been the wars 
. in Egypt and Afghanistan. Still more directly 
when India itself burst into insurrection was 
England called upon to interfere and engage 
in the victorious but terrible campaigns which 
marked the suppression of the mutiny. The 
other wars, and they are not few, have all 
been connected with mercantile and co¬ 
lonial interests. The questions which have 
chiefly moved men’s minds have been of a 
social or mercantile character. 

The extension of the electoral franchise, 
the reform of municipalities, the repeal of the 


corn laws, the establishment of free trade, 
the improvement of the condition of the 
working classes, the regulation of strikes and 
trades-unions, a national system of education, 
and of late years the question of the manag- 
ment of Ireland, have been the points round 
which political interest has centred. They 
are the fitting questions to occupy a de¬ 
mocracy. To that phase of political life 
in one way or other England is fast has¬ 
tening. 

It has still to be seen whether under such 
conditions means will be found to keep to¬ 
gether those colonies which are already to 
all intents and purposes independent, and to 
preserve to the empire the magnificent po¬ 
sition which the gradual development of 
physical and political forces has secured. 

Table of Kings and Queens of England. 


NORMAN RINE. 

Began to Reign. 

William I.October 14, 1066 

William II .September 9, 1087 

Henry I.August 2, 1100 

Stephen.December 2, 1135 

FA MIRY OF PRANTAGENET. 

Henry II.October 25, 1154 

Richard I.July 6, 1189 

John.April 6, 1199 

Henry III.October 19, 1216 

Edward I. November 16, 1272 

Edward II. July 7 , 1307 

Edward III.January 24, 1326 

Richard II.June 21, 1377 

HOUSE OF RANCASTER. 

Henry IV....September 29, 1399. 

Henry V...March 23, 1413 

Henry VI.August 31, 1422 

HOUSE OF YORK. 

Edward IV. .March 1, 1461 

Edward V.April 9, 1483 

Richard III.June 22, 1483 

YORK AND RANCASTER UNITED IN THE 
HOUSE OF TUDOR. 

Henry VII. of Lan.August 22, 1485 

Henry VIII.April 22, 1509- 

























464 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


Edward VI. January 28, 1547 

Mary I.July 6, 1553 

Elizabeth.November 17, 1558 

HOUSE OF STUART. 

James I.March 24, 1603 

Charles I.March 27, 1625 

[THE COMMONWEALTH FROM 1 649 TO l66o, CROM¬ 
WELL, PROTECTOR.] 

Charles II.January 30, 1660 

James II... ..February 6, 1685 


William and Mary.February 13, 1689 

William alone.from December 28, 1694 

Anne.March 8, 1702 

BRUNSWICK FAMIEY. 

George I.August 1, I 7 r 4 

George II.June 11, I 7 2 7 

George III.October 25, 1760 

George IV.January 29, 1820 

William IV.June 26, 1830 

Victoria. June 20, 1837 




gJV ROM historic records it appears 
that the first inhabitants of 
Scotland were Celts, and pro¬ 
bably were the same as the 
early Britons,Welsh and Irish. 
They defended themselves 
against the Romans, who 
could never subdue the people of the High¬ 
lands. They were so troublesome that the 
Roman generals caused a wall to be built 
from the Solway Firth to the river Tyne. 

Thus the Scots were shut up in their own 
country, like a herd of unruly cattle; but 
they contrived to get over the wall pretty 
often. In three or four hundred years after 
Christ a tribe of Goths, called Piets, came 
over from the continent and settled in the 
country. These inhabited the Lowlands, 
and lived by agriculture. The Scots dwelt 
»n the mountains, carrying on war, and sub¬ 
sisting by the chase. 

Thus the nation become divided into High¬ 
landers and Lowlanders, and thus, to some 
extent, the people remain to this day. They 
live peaceably now, but in early days they 
quarreled fiercely, In 839, it is said that 


Kenneth II., who was a Highland leader, 
subdued the Piets, and became first king of 
all Scotland. From this time to Edward I. 
of England, there was a constant change of 
sovereigns. Edward Longshanks, the same 
that subdued Wales, made war upon the 
Scotch, imprisoned Wallace, and had pre¬ 
pared a great army for the final subjugation 
of Scotland, when he died. Edward II., was 
beaten by Robert Bruce at the glorious bat¬ 
tle of Bannockburn. This event occurred 
in 1313, and secured the freedom of Scot¬ 
land, which had been threatened by the 
English kings. 

Incessant Warfare. 

From this time the history of Scotland 
tells of little but civil v/ars and bloody bat¬ 
tles with England, till the time of James V. 
He assumed the reins of government in 
1 5 1 3 , at the age of eighteen months. He 
afterwards lost the confidence of his army, 
and they deserted him in the hour of need. 
This broke his heart, and he starved himself 
to death in 1542 at the age of thirty-one. 

His daughter was the beautiful and un- 





































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


465 


fortunate Mary Queen of Scots, as she is 
called, and who was educated in France, 
and was not only very handsome, but very I 
accomplished. While she was yet a young 
lady she was taken to Scotland and became 
queen. But beauty, accomplishments and 
power, cannot insure happiness. Mary’s 
kingdom was in a state of great trouble; 
the people were divided among themselves, 
and Mary found it impossible to govern 
them. At length she became afraid that 
they would kill her, and, to save her life, 
she went to England and placed herself un¬ 
der the protection of Elizabeth, who caused 
her to be put in prison, and finally took her 
life, thus ending her many misfortunes. 


The son of Mary, James VI. of Scotland, 
succeeded his mother, and after the death of 
Elizabeth he became King of England also, 
under the title of James I. Though he 
lived in England he did not forget Scotland. 
He loved learning and caused schools to be 
established in his native country. These 
schools are continued to this day, and there¬ 
fore it is very uncommon to meet with a 
Scotchman who is wholly uneducated. 

From the time of King James, in 1603, 
Scotland has been attached to the British 
crown. She has sometimes rebelled, and in 
the cause of the Stuarts she fought a good 
many battles. But Scotland has long been a 
peaceful portion of the British kingdom. 



IRELAND 





HE origin of the ancient Irish 
race is involved in much ob¬ 
scurity ; ethnologists, how¬ 
ever, generally agree in de¬ 
scribing it as belonging to 
the old Brito-Celtic stock. 
Under the name of Scoti, they 
became known to the Romans by their in¬ 
cursions upon Britain. In the third century 
A. D., through the supposed influence of 
St. Patrick, the natives of the island became 
Christianized, and by the sixth, learning and 
civilization had become largely diffused 
throughout its limits. 

In 1014 A. D., the Danish invaders were 
overthrown by King Brian Boru in the bat¬ 
tle of Clontarf. In 1155, Pope Adrian IV. 
granted Ireland, by special bull, to Henry II. 

30 


of England, and the island received shortly 
afterward a permanent English colonization. 
In 1210 King John granted a Charter to the 
Irish, which received confirmation at the 
hands of his son, Henry III. 

In the sixteenth century, Henry VIII. in¬ 
troduced the Reformed Faith, and assumed 
the title of King of Ireland. Under James I. 
the province of Ulster received a large im¬ 
migration of Scottish and English settlers, 
who introduced Presbyterianism. In 1641, 
the Catholic population raised a formidable 
revolt against the English Protestants, 40,000 
of whom were killed in Ulster alone. 

Anarchy continued to prevail till 1649, 
when the English republican, Cromwell, 
crushed it out with a hand of iron. In 1688, 
the Irish people—except the Ulster Protest- 













466 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


ants—espoused the cause of James II.—a 
cause extinguished by the defeats of Boyne 
and Aughrim. 

In 1798, the Irish Catholics again rose in 
revolt, and received some trifling aid from 
France; this insurrection ended in their be¬ 
ing more firmly riveted to England than 
before. In 1800, the Irish Parliament voted 
the legislative union of Ireland with England ; 
in 1829, the Catholic Emancipation Bill 
passed the Imperial Parliament; in 1848, a 
so-called “manifesto” of the “Young Ire¬ 
land party” provoked an unsuccessful at¬ 
tempt at insurrection under William Smith 
O’Brien and others; and since then the 
Fenians , Home Rulers, Land Leaguers and 
other modern partisans of Irish Independ¬ 
ence have been a cause of anxiety and 
trouble to the British Government. 

The government is semi-independent, an 


English viceroy, under the title of Lord Lieu¬ 
tenant, holding almost regal sway. The 
Roman Catholic is the prevailing form of 
religion, excepting in Ulster, in which prov¬ 
ince Presbyterianism is largely in the ascen¬ 
dant. In 1870, the Anglican Church in 
Ireland, heretofore based on a similar foun¬ 
dation to that which it holds in the sister- 
kingdom, was disestablished by Act of Parlia¬ 
ment, and all churches therefore made self- 
supporting. 

Ireland is well supplied with educational 
institutions, having three universities—those 
of Trinity College, Dublin (Protestant), May- 
nooth (Roman Catholic), and the Queen’s 
University—besides a large number of en¬ 
dowed schools, and an admirable system of 
mixed schools where children of all denomi¬ 
nations may be taught. The legal execu¬ 
tive is similar to that of England. 


EFORE the time of Caesar, the 
whole of France was known to 
the Romans under the name of 
Transalpine Gaul; but after its 
conquest it was divided into the 
four provinces of Provmcia Ro- 
manorum (Provence), Gallia, 
Aqidtanica, Celtica and Belgica. In the fifth 
century the Germanic nations began to pour 
in an irresistible torrent over Gaul; but the 
Franks, in course of time, absorbed all the 
other tribes of that country, and Pharamond, 
their chief, in 420, is considered the founder 
of the French monarchy. 



In 751 the Carlovingian dynasty, com¬ 
menced in the person of Pepin le Bref, was 
carried to the zenith of its power and glory 
by Charlemagne, 768-814, and ended with 
Louis V. in 987. Phe Capetian race gave 
fifteen kings to France, beginning with Hugh 
Capet and ending with Charles V., 1328. 

The house of Valois ruled France under 
thirteen kings, beginning with Philip VI. and 
ending with Henri III., 1589. In that year 
Henri I\ . inaugurated the House of Bourbon. 
Louis XIII. succeeded in 1610; Louis XIV. 
in 1643; Louis XV. in 1715? and Louis 
XVI. in 1774. 















THE COUNTRIES 

/ 

In 1789, broke out that tremendous revo¬ 
lution which cost Louis XVI. his crown and 
head (1793), destroyed every vestige of the 
previous government and institutions, and 
inaugurated an era of periodical convulsions, 
which, unhappily for this country does not 
yet seem to have terminated. 

Downfall of Napoleon. 

The power was successively held by the 
Convention, 1792 ; the Directory, 1795 ; 
the Consulate, 1799 ; Napoleon I., who 
caused himself to be crowned emperor, 1804, 
and whose downfall dates from the great 
battle of Waterloo, 1815 ; Louis XVIII., the 
representative of the House of Bourbon, who 
was then restored to the throne by the aid 
of the Allied Powers ; Charles X., who suc¬ 
ceeded the latter in 1824 ; Louis Philippe I., 
of the Orleans branch of the Bourbons, who 
was raised to the throne after the revolution 
of July, 1830; the Second Republic, inaugu¬ 
rated after the overthrow of the last-named 
monarch in 1848; and Napoleon III., who, 
after the coup d'etat of 1851, was elected 
emperor. 

In July, 1870, the latter declared war 
against Prussia; his armies were defeated in 
several battles, and himself compelled to 
surrender to the victorious enemy after the 
decisive battle gained by them before Sedan 
in September; and his dethronement was 
decreed by the French Assembly. The war 
. was then unsuccessfully renewed by the Re¬ 
publican Government of National Defence ; 
Paris, besieged by the Germans, resisted 
heroically its invaders for several months, 
but on the eve of being obliged to capitulate 
by sheer starvation, negotiations were entered 
into which resulted, in February, 1871, in a 
disastrous treaty of peace with Germany, by 
which France lost the portions of her terri¬ 
tory included in Alsace-Lorraine, and had 


OF THE WORLD. 467 

also to pay the enormous sum of $1,000,- 
000,000 by way of indemnity, which indem¬ 
nity, however, was paid in full much in ad¬ 
vance of the stipulated period. 

In March, 1871, a revolt broke out in 
Paris, headed by the leaders of the extreme 
Republican party, in conjunction with the 
Socialists. Under the name of the Commune , 
they inaugurated a dictatorial power in the 
French capital, and resisted the authority of 
the National Assembly; hence necessitating 
a second siege, more calamitous than the 
first 

Presidents of the Republic. 

On August 31, 1871, M. Louis Adolphe 
Thiers was nominated by the National As¬ 
sembly President of the French Republic. 
In 1873 (May 24) he was succeeded by 
Marshal MacMahon, and in 1879 by M. 
Grevy, who resigned in 1887, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by M. Carnot. 

On the 23d of June, 1894, President Carnot 
was assassinated at Lyons by an Anarchist. 
M. Cassimer Perier was elected President 
June 27th by the National Assembly. I11 
January, 1895, he resigned his office and 
determined to retire to private life. On the 
17th of the same month the Assembly 
elected as his successor, M. Francois Felix 
Faure. 

France is notably an agricultural countiy. 
The high development of nursery-gardening 
has achieved most remarkable results in 
variety and richness of crops. It may suffice 
to say that, owing to their perfect methods 
of horticulture, the farmers around Paris and 
other large cities succeed in obtaining vege¬ 
tables and fruit to the value of from $300 to 
$800 per acre. The planting of trees and 
the reclamation of unproductive soil go on 
in various parts of France on a large scale. 
Special interest is taken in cattle-raising, and 



468 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


fine breeds of horses are reared in the North 
and Northwest. In some parts of the country 
wool-growing is an extensive industry. The 
exports of cattle, butter, eggs, cheese and 
poultry, especially to England, are very con¬ 
siderable—no less than 70,000,000 pounds 


of butter and 1,000,000,000 eggs being sent 
every year across the channel. 

France is very rich in all kinds of building 
stone, gravel, chalk and plaster, and this 
circumstance has permitted her to build most 
of her cities of excellent stone. 



ROM all that can be collected 
of the early history of Ger¬ 
many (called Germania by the 
Romans), it appears to have 
been divided into many petty 
nations and principalities, many 
of which frequently united un¬ 
der one head or general, both in 
their offensive and defensive wars. The 
Germans maintained a long and aggressive 
warfare against the Romans, but were at 
length kept in check by Germanicus. 

The Romans, nevertheless, prudently con¬ 
tented themselves by making the Rhine and 
the Danube the boundaries of their con¬ 
quests ; they accordingly built fortresses on 
the banks of both those rivers, to prevent the 
incursions of what they termed the barbarous 
nations ; but within about a century after 
Constantine the Great, the Franks, Burgun¬ 
dians, Alemanni, and other German nations, 
broke through those boundaries, and dis¬ 
possessed the Romans of all Gaul, Rhaetia 
and Noricum, which they shared among 
themselves ; but the Franks prevailing over 
the rest, at length established their empire 
over all modern Germany, France and Italy, 
under the conduct of Charlemagne. 

At the demise of this great monarch, Ger¬ 
many became again dissolved into constituent 
states until 843, when the kingdom of Ger¬ 


many arose under the sovereignty of Louis 
le Debonnaire. After being governed by 
the Carlovingians till 887, the monarchy be¬ 
came elective in 911, in the person of Conrad 
I., Duke of Franconia; a Saxon dynasty 
succeeded in 918, and afterward resuscitated 
the empire under Otho the Great, under the 
title of the Holy Roman Empire of the Ger¬ 
man Nation. 

The Throne at Last Established- 

Under the Suabian dynasty, 1138-1190, 
the imperial power attained its zenith. Then 
came the aggressions of the Popes, the feuds 
of the great vassals of the crown, and the 
state of anarchy consequent upon the 
struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghi- 
bellines, succeeded by an interregnum lasting 
from 1254 to 1273. In the latter year the 
empire became reconsolidated by Rudolph 
of Hapsburg, and the throne first placed 
upon a firm basis. 

In 1438, the House of Austria com¬ 
menced its long career as Emperor of Ger¬ 
many, and reached its acme of power and 
prosperity under Charles V. and his imme¬ 
diate successors. The Thirty Years’ War, 
1618—48, then supervened to disintegrate 
the empire, establish the Lutheran religion, 
and give to France the political ascendancy 
on the continent of Europe. For several 












MORTGAGING THE FARM. 



























THE GIANT STEAM HAMMER 





































































SBm 


Wzmm w miiif 


’j/rcos 


CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS NOBLES. 


469 

















































































































470 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


after generations, wars with the last-named 
power culminated, in 1740, in the War of 
the Austrian Succession, which raised the 
House of Lorraine to the imperial throne in 
the person of Francis I. 

At length, in 1804, the ancient German 
empire came to an end, beneath the blows 
of Napoleon I., by the abdication of Francis 
II., who, retaining only his hereditary terri¬ 
tories, became the first Emperor of Austria. 
Ages anterior to this consummation, Ger¬ 
many had been politically transformed (so 
to speak) by the great princes, vassals of the 
empire, into a semi-independent confederacy 
of petty states, represented in the diets. The 
free cities also shared in the distribution of 
political power, and finally resolved them¬ 
selves into the Hanseatic League. 

The Historic Ten Circles. 

Prior to the French Revolution, 1789, 
the empire had become politically distributed 
into ten circles, each circle embracing the 
states of one or more powers—regal, ducal, 
electoral, ecclesiastical or municipal. The 
provincial diets of these circles were subject 
(at all events nominally) to the imperial diet 
convened and presided over by the em¬ 
perors. 

In 1805, Napoleon I., in pursuance of his 
designs for the disintegration of the German 
power as a unity, enlisted on his side certain 
of the circles and electoral powers, which he 
•combined into a body called the Confedera¬ 
tion of the Rhine. He also created for his 
brother Joseph a kingdom out of the Lower 
Rhine provinces, under the name of West¬ 
phalia. In 1809, too, he succeeded in 
absorbing into the French Empire the sea¬ 
board provinces of the old regime, and 
divided them into departments after the 
French manner. In 1813, however, the 
Liberation War broke out, and terminated in 


the redemption of the country, and the ex¬ 
pulsion of the foreign invaders. 

The Congress of Vienna, 1815, divided 
Germany into thirty-nine sovereign states ; 
which number became by various after causes 
reduced to thirty-four, at which it stood prior 
to the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, which 
eliminated Hanover and several other second¬ 
ary states from the German political map, 
and extinguished Austrian influence in Ger¬ 
many proper. Prussia hence became the 
one recognized ruling power in that 
country, and assumed the leadership of 
the states of North Germany, united under 
the title of the North German Confederation . 

Grand Military Alliance. 

In addition, she further increased her po¬ 
litical influence, or rather preponderance, by 
entering into treaties with the South Ger¬ 
man powers of Bavaria, Wurtemberg and 
Baden, providing for a strict international 
military alliance—offensive and defensive— 
and the placing of the armies of those powers 
at the disposal of the German nation, as rep¬ 
resented by Prussia, in time of war. The 
practical results of this wise and astute policy 
bore fruit in the achievements of the united 
German armies in the campaign against 
France, 1870-1 : and the restoration of 
national unity, in the rehabilitation of the Ger¬ 
manic Empire of Barbarossa and Charles V. 
in the person of William I., King of Prussia. 

In 1888, a serious illness of Emperor 
William resulted fatally, March 9th, and his 
son, Prince P rederick IIP, came to the throne. 
His death followed on June 15th, and he was 
succeeded by his son, Emperor William II. 
On April 24, 1895, the German Govern¬ 
ment, in connection with Russia and France, 
protested against the acquisition of Chinese 
territory by Japan. On June 19th, the 
opening of the Baltic Canal was celebrated 






THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


471 


by the Germans with the warships of all 
maritime nations as guests. The occasion 
called forth congratulations for Germany 
from many other governments whose repre¬ 


sentatives participated in the festivities, and 
was regarded as a peaceful demonstration 
intended to afford opportunity for the 
European nations to express their good will. 



OWARDS the close of the 8th 
century the Emperor Charle¬ 
magne founded a jurisdiction 
in Lower Austria, which be¬ 
came a duchy in 1156 and an 
arch-duchy 300 years later. 
In 1 564, Maximillian II., son 
of the great Emperor Charles V., became 
Emperor, with Austria, Hungary and Bo¬ 
hemia for his possessions. But many years 
•elapsed before the whole of Austria was 
united under one government. 

In the 18th century it attained rank as one 
of the great powers of Europe, and up to a 
recent date its influence was all-powerful in 
Germany. Until 1806 its rulers bore the 
title of Emperor of the Romans, but in that 
year the Emperor Francis renounced that 
title and became the first Emperor of Aus¬ 
tria. From 1806 to 1813 Austria w'as men¬ 
aced by the ambitious Napoleon, but made 
such bitter armed patriotic resistance to the 
inroads of this almost invincible warrior, that 
the French victories were shorn of much of 
their glory. The peace of Vienna (October 
14, 1809) took from Austria large posses¬ 
sions. 

But these were restored by the Congress 
of Vienna (1815) after the defeat of Napoleon 
at Waterloo, together with Lombardy and 
Venice, the Illyrian provinces, Dalmatia and 
the Tyrol The close of the reign of Fran¬ 


cis I. was marked by several insurrections 
amongst the Italian provinces, and it was 
with the utmost difficulty that the confeder¬ 
ation was maintained. The Emperor died 
in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, 
Ferdinand I., a weak-minded prince, who 
entrusted the government almost entirely to 
Metternich. The French Revolution (1848) 
caused the Austrian Empire to totter to its 
foundations. The revolutionary spirit mani¬ 
fested itself everywhere, resulting in the ab¬ 
dication of the Emperor in December, and 
the imperial honors were conferred upon his 
nephew, Francis Joseph. 

The Two Months’ War. 

In 1859 diplomatic complications led to a 
rupture of relations with France, which was 
followed by warfare, for two months, until in 
July the two Emperors, Napoleon III. and 
Francis Joseph, consummated the peace of 
Villafranca, Austria giving up Lombardy, 
Italy to be formed into a confederation 
under the presidency of the Pope, and Mo¬ 
dena and Tuscany to be restored to their 
princes. The first constitution of Austria 
was promulgated in i860, followed by a 
patent in 1861, which formed the basis of a 
charter that went into effect in 1867, with 
certain modifications rendered necessary by 
the recognition of Hungary’s independence. 
In 1864 Austria joined Prussia in hostilities 


















472 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


upon the Danish duchies of Schleswig, Hol¬ 
stein and Lauenburg, and the war terminated 
in their acquisition. 

But Austria speedily buttered terrible ret¬ 
ribution for the part she had taken in the 
affair, the difficulty in disposition of the 
provinces bringing on war with her former 
ally. The Italians acted in concert with 
Prussia in hostilities upon Austria, and what 
is called the Seven Days’ War ended in the 
Prussian victory at Koniggratz, which led to 
peace negotiations at Prague, where a treaty 
was signed August 23d. 

By this treaty Austria was shorn of Vene- 
tia and the fortresses of the quadrilateral, 
the dissolution of the German Confederation 


j was recognized, all claim to Holstein and 
Schleswig was given up, and an indemnity 
of 20,000,000 thalers paid. Home affairs 
then claimed the attention of the Emperor. 
The necessity of self-government for Hungary 
was recognized, and on June 8, 1867,Francis 
Joseph was crowned King of Hungary, in 
addition to his title as Emperor of Austria. 

A treaty of alliance with Germany and 
Italy was signed March 13, 1887. This was 
followed by a defensive treaty with Germany 
against Russian or other aggressions, October 
7, 1879. Archduke Rudolph, heir to the 
throne, committed suicide January 30, 1889. 
In December, 1893, a commercial treaty was 
formed with Spain. 



ISTORY records the fact that 
the Scythians and Sarma- 
tians of the country border¬ 
ing on the Don and Dnieper, 
were known to the Greeks 
and Romans of old, as they 
are mentioned hy Herodo¬ 
tus, Strabo and Tacitus. In the earlier cen¬ 
turies of the Christian era successive invas¬ 
ions of Goths, Huns, and other warlike 
peoples swept over the land, and either drove 
out or absorbed the native inhabitants. At 
this point we find the first mention of the 
Slavs, who drove the scattered Finnish tribes 
to the far north and became the founders of 
the Russian people and government. There 
stands in Novgorod a splendid monument 
which was erected in 1862 on the millennial 
anniversary of the foundation of the Russian 
Empire by Ruric the Norman. 


But for many centuries the country was 
divided into practically independent provinces, 
some of which retained their autonomy up 
to a very recent period. The empire was 
divided and again united; it was broken into 
four parts ; became a confederacy, and again, 
under Ivan III. (1462—1505), became a 
nation. 

Christianity was introduced about the year 
950, and two centuries later the greater 
part of the empire was overrun by the Mon¬ 
gols. From 1380 to 1470 tribute was paid 
to the Tartars, but Ivan the Great broke 
their power and his son and successor, Ivan 
the Terrible, contributed much to the great¬ 
ness of Russia. 

Under Peter the Great, the fourth monarch 

of the Romanoff dynasty, Russia emerged 

fiom barbarism, the boyars (noblemen) 

lost their influence, and the countrv assumed 

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474 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


the position which it has ever since retained 
as a leading member of the European family 
of nations. Since the time of Peter its 
national policy has been directed to the ac¬ 
quirement of additional European and Asi¬ 
atic territory, and every reign has seen vast 
possessions added to this already enormous 
power. 

Russia become involved in the general 
European wars of the first fifteen years of 
this century, and destroyed its most re¬ 
nowned city, Moscow, that it might not afford 
shelter to the hated invader, Napoleon. All 
efforts of the various nations which have at 
one time or another been absorbed by Russia 
to regain their independence have been bar¬ 
ren of results; she never gives anything 
back. 

Russia’s Onward March. 

Although her schemes of aggrandizement 
on the Black Sea were temporarily checked 
by the war of 1854-55, in which England, 
France and Sardinia supported the Ottoman 
Empire, Russia has since made greater 
strides east and south, and has almost at¬ 
tained her chief aim, the full and unrestricted 
control of the Black Sea. She presses Eng¬ 
land upon the line of the Himalayas, and 
China finds its great wall an insufficient de¬ 
fence against the disciplined legions of this 
great power. 

Properly speaking, Russia is an Asiatic 
power with great possessions in Europe rather 
than a European power with subject pro¬ 
vinces in Asia, and its march has been and 
continues to be in a directly opposite line to 
the ordinary movement of population and 
empire, which is westward. 

There was much domestic disturbance in 
Russia during the years 1891 and 1892, in 
the former of which the country was dis¬ 
tressed by poor harvests and famine in some 


localities, while in the latter year cholera 
carried off a quarter of a million persons. 
On November 1, 1894, occurred the death of 
Czar Alexander III. at Livadia, aged 49. 
Notwithstanding this recent death in the 
royal family, on the 26th of the same month, 
Czar Nicholas II. wedded the Princess Alix 
of Hesse-Darmstadt. 

Her Power Felt Everywhere. 

For a long time the influence of Russia 
has been paramount in the politics of eastern 
Europe and some parts of Asia. No sooner 
had Japan gained her brilliant victory over 
China in 1894 than the power of Russia 
began to manifest itself in the settlement of 
the terms demanded by the Japanese Gov¬ 
ernment. In the early part of 1896 the 
same strong influence was brought to bear 
upon the Turkish question, which then was 
agitating the world on account of the Ar¬ 
menian Massacres, putting an effectual check 
upon English diplomacy. 

The public income of Russia for 1895 
was estimated at 1,214,378,030 roubles, hav¬ 
ing almost doubled since 1883. The internal 
taxes arc collected in paper, but much of the 
customs dues are paid in gold. The value 
of the paper rouble is about fifty cents in our 
money, while the gold rouble is valued at 
about seventy-seven cents. But as only 
about one-tenth of the revenue is from cus¬ 
toms, it is safe to put the yearly income of 
the government at a little over £600,000,000. 

The exports of Russia to foreign countries 
consist principally of corn, flour, butter, eggs, 
flax, timber, linseed, raw wool and illum¬ 
inating oils. The chief industrial centres are 
Moscow and the surrounding governments, 
St. Petersburg and Poland. The woolen 
trade is taking firm root in the South, chiefly 
through English capital and enterprise. The 
domestic industries carried on along with 




THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


475 


agriculture are of great importance and a 
source of livelihood to vast numbers of the 
peasantry. The empire is very rich in all 


kinds of minerals, and its mining industry has 
of late years begun to advance with rapid 
strides and is full of promise. 


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;§n§iij ms n 


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ORWAY’S authentic history 1 
begins with A. D. 863-933, j 
when Harold Harfager, or 
Fair-Haired, subdued the 
petty kings and united the 
tribes as a nation. Olaf I., 
who came to the throne in 
995, destroyed the pagen temples, and laid 
the foundation of Trondhjem. In 1028 Ca¬ 
nute the Great, of Denmark and England, 
drove Olaf out and became King. Then 
commenced a series of wars with Britain, 
followed by an invasion of Ireland. A war¬ 
like nation, they became noted for their 
prowess by water, and were a terror to the 
nations about them. 

In 1262 the national prosperity of Norway 
beean to decline after the defeat of Haco V. 
at the mouth of the Clyde, and his subse¬ 
quent death in the Orkneys. Wars with 
Denmark exhausted the country’s resources, 
national industries were checked, and the 
phgue broke out in 1348 and ravaged the j 
kingdom for more than two years, destroy¬ 
ing two-thirds of the population. Centuries 
elapsed before this condition of decay was 
thrown off. The country not only lost its ) 
nationalty, but also its proper language, 
which finally became a corrupt mixture of 
those of its neighbors. 

In 1380 the crown descended to the son 
of Olaf III., King of Denmark, and from 



that period down to 1814 these two coun¬ 
tries were united. Margaret succeeded her 
son, Olaf III., reduced Sweden, and joined 
the three kingdoms under one monarch, 
under what is historically known as the 
“Union of Calmar.” Gustavus Vasa severed 
this union with Sweden in 1523, and for 
two centuries Norway was scarcely more 
than a province of Denmark. About the 
beginning of the present century a better day 
dawned on Norway. 

Union of the Two Countries. 

After a series of dissensions and diplo¬ 
matic complications, Russia, which had been 
engaged in warfare with Napoleon, indemni¬ 
fied Sweden for the loss of Finland—which 
on a former occasion Napoleon had signed 
away to Russia, without warrant—by the 
presentation of Norway, to which Sweden 
had no title. In 1814 the Danes acknow¬ 
ledged Norway as a dominion of Charles 
XIII. of Sweden, but a Danish prince, Chris¬ 
tian, attempted to set up an independent 
sovereignity, but was compelled to abdicate, 
and on August 14th of the same year, Nor¬ 
way and Sweden were formally united, the 
ratification by the Storthing settling the 
matter on the 20th of October. 

From this time the government became 
more and more liberal, titles of nobility were 
abolished, and the people styled citizens. In 







































































































































































































































































476 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


1855 there was a good deal of anxiety felt 
over the encroachments of the Russian Gov¬ 
ernment, and Norway, Sweden, England 
and France entered into an alliance in which 
“the two Scandinavian powers promised 
never to cede or sell territory to Russia, or 
to any other power, without the consent of 
England and France,” and by this they re¬ 
ceived a guarantee of future territorial integ¬ 
rity under protection of the last named 
powers. 

The modern history of Sweden follows 
somewhat in the pathway of its neighboring 
kingdom, Norway. After the establishment 
of the “ Union of Calmar” (1397) by Marga¬ 
ret of Denmark, the three countries of Nor¬ 
way, Sweden and Denmark were kept 
together with great difficulty for 100 years. 
In 1 520, Christian II. of Denmark became 
King, and so exasperated the people that they 
rose in revolt, with Gustavus Vasa at their 
head and their resistance to the government 


of the Danish King was so successful that, in 
1523, Gustavus was made King of Sweden. 

The country entered on an era of pi os- 
perity, and was governed in a manner more 
pleasing to the people, though the successors 
of Vasa attempted some radical changes 
which did not meet with general favor. The 
reigns of the sovereigns from 1600 were 
marked with almost constant warfare against 
adjoining kingdoms. 

In 1741 Sweden was defeated in a war 
with Russia, and in 1743 East Finland was 
yielded to the conqueror. Following this, 
came a war with Prussia which was disas¬ 
trous in the extreme. Again in 1787 Sweden 
was involved in a war with Russia and Den¬ 
mark. In 1809 a new constitution was 
decreed. During the Crimean War neither 
Norway nor Sweden took any part therein. 
Of late years Sweden has prospered and 
made great improvement in manufactures, 
arts and sciences. 




—*- »»> DENMARK — 

°""\® --o 


ENMARK has always exerted 
an influence in the affairs of 
Europe out of proportion to 
her size and military strength. 
Her authentic history dates 
from 1385, the year of the 
accession of Margaret, the 
“Semiramis of the North,” and wearer of 
the triple Scandinavian crowns. After her 
glorious reign, Sweden, after a lengthened 
contest, succeeded in asserting her inde¬ 
pendence. 

In 1658 Denmark was invaded and de¬ 
spoiled of some of her most important terri¬ 
tories by the “Lion of the North,” Gustavus 


Adolphus. In 1807 a British fleet under 
Lord Nelson bombarded Copenhagen and 
destroyed the Danish navy, and in 1815 
Norway was transferred to Sweden, Denmark 
receiving in exchange the insignificant duchy 
of Lauenburg, with a money indemnity ; a 
work of spoliation consummated in 1864-7 
by the foicible acquisition of the Schleswig^ 
Holstein duchies by Prussia, after a short but 
sanguinary struggle, in which the latter 
power, with the aid of Austria, overcame the 
brave Danes by sheer force of numbers. 

In 1863 died Frederick VII., the last 
monarch of the House of Oldenburg, who 
was succeeded by the present King, Christian 


































A BICYCLE PICNIC TARTY 
















































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


477 


IV., of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- 
Gliicksburg. 

The peaceful relations already existing be¬ 
tween Denmark and England were confirmed 
by the marriage of Princess Alexandra of 
Denmark to the Prince of Wales, at Wind¬ 
sor, March io, 1863. 

When the war broke out between Austria 
and Prussia, in 1866, and resulted in the 
humiliation of Austria, the hope of Denmark 
that a part of her original territory, which, 
as already stated, had been acquired by 
Prussia, was frustrated. Notwithstanding 
her dismemberment, Denmark has prospered 
to an astonishing degree, and her material 
fortunes have been constantly in the ascend¬ 
ant. Her only trouble within the last decade 


has arisen from the dissensions in the two 
houses of Assembly and in the spread of 
dangerous communistic opinions. 

The Government of Denmark is a consti¬ 
tutional monarchy, the King being assisted 
by a cabinet of seven ministers. Elementary 
education is widely diffused and attendance 
at school is compulsory for children between 
the ages of seven and fourteen years, poor 
parents paying only a nominal sum toward 
the government schools, of which there are 
about three thousand. The established 
religion is Lutheran, to which the King must 
belong, but complete toleration is enjoyed in 
every part of the kingdom. The present 
King of Greece is a prince of the royal house 
of Denmark. 





HOLLAND—THE NETHERLANDS 




SZ5H5H5E5Z5iL5H5E5HSE5H5HSH5 



Y the revolution of 1S30, Hol¬ 
land, or the Netherlands, was 
separated from Belgium. The 
earliest accounts of the Nether¬ 
lands are from the Romans, by 
whom all the southern and cen¬ 
tral part (called Belgia) was 
kept in subjection till the decline of their 
empire in the fifth century. It was formerly 
under the government of counts, but being 
incorporated with the extensive possessions 
of the Duke of Burgundy, the Netherlands 
passed to Maximilian of Austria, father of 
Charles V., who united the seventeen prov¬ 
inces into one state ; but the bigotry of his 
son Philip II. produced the separation of 
the Dutch provinces, and great dissension 
and distress in the others. 


They remained under the Spanish crown 
until the middle of the seventeenth century, 
when arduous exertions were made by Conde 
and Turenne to add them to the dominions 
of Louis XIV. The quadruple alliance, con¬ 
cluded at the Hague in 1668, however, put 
a stop to their progress, but the wars from 
1672 to 1679, an d 1680 to 1697, were 
prosecuted chiefly for the Netherlands. At 
length, in 1702, Louis obtained them, but 
the French being defeated by the Duke of 
Marlborough at the battle of Ramifies, in 
1706, the southern provinces were brought 
under the power of the allies, and assigned 
to Austria at the peace of Utrecht. 

A peace ensued, until the war of 1741 was 
transferred to the Netherlands, and the 
French under Marshal Saxe recovered them. 
















478 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


Bergen-op-Zoom was captured by the French 
in September, 1747, and Maestricht in the 
following year, when the successes of the 
British navy, and the persevering aspect of 
the coalition, led to the peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle in 1748, and the southern Nether¬ 
lands thus became restored to Austria. By 
the treachery of Austria in 1756 they were 
once more nearly ceded to France, but the 
scheme was not carried into effect. 

In the campaign of 1792 Austria again lost 
the Netherlands, and though recovered in 


1793, they again passed over to France in j 

1794. The hope of recovering them was the 
cause of the coalition of 1799 an d 1805, both 
baffled in their object. The disasters of the 
French army in Russia in 1812, at length 
opened the long-wished-for prospect. In 
1813 Germany occupied all the exertions of 
the allies, but in 1814 the Netherlands were 
detached by a consequence of the revolution 
by which the Bourbons were restored ; and 
the British Cabinet accomplished the union 
of the seventeen provinces, and their erection 
into an independent state, under the Prince 


of Orange, in 1815. The Prince, therefore, 
assumed the title of King of the Netherlands 
and Grand Duke of Luxembourg. 

The bill for the emancipation of the slaves 
in the Dutch West Indian possessions, passet 
in 1862, decreed a compensation for each 
slave and came into force in 1863. The ex¬ 
penses of this emancipation came to $5,06$,- 
366, and the number of slaves set free was 
about 42,000, of whom 35,000 were in 
Dutch Guiana. 

The present King having no living male 
issue, the succession to the 
crown was vested in the Prin¬ 
cess of Orange, Wilhelmina, 
the only child of King Wil¬ 
liam’s second marriage, born 
in 1880. Of late years the 
great question of internal 
politics has been the new con¬ 
stitution, which was duly pro¬ 
mulgated November 30, 1887. 
This act increased the elec¬ 
torate of Holland by no less 
than 200,000 voters. A re¬ 
vision of the school laws in a 
sectarian sense was carried 
early in December, 1889. 
Meanwhile, in 1888, the 
Queen, Emma of Waldeck, 
had been appointed regent in the event of 
the King’s demise, and a council of guard¬ 
ians named to assist her in the education of 
Princess Wilhelmina. 

Many industries are carried on, and the 
country has a large percentage of skilled 
artisans. Amsterdam has had the largest 
diamond-cutting trade in the world, ten 
thousand persons depending on that branch 
of industry, although in recent years it has 
been on the decline. 

The Dutch were once called the “ Carriers 
of Europe.” While this designation does 



VIEW OF DORT. 















































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


479 


not apply to them now, they still have a large 
mercantile marine. Minerals are scarce in 
the Netherlands, but valuable clay, for the 
manufacture of tiles, bricks and pottery is 


found everywhere in great abundance, and 
of late there has been somewhat of a revival 
of the Delft-ware, which was formerly so 
famous. 





4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 4* 


N the time of the Romans, Bel- 
gium was included in Gaul, and 
//*$■ was known as Gallia Belgica. 

4 The P eo P^ e were mostly Celts, 

C but while under the rule of the 

it* Franks, in the 5th and 6th cen¬ 
turies, by irruptions from the 
North the principal element of the popula¬ 
tion became German. 

The country was afterwards divided into a 
number of independent duchies, counties and 
free cities, the principal of which was the 
County of Flanders. The male line of the 
Counts of Flanders became extinct m 1385, 
and their possessions passed into the hands 
of the Dukes of Burgundy, who soon after 
obtained the whole of the Netherlands. 

By the marriage of Mary of Burgundy 
with Maximilian in 1477, the Netherlands 
came into possession of Austria. Maximilian 
was succeeded by his son Philip, who married 
Johanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella 
of Spain, in 1496. 

Holland, the northern portion of the Neth¬ 
erlands, established its independence, while 
the southern portion, Belgium, continued 
under the rule of Spain, Philip ceded Bel¬ 
gium to his daughter, Isabella, and her 
husband, the Archduke Albert, in 1598, 
under whom it formed a distinct and inde¬ 
pendent kingdom. Albert died in 1621 


without issue, and the country again fell into 
the hands of Spain. 

Between 1659 an d 1697 Belgium lost con¬ 
siderable territory in the wars between Spain 
and France and Holland. By the treaty of 
Utrecht in 1713, Belgium was assigned to- 
Austria. During the war of the Austrian 
succession almost the whole country fell into 
the hands of the French, but by the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle it was restored to Austria, 
1748. In 1790 the provinces of Belgium 
revolted against Austrian rule, and formed 
themselves into an independent state under 
the name of United Belgium. They were, 
however, subdued by the Austrians in the 
end of the same year. 

Austria’s Power Overthrown. 

In the war with revolutionary France the 
battle of Fleurus (1794) put an end to the 
Austrian rule in Belgium. In 1815 it was 
united with Holland under Prince William 
I'rederick of Nassau. Belgium revolted in 
1830, declared itself an independent state, 
and chose Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, 
as its king, in 1831. The five great powers 
afterward determined the limits of the terri¬ 
tory, making Holland and Belgium separate 
kingdoms. Leopold died in 1865, and was 
succeeded by his son, Leopold II., the present 
monarch. 









480 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


On the outbreak of the Franco-German 
war in 1870 the Belgians, fearing risks both 
from Prussia and from France, mobilized 
their army ; but in a special treaty arranged 
by England, both belligerents recognized 
anew the neutrality of Belgium, guaranteed 
in 1831 and 1839. In 1885 the Congo Free 
State, under the presidency of Leopold II., 
was acknowledged by the powers. 

Although the country has, on the whole, 
steadily grown in prosperity, and constitu¬ 
tional principles have been generally strength¬ 
ened, yet 1886-87 witnessed industrial riots 
and Socialist disturbances of a serious aspect, 
attended at Liege, Mons. Charleroi and other 
places with great violence. The King, at the 
opening of the Chambers in November, 
promised that measures of reform should be 


1 introduced, and this had the effect of quell¬ 
ing the disturbances. In 1880 the jubilee of 
the state was celebrated with enthusaism. 

King Leopold has distinguished himself 
by being the patron of Henry M. Stanley in 
his African explorations, having rendered 
material aid to the explorer. 

The government is a constitutional hered¬ 
itary monarchy, the members of the House 
of Representatives being elected by citizens 
who pay not less than twenty florins an¬ 
nually in direct taxes. The King can con¬ 
voke, adjourn or dissolve the Senate and 
House of Representatives at pleasure. Under 
the mild and successful government of Leo¬ 
pold, the country has prospered, and the 
people seem attached to their King and con¬ 
stitution, and are peaceful and contented. 



In 1815 the perpetual neutrality of Switz¬ 
erland and the inviolability of her territory 
were guaranteed by Austria, Great Britain, 
Portugal, Prussia and Russia, and the Fed¬ 
eral Pact which had been drawn up at 
Zurich, and which included three new can¬ 
tons, was accepted by the Congress of 
Vienna. The Pact remained in force till 
1848, when a new constitution, prepared 
without foreign interference, was accepted by 
general consent. This, in turn, was, on May 
2 9, 1874, superseded by the constitution 
which is now in force. 

Following the new constitution of 1848 
came the revolt of Neufchatel against 
Prussia, to which country it had belonged, 
and its reception into the Swiss Confederacy 


WITZERLAND,the ancient Hel¬ 
vetia , became, under the Roman 
empire, a semi-civilized country, 
and, after the fall of that power, 
passed in succession under Bur¬ 
gundian, Frankish and Ger¬ 
manic sway. In 1307 a move¬ 
ment of the three northern 
cantons of Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden 
inaugurated the ultimate overthrow of Aus- 
trian rule in the result of the battle of Mor- 
garten in 1315. 

During the two following centuries the 
other cantons fell one by one into the arms 
of the Helvetic Confederation, which latter, 
however, did not obtain its solidarity as a 
European power until the peace of 1814. 
































































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


481 


as a canton on an equal footing with the rest. 
During the Franco-German war of 1870-71 
the landwehr were called out as a measure 
for the maintenance of Swiss neutrality. 


The sublime scenery of the Alps draws 
tourists to Switzerland from all parts of the 
world and renders this remarkable country 
a constant and general object of interest. 



ITALY 


TALY, since the downfall of 
Rome, has been divided into 
different states, and has lost 
that power which it formerly 
enjoyed. Its historical remains, 
its schools of art, its delicious 
climate, give it an undying in¬ 
terest. It has been called the garden of 
Europe ; and the panegyric which Pliny be¬ 
stows upon it does not seem in any degree 
exaggerated. 

The ancient inhabitants called themselves 
Aborigines, offspring of the soil, and the 
country was soon after peopled by colonies 
from Greece. Italy has been the mother of 
arts as well as of arms, and the immortal 
monuments which remain of the eloquence 
and poetical genius of its inhabitants are 
universally known. The early part of the 
history of this country is, however, involved 
in the greatest obscurity. The first light 
thrown on this land of darkness was by the 
settlement of Greek colonies in the south, 
where, eventually, a large tract of country 
was called Magna Grsecia. The annals of 
Rome are said to go back 750 years B. C. 

Italy continued subject to one power for 
more than 800 years ; until the fifth century, 
when the Goths crossed the barriers of the 
Alps. Toward the year 560 A. D. the 
Lombards entered the north of Italy, took 


Milan and Pavia, and founded a kingdom 
which continued during two centuries, until 
overthrown by Charlemagne. 

Prolonged Military Struggles. 

After his death Italy belonged to his suc¬ 
cessors on the imperial throne, but their 
tenure was precarious, the great barons 
laboring to assert their independence and the 
popes to extend their temporal dominions. 
The subsequent history is little more than a 
succession of military struggles, of little in¬ 
terest, until 960, when Otho I. repaired, in 
person, to the north of Italy, granted munici¬ 
pal rights to the cities, and improved the 
interior government in general. 

The whole was united to the German 
Empire ; but from this compact fresh feuds 
and commotions followed ; the Italian no¬ 
bility were jealous of their privileges ; con¬ 
spiracies were formed, detected and sup¬ 
pressed, and no constant allegiance was 
exhibited to the German Government or the 
magistracy put into authority by it. 

A series of wars continued for several 
ages. In the fourteenth century Italy was 
divided into the kingdom of Naples, the es¬ 
tates of the Church, Tuscany, Parma and 
Lombardy, the Genoese and the Venetian 
territories and other petty states. For two 
centuries the Venetians and the Genoese 



31 






























482 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 


were the most considerable commercial 
people in Europe, and Venice, in particular, 
possessed large foreign colonies, and in 1194 
took Constantinople and held in sovereignty 
portions of what now constitutes Turkey in 
Europe and Greece. 

The foundation of the temporal power of 
the popes was laid about 1080, by Matilda, 


In March, 1860, Savoy and Nice were 
ceded to France, to which they are still at¬ 
tached. Garibaldi and his volunteers con¬ 
quered the Two Sicilies, Francis II. of Naples 
fled in terror, and the end of the great pop¬ 
ular uprising was that in March, 1861, Victor 
Emmanual of Sardinia was proclaimed King 
of Italy. The Austrians held Venice until 



NAPLES, SHOWING MOUNT VESUVIUS IN THE DISTANCE. 


Countess of Tuscany, who bequeathed a large 
portion of her dominions to Pope Gregory 
VII. After that time the popes successively 
made great acquisitions of territory ; but in 
1798 Rome was taken by Berthier, and 
Bonaparte annexed the papal dominions to 
France. They were, however, restored in 
1814, 


1866, when Italy and Prussia united their 
forces against her. Rome remained in the 
hands of the French until the outbreak of 
the FYanco-German war, in spite of the 
abortive revolutions instigated by Mazzini 
and Garibaldi. 

Finally, on September 20, 1870, the na¬ 
tional forces entered Rome, which became at 





























































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


483 


last the capital of United Italy. Victor 
Emmanuel was succeeded in 1877 by his 
son Humbert. The Pope still resides in 
Rome, but has no jurisdiction except within 
what is known to Italy as the “ Leonine 
City.” Parliamentary government has been 
accorded in the fullest degree. 


The defeat of the Italian army in Abys¬ 
sinia, March 2, 1896, caused great excite¬ 
ment at Rome and elsewhere throughout the 
country ; and troops were called out to sup¬ 
press demonstrations against the govern¬ 
ment ; Crispi’s ministry immediately resigned 
and another cabinet was formed. 










SPAIN 




UN, after being partially col¬ 
onized by the Phoenicians and 
Carthaginians, became a Roman 
province under Augustus, and 
some 400 years afterward was 
successively overrun by the 
Vandals, Goths and other north¬ 
ern races. In the eighth cen¬ 
tury the Moors successfully invaded the 
country, and remained virtual masters of the 
entire Spanish portion of it till the reign of 
Ferdinand and Isabella, when, in 1492, they 
were finally driven back into Africa. 

Under Charles V., and his son Philip II., 
Spain became the greatest power in the then 
world. But with the latter prince began 
that decay which speedily reduced it to a 
mere shadow of its past glory and import¬ 
ance. After the death of Charles II., in 
1700, began the so-called War of the Spanish 
Succession , in which the rival claims of 
France and Austria to the throne terminated 
in favor of Philip V., grandson of the French 
King Louis XIV. 

Between 1759 and 1763 an unsuccessful 
war was waged against England, and in 
1778 Spain again took up arms agains f that 


country, and at the peace of 1783 received 
the island of Minorca and the American 
Floridas. 

The later chief events in Spanish historical 
annals have been: The struggle against 
Napoleon during the so-called Peninsular 
War; the restoration by French arms, in 
1823, of the Bourbon dynasty in the person 
of Ferdinand VII., whose tyranny had led 
to a revolution in 1820; the Carlist War , 
1833-40, ending in the triumph of the Chris- 
tinos; the exile of Queen Christina in 1854; 
a war with Morocco in 1858-9; the annex¬ 
ation of St. Domingo in 1861 ; a war with 
Peru and Chili in 1864-5 ; the downfall of 
the Bourbon monarchy in 1868 ; the insur¬ 
rection in Cuba in 1868-75 ; the election of 
Amadeus of Savoy as King of Spain in *870; 
his abdication in 1873 ; the adoption of a 
republican form of government under Castelar 
and Serrano, 1873-4; and the restoration of 
the monarchy in the person of Alfonso XII , 
son of Isabella, January, 1875. Spain, from 
1873 to 1875, was the theatre of a civil war 
waged against the government by the ad¬ 
herents of Don Carlos, who held nearly all 
the northeast of the countrv. 

9 





























































































































































484 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


On March I, 1896, a mob in Barcelona 
attacked the American Legation, tearing 
down the Stars and Stripes and trampling 
them under foot. The town authorities at¬ 
tempted to disperse the mob and used their 
efforts to protect the Legation. On the day 
following, the Spanish authorities called at the 
Legation, expressed regret for the unfortu¬ 


nate occurrence and promised full reparation. 
The immediate cause of the outbreak was 
the proposed resolutions, by the United 
States Senate, expressing sympathy with the 
attempt in Cuba to gain independence. For 
several days the demonstrations against the 
American flag continued and troops were 
required to disperse the mobs. 



NDER its ancient name of 
Lusitania, Portugal was con¬ 
stituted a Roman province 
under Augustus, and so 
remained till the fifth cen¬ 
tury, when it became subject 
to the Visigoths. In the 
eighth the Moors took 
possession of the country and held it for 
four centuries, at the end of which period 
they were driven out by Prince Alonzo 
Enrique, of Castile, who thereupon was 
elected King. Under the dynasty he founded 
Portugal made rapid progress, and under 
John I., and in the reigns of John II. and 
Emanuel, 1481-1521, became eminent as a 
maritime and colonizing power, establishing 
settlements in the East and adding Brazil to 
her dominions. 

Under Sebastian III. began that fruitless 
crusade against the Moors which cost that 
monarch both his life and crown. Later, 
Portugal became a dependency of Spain, but 
in 1640 she threw off the yoke and placed 
the Braganza dynasty on the vacant throne. 


In 1807, after the deposition of the royal 
family by decree of Napoleon, Dom Pedro, 
the King, withdrew to Brazil, of which country 
he became first Emperor. 

The Government is a limited monarchy, 
and the Legislature, known as the Cortes , con¬ 
sists of two houses—one of Peers, the other 
of Deputies. The Roman Catholic is the 
state religion, but entire toleration with 
respect to others prevails. 

A Steady Decline. 

For many years the financial condition of 
Portugal has gone steadily from bad to 
worse. The rush of the European powers 
to appropriate African soil awakened, for a 
time, her old spirit and ambition, but the 
awakening came too late. The march of 
events and the energy of her rivals have 
wrested from her many square miles that she 
claimed as her own, but had done next to 
nothing to colonize and develop. England 
in the end of 1889 compelled Portugal to 
abandon her claims to Nyassaland, and two 
years later a treaty was signed defining the 
























THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


485 


respective spheres of influence of the two 
countries in East and West Africa, especially 
in the basin of the Zambesi. Further de¬ 
limitations were agreed upon in 1891. 

In the meantime Charles I. had succeeded 
his father, October, 1889. The action of 
Britain occasioned an outburst of strong 


popular feeling in Portugal, which the repub¬ 
licans turned to their own advantage, and 
they were greatly helped by the successful 
revolutions of the republicans in Brazil and 
the expulsion of the Emperor, November, 
1889. But in the home country their ad¬ 
vantage proved to be only temporary. 



REECE shares with Rome the 
absorbing interest of ancient 
classic story. Glorious in 
arts and arms, renowned for 
her temples and mythology, 
her warriors, poets and states¬ 
men, her controlling influ¬ 
ence at one time in the affairs which make 
up the annals of ancient nations, she is at 
once the admiration of the scholar, the artist 
and the historian. Her classics have come 
down to us with all the charm of learning 
and romance and have long been the study 
of the most cultured classes of modern times. 

The earliest settlers in ancient Greece were 
the Pelasgi, who were in course of time re¬ 
placed by the Hellenes, a people which 
consisted of four tribes, namely, the ZEolians, 
Dorians, Ionians and Achaians. Colonists 
from Phoenicia and Egypt followed the 
Hellenes, and joined with them in extending 
their united sway over the country. About 
2000 B. C. the great cities of Athens, Sparta, 
Thebes, Argos and Corinth sprung into 
existence, and became in course of time the 
centres of political governments of a demo¬ 
cratic form, and of a progressive advance¬ 


ment in civilization, education and artistic 
refinement. Their commerce embraced within 
its scope the ports of Gaul and the Mediter¬ 
ranean, at the same time that their naval and 
military power became extended in a cor¬ 
responding ratio. 

Philip of Macedon. 

Civil discords, however, originated the 
Peloponnesian War, B. C. 434—404, by 
which their union of interests became broken 
up, and rendered Greece a prey to foreign 
invasion under Philip of Macedon, who, after 
the battle of Cheronsea, B. C. 338, became 
master of the country. Afterward, by the 
disruption of the Achaian League, Greece 
became a Roman province, 146 B. C. Then 
followed the decline and ultimate extinction 
of the glories of Greek art and civilization. 

Invasions by the Goths, Vandals and 
Normans succeeded one another in turn till 
1261, when the whole country—except 
Athens and Nauplia—became merged in the 
Greek Empire of Michael Palasologus. The 
Turks took possession in 1481, but their 
tenure of the country was contested for a 
period of two centuries by the Venetians, 

















486 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


until finally it was definitely secured to them 
by the treaty of Passarovitz. 

In 1821 a revolution broke out against 
the Ottoman yoke, and the independence of 
Greece was secured by the interference of 
foreign powers, after the defeat of the Turks 
at Navarino, 1827. After a brief provisional 


government under Count Capo d’lstria, 
Greece was made into a monarchy by the 
protecting powers, and Otho, of Bavaria, 
placed on the throne in 1832. He reigned 
till 1863, when he was dethroned and the 
crown conferred upon George I., a prince 
of the reigning house of Denmark. 




m 


O reputation less enviable be¬ 
longs to any nation of the 
globe than that of Turkey. 
“The Unspeakable Turk” has 
long been an object of sus¬ 
picion and hatred by reason of 
political intrigues, violation of 
sacred oaths, the rapacity that characterizes 
the savage, and the universal sentiment, 
amounting to a tyrannical law, which subjects 
everything to the reign of the Mohammedan 
religion. The most recent history of Asia 
is dark with the crimes and massacres that 
have made Armenia the theatre of wholesale 
slaughter, such as perhaps is unparalleled in 
all the annals of time. 

The Ottoman Empire, properly speaking, 
comprehends all the countries in which 
Turkish supremacy is directly or indirectly 
recognized, and it includes some of the most 
beautiful as well as most ancient sections of 
the globe, in point of civilization. As a 
whole, the empire is an aggregation of gov¬ 
ernments, often widely separated, and only 


united by having been the subjects of a 
common conquest. 

The Turks are first noticed in history about 
the year A. D. 800. They came originally 
from Asia and are of Tartar origin. They 
captured a portion of Armenia, which they 
called Turcomania, and in a short time 
pushed their dominion to the Hellespont, 
and finally obtained a foothold in Europe. 
The petty states into which their dominions 
were at first divided were united under Oth- 
man, one of their chiefs, in 1289. After him 
came his son, and then his grandson, Amu- 
lath, who established the Janizaries in 1362, 
a powerful and well-disciplined army, com¬ 
posed of youths selected from his Christian 
captives. He conquered the greater part of 
Thrace, and made Adrianople his capital. 

His successor, Bajazet I., conquered the 
greater pait of the Eastern or Greek Empire 
and besieged Constantinople; but being 
summoned to Asia to stop the encroach¬ 
ments of Tamerlane, he had to abandon the 
siege. Bajazet assumed the title of Sultan, 







































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


487 


his predecessors being known by that of 
Emir. In 1453, Mahomet II. took Constan¬ 
tinople and made it the capital of the Turkish 
or Ottoman Empire. His grandson, Selim 
I., conquered Syria and Egypt, and Solyman 
the Magnificent, annexed the greater part of 
Hungary and extended the Turkish domin¬ 
ions in the East. 

The Turks Defeated. 

From the reign of Solyman the power of 
the Ottomans continued unabated till 1683, 
when John Sobieski, King of Poland, de¬ 
feated the Turks and drove them out of 
Austria and Hungary. Thenceforward the 
power of Turkey continued steadily to de¬ 
cline. By the peace of Carlowitz, in 1699, 
Austria, Venice and Poland received back 
the territory previously wrested from them 
by Turkey. 

During the eighteenth century Turkey 
was engaged in an almost uninterrupted 
series of wars with Russia, the result of 
which was seriously detrimental to the Turk¬ 
ish interests. Russia secured the Crimea 
and Azov, and the River Dniester was made 
the boundary between the two empires. 

The Greeks rose in rebellion in 1821, and 
adopted an independent provisional constitu¬ 
tion in 1822. The manly efforts made by 
the Greeks in face of overwhelming odds 
induced liberty-loving people in many 
European countries to furnish the patriots 
with men and money. Prominent among 
those who figured in the struggle for Grecian 
freedom was Lord Byron, who died at Mis- 
solonghi in 1824. Russia, France and 
England finally interfered in behalf of the 
Greeks, destroyed the Mohammedan fleet at 
Navarino, and compelled Turkey to acknowl¬ 
edge the independence of Greece, 1829. 

In 1853 the Emperor Nicholas of Russia 
demanded that a Russian protectorate be 


established over the Greek Christians in the 
Turkish Empire—a demand that was resisted 
by the Sultan. Nicholas thereupon declared 
war and invaded the Danubian Principalities. 
England and France joined Turkey as allies 
in 1854, and in 1855 Sardinia also embraced 
the cause of the Sultan. 

The Russians were defeated and had to 
evacuate the Danubian Principalities. The 
seat of war was then transferred to the 
Crimea, a peninsula in the south of Russia, 
on the Black Sea. Here the Russians were 
defeated by the allies at the battles of Alma, 
Inkerman and Balaklava. Sebastopol, the 
greatest Russian stronghold on the Black 
Sea, was besieged, and after a protracted 
resistance capitulated. Peace was finally 
concluded at Paris in 1856. 

War with Russia. 

The European powers having been unable 
to satisfactorily settle the differences between 
Turkey and her other rebellious provinces, 
Russia interfered in behalf of the latter, and 
declared war against Turkey in 1877. A 
desperate struggle ensued, the most cele¬ 
brated battle fought being that of Plevna, in 
which the Turks suffered a severe defeat. 
The result of the war was that the Danubian 
Principalities secured their independence, and 
Russia received Bessarabia, Batoum, Kars 
and Ardahan in Asia. 

Turkey in Europe at present covers about 
62,028 square miles, and has a population of 
4,786,545. Turkey in Asia occupies 710,320 
square miles, and has a population of over 
21,608,000. 

In Egypt (the principal Turkish possession 
in Africa) the hold of the Sultan appears to 
be very weak. The present condition of 
Turkey seems to warrant the title, “ the sick 
man of Europe,” for some time applied to it. 

Turkey has always been true to herself. 





483 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


The history of the Mohammedan power is 
one of rapine, outrage and murder, and the 
massacres in Armenia were only what might 


have been expected. None the less the> 
were enough to awaken the horror and 
indignation of all civilized peoples. 



HE epoch of Menes is the first 
chronicle in the history of 
ancient Egypt, and has been 
placed at 5004 B. C. This 
fact points to a very ancient 
origin. Allusions are made 
to Egypt in the Book of 
Genesis and many other parts of the Bible. 
The history of the country is largely written 
upon tablets of stone, which in recent times 
have been deciphered, thus rendering Egypt 
a country of peculiar interest. 

Unfortunately the decline which has af¬ 
fected all the old nations of the East has cast 
down the ancient glory and left everywhere 
the footprints of death. Still, in her ruins 
Egypt is a country of marvelous interest. 
Long subject to outside powers, she still 
maintains her traditional character and 
customs. 

A royal dynasty ruled for some centuries 
before Cambyses, 524 B. C., and by that line 
of monarchs were constructed those grand 
pyramids, temples and obelisks, whose re¬ 
mains make of Egypt the oldest of classic 
lands. Cambyses brought Egypt under 
Persian sway till the time of the invasion of 
Alexander the Great, who built Alexandria. 

After him came the line of Ptolemies, end¬ 
ing in the person of Cleopatra, under whom 
it became a Roman province. After a 


possession of 760 years the Romans gave 
place to the Saracens, who ruled Egypt till 
1250, when the Mameluke dynasty was 
established. 

At the beginning of the sixteenth century 
it fell into the hands of the Turks, under 
whom it became a satrapy, and the object of 
incessant contention among the Mameluke 
Beys. The French under Napoleon occupied 
the country, 1798-1802. I11 1811, Mehemet 

Ali, after a massacre of the Mamelukes, made 
himself master of Egypt, and the succession 
was confirmed to him and his descendants 
by the treaty of London, 1841. 

The Title of “ King.” 

In 1866 enlarged powers were granted the 
Egyptian rulers by conferring on them the 
title of Khedive (king). The former Khedive 
Ismail Pasha, was deposed by the Sultan, 
June, 1879, and was succeeded by his son, 
Mohammed Tewfik. 

The reigning Khedive is Abbas, born July 
1 $ 74 > son of Mohammed Tewfik, who 
succeeded to the throne on the death of his 
father, January 7, 1892. In the summer of 
1882, in consequence of a military rebellion, 
England intervened, subdued the uprising, 
and restored the authority of the Khedive. 
Egypt embraces 10,698 square miles and has 
a population of 6,817,265. The prevailing 








19 Synagogue of the Portuguese Jews. 

20 Mosque. 

IV—THE MOHAMMEDAN QUARTER, 

21 Khan and Bazaar 

22 Mineral Bath. 

23 Convent and Schools. 


31 Pilate’s House. 

32 Place of Flagellation. 

83 Ruins of a Churcdi. Ilodtee of Simon the 
Pharisee. 

34 Church of St. Anna.. 

35 House of Herod. Dervish’s Mosque. 



MODERN 




JERUSALEM 


Damaseii 

DISTINCTION or EDIFICES Gate, 


Mosks and other Turkish builds 
fgg Churches and Cloisters 
EM Christian Cliurches^ss^^^^ 
EZ) Synagogues , s' vM, 


r 


(.olden 
G ate 1 II III IV V 


if/ mm 

WM/ Tomb at§i 
a JehoitaplraS 

/ T 

^ dJA hsn 1 Hmsi/TZ! 

Hi! ftJ ames”ToH 

mjt Zachai iah^s 
W Tomb 

I., ms 


!>i rTInkrl’'/ 


WBBr& 


Zions 


Wmk Jm 

wmimMSmmm 


I The Christian Quarter 

II The Armenian Quarter 

III The Jews Quarter 

IV The Mahommedan 9 Quarter 

V The Moors Quarter 


MM 






24 Institute for Blind Dervishes. 

25 Hospital of St. Helena. 

2G Reputed site of the House of the Rich Man. 

27 Reputed site of the House of St. Varonica. 

28 Residence of the Turkish Pasha. 

29 Arch of the “ Ecce Homo.” . 

30 Place of the “Scala Sancta,” the Holy Stair¬ 

case. 


V.-THE MOORS’ QUARTER. 

a Armenian Convent. House of Caiaphas. 
b American Burial Ground, 
c David’s Tomb, 
d Place of Wailing of the Jews. 

Just within Zion's Gate are urretched abodes of 
lepers. 






































































































I .on^itude East from (ire<-iiv\ i•• h 







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c^r 

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rev* \ 


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488 


The 
one ( 
mass 



J 


Genes 
The h 
upon t 
have t 
a coun 
UnfJ 
fected 
down 1 
the fo< 
Egypt 
Long 
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custom 
A ro 
before 
of moi 
pyrami< 
mains i 
lands. 
Persian 
Alexan< 
After 
ing in t 
it beca 


MODERN JERUSALEM. 

I-THE CHRISTIAN QUARTER. 

1 Goliath’s Castle. 

2 Latin Convent. 

3 Church of Holy Sepulchre. 

4 Greek Convent- 


13 Modern Evangelical Church. 

14 Hospital and Syrian Convent. 

II,—THE ARMENIAN QUARTER. 

15 Armenian Convent, with the Church of Sfc. 

James. 



w mm 

b\e Z EWlfH 
(tile Modern Ci 


vfcAncient' 

Gate 


Tomb of A Vexaiidfit 

Nk QtsternS^ 

/ 

Kphraims 

i I AA 


Palace of 


6f (Hanaivei 




\ G i8PP 


‘PdfcofioUmV 

pt°sf ,oh : 


fmt 

Igvfe r a G a tjNgi| 


Senate” % 

1 Loused 


thije*<^ 


''JchfkUi h « 

■wu Garde,]; 

imam ny* 

pff Upper JP: M 
==ss£ Markets?.' 

Bio grrfi 

OTy of iSiWfiK 




UilcSsi 

^Dragon: 

Foii'ntaf 


First Wajll,u%; 
City of David a 
and Solomon, C 


ff&atlj 

3mu 


SliCOXD \v a 1:.:; 1 

cfJ?? y 

built by Joth'am y 
Iiezekiah,and [ 
Manasseh,Both ^ 
walls after the ill 1 
exile rebuilt by '<$}, 
Nehemiah. 




Third Wall 4|| 
built by Herod Agrippa 
A.D.45 


gt^i Priest 
-Anauus I 


Circumvallation of the City 
by the Romans under Titus 


Sp-Pompey s 


LB. Folger Sc- Civ 


5 Coptic Convent. 

6 Ruins of St. John’s Hospital. 

7 Greek Church. St. John’s. 

8 Residence of the Christian Bishop. 

9 Church of the Greek Schismatics. 

10 Tower of Hippicus. David’s Tower. 

11 Supposed site of the Tower of 

Phasaelus. 

32 The Prussian Consulate. 


The only building in Jerusalem which 
presents any appearance of comfort. 

16 Nunnery of St. George. 

17 Barracks. 

Ill—THE JEWS’ QUARTER. 

The most wretched in the city. 

18 Synagogue of the Shepardim. 












































































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


489 


religion is Mohammedan, exclusive of 600,000 
Copts, who have the honor of being Chris¬ 
tian descendants of the ancient Egyptians. 


The country changes but slowly, is fixed 
aud stereotyped, like all others of the Orient, 
and gives little sign of progress. 


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**••••• • • »••••’• •*•••. JI •%# r. .‘.’lu I .*• J.V. 

PALESTINE 

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$1 



t ALESTINE derives its name from 
the Hebrew Pelescheth (“ Land 
of the Philistines”), and in re¬ 
mote times was known as 
Canaan. Under the reigns of 
David and his son Solomon, it 
constituted a flourishing kingdom. The 
subsequent history of Palestine is identical 
with that of Judea and of the Jewish people, 
until its subjection by Rome. 

The country remained in the power of the 
Romans till the conversion of the empire to 
Christianity, when it became an object of 
religious veneration. In the sixth century 
it fell under the sway of the Mohammedans, 
which gave occasion to the Crusades. Jeru¬ 
salem was taken by the European forces, and 
was under Godfrey of Bouillon erected into 
a Latin kingdom, which endured for above 
eighty years, during which the Holy Land 
streamed with Christian and Saracen blood. 
In 1187 Judea was conquered by Saladin, 
on the decline of whose kingdom it passed 
through various hands, till, in 1517, it was 
finally added to the Turkish Empire. 

To all Christians throughout the world 
Palestine is a Holy Land. It is associated 
with the lives of patriarchs, prophets and 
apostles, and also with that of Jesus of 
Nazareth. Early in the Christian era Jeru¬ 


salem received the blow that shattered its 
sacred temple, and began the downfall of 
the most remarkable nation of the ancient 
world. The old landmarks are obliterated, 
the country has been desolated, no bright 
future seems to be before it, yet of all lands 
on the face of the earth it is the one whose 
soil is trod with reverent feet, and whose 
localities have an absorbing interest to the 
visitor. 

Modern Changes. 

As regards Jerusalem, a new town has 
sprung up outside the walls, and there are 
about 50,000 Jews in and about the holy 
city. Yet the character of the ancient nation 
has been changed and Palestine as it once 
was does not exist. 

The present condition of the country 
shows the beginning of rapid changes in 
every direction. The thousands of visitors 
who every year pour into the country con¬ 
tribute in no small degree to alter the 
character, the habits and the ideas of the 
people. Roads are being everywhere con¬ 
structed in a country where, but a few years 
ago, there were no roads. The traveler can 
now drive from Jaffa to Jerusalem, from 
Jerusalem to Jericho, and also from Jeru¬ 
salem to Hebron. Societies formed for ex- 
















































































































































































490 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


ploration have done much toward preserving 
the history of the country as revealed in its 
present ruins. Those who wish to see 


Palestine as it has been for a thousand years 
and more, must go at once or they will never 
have the opportunity. 




RABIA consists of a peninsula, 
with a length of about 1500 
miles, a breadth of 900 miles 
(Suez to Bassorah), and an area 
of more than 1,000,000 square 
miles. It sea-coast is over 1200 
miles long, and a large proportion of the 
country is an arid, sandy desert. On the 
shores of the Rea Sea and Persian Gulf there 
is, however, considerable good and fertile 
land. 

The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, 
and have always been a wild and independ¬ 
ent people of nomadic instincts. Their 
history proper begins with the advent of the 


prophet Mohammed and the foundation of 
the Caliphate. There are properly from 
12,000,000 to 15,000,000 inhabitants of the 
Peninsula, of whom all but a few Guebres 
(fire worshippers), some negroes and a few 
Jews, are Mohammedans. 

Coffee, believed to be indigenous, is one 
of the chief articles of export, and balm, 
frankincense, gum arabic, cassia and other 
drugs and spices grow freely. Wheat, 
barley, beans, millet and lentils form the 
food of the natives, and almonds, dates, and 
tamarinds are largely exported. The rivers 
of Arabia are few and unimportant; the heat 
is intense, and little rain falls at any season. 



HE early history of China is 
lost in antiquity. In the I ith 
century the country was sub¬ 
jugated by Jenghis Khan, 
whose descendants were after¬ 
ward supplanted by the Ming 
dynasty of native princes. In 
1294 the first Christian missionaries reached 


Pekin. In the early part of the 17th century, 
the Ming dynasty was subverted by the 
Mantchoo Tartars, who substituted an empe¬ 
ror of their own race. 

The first foreign powers to establish rela¬ 
tions with China was Great Britain in the 
17th century. In 1839, seizure by the gov¬ 
ernment of opium belonging to British mer- 







































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


401 


chants was the cause of hostilities, known as 
the “Opium War,” 1840, and which was 
put a stop to by treaty in 1842, by which 
the Island of Hong-Kong was ceded to 
England, five ports opened free to foreign 
commerce, and a heavy indemnity paid the 
English merchants. This treaty was fol¬ 
lowed by one with the United States in 
1844, and with France in 1845. In 1851, a 
rebellion on a large scale broke out, known 
as the Tae-ping Civil War, which, after many 
successes on the part of the rebels, was tem¬ 
porarily suppressed in 1853. Another war 
with England, in conjunction with France, 
occurred in 1856, in which Canton was bom¬ 
barded, and Pekin menaced by the Euro¬ 
peans. Another treaty, June 26, 1858, 
terminated hostilities, and gave new and im¬ 
portant advantages to foreigners, among 
which were the toleration of Christianity, 
the opening of new ports to commerce, and 
the reception at Pekin of foreign envoys. 

In 1859, an attempt to ignore this treaty 
led to the occupation of Pekin by English 


and French troops ; after which the treaty 
was ratified. From 1861 to 1868, the Tae- 
ping rebellion broke out anew, with slight 
intermissions. In 1867, Mr. Burlingame 
was appointed envoy-extraordinary from the 
United States to Pekin, and in 1868 effected 
a treaty with China, which conferred on 
Americans in China the same rights and 
privileges possessed by Chinese in the United 
States. In 1871, to avenge outrages by the 
Coreans upon American shipwrecked mari¬ 
ners, a United States force visited their pen¬ 
insula. Recent years have seen the termin¬ 
ation of the rebellion in Sungaria, and 
better relations between China and Russia, 
arising over the Kashga rebellion, which was 
put down in 1879. 

The war between China and Japan in 1894 
resulted disastrously to the former, the su¬ 
periority of the Japanese arms being evident 
at every point of the contest. China sought 
by diplomacy to avert further catastrophe, 
and the strong hand of Russia was soon seen 
in the terms of peace. 



HE empire is politically sub¬ 
divided into provinces, depart¬ 
ments and districts, formerly 
governed by upwards of 200 
princes called Daimios , each 
of whom held absolute power 
over his own jurisdiction ; in 
1870-1, these princes were made subordi¬ 
nate to the Mikado , or supreme ruler of the 
Empire. This Mikado, or Emperor, is con¬ 


sidered of semi-divine origin, and was until 
quite recently invisible to the people at large. 

In 1542 the Portuguese established a 
settlement at Nagasaki, and the Dutch 
obtained a temporary footing in 1600, but 
intercourse with the outside world came to 
be entirely suspended until about the middle 
of the present century. Since 1867, several 
embassies have visited the United States and 
Europe. In February, 1889, a new consti- 








492 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


tution was promulgated, establishing import¬ 
ant reforms, such as a parliament, the right 
of suffrage to all men twenty-five years old 
and over, who pay a certain amount of tax, 
liberty of religion, of speech and the right to 
hold public meetings. Judges cannot be 
removed, except by special legislation. 

Japan has shown a remarkable ability to 
adapt herself to Western civilization. With 
singular acuteness she has adopted ideas 
from other countries, and within the last few 
years has undergone rapid changes. These 


do not so much affect her form of govern¬ 
ment as her system of education, and, to 
some extent, her manners and customs. The 
Japanese have been called the “ \ ankees of 
the Orient.” 

When war broke out between her and 
China in 1894, she showed herself fully 
equipped for the conflict by possessing arms 
of the most recent type and by being thor¬ 
oughly versed in the most approved methods 
of military tactics. Her swift and brilliant 
victory was anticipated from the first. 



N the widest sense of the term, 
British India comprises all that 
part of the great Indian penin¬ 
sula which is directly or in¬ 
directly under British rule, as 
well as certain countries beyond 
that area which are under the 
control or protection of the Governor- 
General. The Government of the Indian 
Empire is entrusted to a Secretary of State 
for India, assisted by a Council of not less 
than ten members, vacancies in which are 
now filled up by the Secretary of State for 
India. 

But the major part of the Council must be 
of persons who have served or resided ten 
years in India, and have not left India more 
than ten years previous to the date of their 
appointment; and no person not so qualified 
can be appointed unless nine of the continu¬ 


ing members be so qualified. The office is 
held for a term of ten years ; but a member 
may be removed upon an address from both 
Honses of Parliament, and the Secretary of 
State for India may for special reasons re¬ 
appoint a member of the Council for a 
further term of five years. No member can 
sit in Parliament. Therefore it will be seen 
that the intention is not to allow the repre¬ 
sentatives in the Council to have any con¬ 
trolling voice in the affairs of the country, 
yet they possess a certain influence. 

India is the ancient name of all that part 
of Southern Asia which extended from 
Persia to Serica (North China). The knowl¬ 
edge possessed of this portion of the world 
is extremely small, and dates from the ex¬ 
pedition of Alexander the Great. Seleucus 
Nicator extended the conquests of the 
Greeks beyond the furthest point reached by 









THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 


493 



Alexander. Ptolemy learned more from 
subsequent travelers, and his grand division 
of the country into India Within and Beyond 
the Ganges has remained to the present day. 

Prom the time of the expedition of Alex¬ 
ander the Great, in the 4th century, B. C., 
down to the 15th century 
of our era, the history of 
India, divided as it was 
into an infinity of independ¬ 
ent states, is of compara¬ 
tively little interest for the 
general reader. In 1525 
the country was invaded 
by Baber, who established 
the Mogul line of princes, 
whose power culminated 
under his successor Au- 
rungzebe. 

British Arms. 

After the latter’s death, 

1707, the Mogul dynasty 
began to decline; and after 
an unsuccessful attempt 
made by the French to 
establish their power in 
India, the foundations of a 
vast political power were 
laid between 1750 and 
1765, by the greater re¬ 
sources and superior mari¬ 
time strength of the Eng¬ 
lish. Since that period the 
history of India presents 
but a succession of battles 
fought and territories con¬ 
quered by British arms. 

In 1857 occurred the great Sepoy mutiny, 
which was extinguished after much blood¬ 
shed. In the year following, the foreign 
commerce of India, long a monopoly in the 
hands of the East India Company, was 


finally thrown open to the world, and their 
political jurisdiction vested in the British 
crown. The assassination of the Governor- 
General of India, the Earl of Mayo, in 1872, 
first attributed to political motives, seems to 
have been only an act of fanaticism. In 


PAGODA OF CHILLENBAUM, INDIA. 

1878, over 500,000 deaths occurred at 
Madras alone by famine. 

The costume is in numerous nationalities 
characterized universally by the ease, light- 
I ness and loseness common in the East and 








































































































































































494 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


suitable to the hot climate. But it varies in 
the many provinces, and, indeed, with every 
nationality. The turban (pagri) has every 
sort of dimension, from minute neatness to 
turgid massiveness. 

The waistband (dhoti) extends often below 
the knee, in which case there is no trouser. 
Jackets in many styles are common. The 
woman’s dress in many respects resembles 


scarfs and shawls is the prevailing color. As 
a whoie the national dress is picturesque, 
and a holiday crowd has the appearance of 
a flower garden. 

Four-fifths of the population are affected 
largely by the caste system connected with 
the popular religion. A religious sanction 
in some degree attaches to infant marriage, 
or child marriage, with all classes; also, to 



ENGLISH TROOPS ON THE MARCH IN INDIA. 


that of the men. The petticoat is not uni¬ 
versal. The headdress is often extended, so 
as to hang gracefully down the back. The 
shoe is not always worn ; indeed, the hum¬ 
bler classes are generally barefooted. With 
them the blanket is often a plaid. 

The black colors of Europe are seldom 
seen, but indigo blue is common. Other¬ 
wise white, set off by gay margins, and rich 


the seclusion of women, and to the prohib; 
tion against remarriage of widows with the 
upper and middle classes. 

In practice the women of the masses are 
not secluded, but, on the contrary, appear 
everywhere, and work out of doors ; they 
remarry, too, if in widowhood. The burn¬ 
ing of widows on the funeral pyres of their 
husbands has long been suppressed by the 











































































































































the countries of the world. 


495 


criminal law under British rule. Polyandry 
is found only among a few of the aboriginal 
tribes. Old customs, many of them bar¬ 


barous and cruel, are disappearing before the 
advance of Christian civilization, but here, as 
elsewhere, the advance is very slow. 



FGHANISTAN is subdivided | 
into the three separate princi¬ 
palities of Cabul, Candahar and 
Herat. The Afghans belong 
to the Iranic race ; they are of 
a vigorous spirit and proud 
temper. Afghanistan is continually being 
threatened by England and Russia, both of 
which nations desire the possession of Herat, 
which is the key of Central Asia. 

The area is estimated at 225,00 square 
miles. Four-fifths of the country consists 
of rocks and mountains ; the latter from the 
table-land in the north, varying from 15,000 
to 16,000 feet in height and in the case of 
the Hindoo Coosh, to 20,493 feet. 

Beloochistan is subdivided into six prov¬ 
inces. Nearly the whole country is moun¬ 
tainous, except in the northwest and along, 
the coast, its general characteristics being a 
rugged and elevated surface, barrenness and 
deficiency of water. The famous Bolan 
mountain pass, which is the only means of 
communication with the interior of the coun¬ 
try from the plains of Northwest India, is on 
the northeastern boundary. Relate, the 
capital, is situate at 6000 feet above sea 
level. The products vary with the climate, 
which is cold in the elevated parts, and ex¬ 
cessively hot in the lower valley. 

The pursuits of the people are mostly 
pastoral. The inhabitants consist chiefly of 


I of Belooches and Brohooees, two tribes 
which are probably a race of mixed Tartar 
and Persian descent. Beloochistan was 
formerly subjected to Persia, and afterwards 
to Afghanistan, but its people conquered 
their independence in 1758. They are ruled 
by several chiefs, under the more or less 
nominal authority of the Khan of KeUt. 

Products of the Country. 

Among the natural productions of 
Afghanistan is the plant yielding asafcetida. 
The castor-oil plant is everywhere common, 
and good tobacco is grown in the district of 
Kandahar. Aitchison says that the culti¬ 
vated area around Herat produces magnifi¬ 
cent crops of wheat, barley, cotton, grapes, 
melons and the mulberry tree ; the produc¬ 
tion being only limited by the amount of 
labor procurable. 

Surrounding the villages and in orchards 
the ash, elm, apricot, apple, plum, quince, 
peach and pomegranite are cultivated. In 
special localities are forests of pistachio, its 
leaves being used in dyeing. 

The general appearance of the country 
during winter is barren and arid in the ex¬ 
treme, owing to the absence of trees and 
woody shrubs ; but in spring a mass of vege¬ 
tation springs up, giving a grand coloring to 
the landscape. The industrial products are 
silk, chiefly for domestic use, and carpets. 












496 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


The manufacture of postins , or sheepskins, 
is one of the most important of the indus¬ 
trial occupations of the people, and of late 
'*~ars the trade in this article has greatly 


increased. Afghanistan is crossed by several 
trade-routes leading to India on the one side, 
and to Persia and Turkestan on the other; 
merchandise is carried by camels. 



ITTLE of a reliable character is 
known of the early history of 
Siam. The foundation of Ayu- 
thia, its former capital, dates 
from 1350, and in the sixteenth 
century its territorial rule ex¬ 
tended from the Cambodia 
River as far south as the Strait of Malacca. 
In 1782 the existing dynasty mounted the 
throne, and in 1855—6, treaties were effected 
with the United States, England and France, 
which have largely facilitated foreign trade, 
opened out the resources of the country, and 
generally been the means of introducing 
many of the arts and manners of the West¬ 
ern nations among the Siamese people. The 
population is estimated at 6,300,000. 

The monarchy is absolute and hereditary, 
and there are two kings, of whom the first is 
the actual reigning sovereign, the second re¬ 
ceiving one-third of the revenue, and exer¬ 
cising the administrative functions of chief 
minister. Buddhism is the dominant form 
of religion, and the pagodas of Siam are the 
finest of all Indian temples. Within the last 
few years the king has raised a small regular 
army officered by Europeans ; and in time 
of war the entire adult population are liable 


to be called out any time for military service. 

The men are of an olive color, with little 
beard; but the women are of a straw com¬ 
plexion. They have been said to excel in 
the fabrication of gold, in fireworks and in 
miniature-painting ; but in mechanical inge¬ 
nuity they are decidedly inferior to the 
natives of China and Cochin-China. 

Characteristics of the People. 

The chief production of Siam is rice. It 
is the national food and its export forms a 
great source of wealth to the country. 

The Siamese are very social, vain and 
fond of bright dresses and jewelry. Their 
intercourse with each other is conducted 
with ceremonious attention to distinctions ol 
rank. They shave the heads of their chil¬ 
dren, with the exception of a tuft on the 
crown, which is cut off with great ceremony 
at the age puberty. 

Marriages are negotiated by elderly 
women who find out if the birthdays of the 
intended bride and bridegroom are suitable, 
for the Siamese are superstitious in this re¬ 
spect. The marriage ceremonies, during 
which the chewing of betel-nut plays an 
important part, last two or three days and 

















































































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


497 


ail friends are entertained liberally during 
this time. The houses are built of wood or 
bamboo, thatched with palm. Furniture 


there is none, unless a mosquito net, a mat 
or two and cooking utensils be reckoned 
furniture, and these are very crude. 





3 

3: ill 

iS'§ 

3 

M3 

F M3 

3 35 


3 

+ 

MH 

m 

i* 


PERSIA 


s 

$ 

$ 

3* 

• 

3 

S 


?IS 3 



s 



55 $ 





t ERSIA dates its rise as a nation 
from after the fall of the Assy¬ 
rian and Babylonian Empires, 
and under Cyrus extended from 
the Indus almost to Greece and 
Libya. Conquered by Alex¬ 
ander the Great, it became during several ’ 
centuries afterward a Greek satrapy ; and 
about 200 B. C. a Parthian monarchy. In 
the third century A. D. the native rule was 
restored under the Sassanides dynasty. 

Later, Persia became the prey of the 
Tartars, the Turks, the Afghans, until re¬ 
deemed by the victories of Nadir Shah. 
After the death of the latter the country 
again became the scene of social anarchy and 
civil war, which continued till the establish¬ 
ment of the present dynasty. In 1871-2 
the more Southern and Eastern provinces 
were desolated by a terrible drought and 
famine, which swept away thousands of the 
inhabitants. In 1873 the Shah visited 
Europe. Estimated population, 10,000,000. 

Some of the immense valleys of Persia 
abound with the rarest and most beautiful 
vegetable productions ; among them are 
wheat of the very best quality, barley and 
other cereals, cotton, sugar, rice and 


tobacco. The vine flourishes in many of 
the provinces, and the wines of Shiraz are 
celebrated. The mulberry-tree is largely 
cultivated, silk being one of the most im¬ 
portant staples of the country. The chief 
manufacture is that of silk stuffs, of the 
richest kinds ; other fabrications include tex¬ 
tile goods, arms, carpets, shawls, etc. Persian 
commerce is very extensive, and chiefly car¬ 
ried on with Russia by way of the Caspian Sea, 
and with British India by way of the Persian 
Gulf. 

A Despotism. 

The government is a despotism under the 
Shah , or sovereign ; and though a large 
amount of the taxes levied never reaches the 
royal treasury, yet the latter is reported to 
possess immense wealth in bullion and pre¬ 
cious stones. Mohammedanism of the Shiah 
type is the prevailing form of religion. The 
Persian (or Persic) is the most celebrated of 
all the Oriental languages in respect of 
strength, copiousness and poetic harmony, 
and is written from right to left. 

The houses in Persia, those of the wealth¬ 
iest people, not excepted, appear contempti¬ 
ble, being generally built of earth or mud 
and are grouped, even in the towns, with 


32 























































































































































































498 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


little attention to uniformity or order. The 
interiors, however, of the houses of the rich 
are sometimes perfect paradises of luxury 


and elegance. The miserable look of the 
towns is, moreover, greatly redeemed by the 
beauty of the gardens which surround them. 



ARBARY and Egypt formed 
nearly all of Africa known to 
the ancients. It was peopled 
chiefly by Moors, Numidians 
and Phoenician colonists; it at¬ 
tained great celebrity during 
the Carthaginian dominion ; 
was afterwards subject to the Romans, and 
occupied for nearly a century by the Vandals. 
The Arabs took it finally from the Romans, 
about B. C. 697. 

Barbary is an extensive region, comprising 
all the northern portion of Africa, from 
Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean, and from the 
Mediterranean to the Greater Atlas. It is 
divided by the Atlas range into two regions, 
that on the north comprising the four 
Barbary States, viz., Morocco, Algiers, Tunis 
and Tripoli; and the southern region, called 
Beled-ul-Jerid, or Country of Dates. 

In this region stood the celebrated city of 
Carthage in ancient times. Its site was 
about ten miles northeast of the present city 
of Tunis. It was founded by Phoenicians, 
eight hundred and sixty-nine years before 
the Christian era. The Phoenicians were 
the first people who engaged in commerce, 
and founded colonies for the purpose of 
carrying on trade. 


The city of Algiers was built by the 
Saracens, in the year 944. The Govern¬ 
ment, called the Regency of Algiers, was 
founded in 1518, by two Turks, named 
Horuc and Hagradin. They were brothers, 
and both bore the name of Barbarossa P or 
Red-Beard. 

American Resistance. 

The country now called Morocco was 
conquered by the Saracens about the same 
time with the other Barbary States. So 
also was Tripoli. All these states, except 
Morocco, afterward fell into the hands of 
the Turks. During a long period, the Bar¬ 
bary States were in the habit of fitting out 
vessels to cruise against the ships of other 
nations. Their prisoners were sold as slaves, 
and never returned to their own country, 
unless a high ransom was paid for them. 

The Americans were the first who made 
any considerable resistance to these outrages. 
In the year 1803, Commodore Preble sailed 
to the Mediterranean Sea with a small Ameri¬ 
can fleet. He intended to attack Tripoli; 
but one of his frigates, the Philadelphia, got 
aground in the harbor. The Turks took 
possession of the Philadelphia. But one 
night Lieutenant Decatur entered the har- 







THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


499 


bor of Tripoli, and rowed toward the cap¬ 
tured vessel, with only twenty men. He 
leaped on board, followed by his crew, and 
killed all the Turks, or drove them over¬ 
board : the Philadelphia was then set on 
fire. 

After this exploit, Commodore Preble ob¬ 
tained some gunboats from the King of 

Naples, and with these and the American 

« 

vessels, he made an attack on the fortifica¬ 
tions of Tripoli. The Bashaw of Tripoli 
was forced to give up his prisoners. In the 
year 1815, Commodore Decatur—the same 
who had burnt the Philadelphia—was sent 
with a fleet against Algiers. He captured 
their largest vessels, and compelled the Al¬ 


gerines, apd the Tripolitans also, to agree 
never more to make slaves of Americans. 

In 1816, Algiers was battered by an 
English fleet under the command of Lord 
Exmouth. This was the severest chastise 
ment that the Algerines had ever received 
at that period. But in 1830, the French 
sent a large naval and military force against 
Algiers, commanded by Marshal Beaumont. 

The war continued for seventeen years, 
an Arab leader, by the name of Abd-el- 
Kader, making a powerful resistance to the 
French. At length Abd-el-Kader was de¬ 
feated and taken prisoner; so the country 
was conquered, and Algiers, under the name 
of Algeria , is now a province of France. 


I!**! 
::: 


© @ ® 1 @ ® 1 @ ® © 1 ! S 

“sfclii 


i ABYSSINIA 

I 


lira; 

* 




♦ BYSSINIA was a part of ancient 
Ethiopia; its inhabitants are of 
a dark olive complexion. In 
1867, the British Government, 
having wrongs to avenge, sent 
* to Abyssinia an army of 10,000 
men ; and the expedition resulted in the death 
of the Emperor Theodorus II., and the de¬ 
struction of his capital, Magdala. 

A few years ago Italy endeavored to plant 
a colony in Abyssinia. The new colony is 
nearly self-supporting, but in their endeavor 
to extend their influence, the Italians came 
to blows with the Abyssinians whom they 
had taken under their protection. Abyssinia, 
the only state of Central Africa with a pre¬ 
tence to civilization, is made up of the terri¬ 
tory of a few hundred fierce clans whose 
chieftains render more or less obedience to 
the “ Negus ” or King. The people of that 
country are nominally Christians, but their 


rites are strangely mixed with Pagan usages 
as old as their hills. The main difficulty 
between Italy and Abyssinia seems to arise 
out of the determination of the former to put 
down slavery. 

Early in March, 1896, a bloody battle 
was fought between the Abyssinian troops 
and the Italian army, in which the latter 
was utterly defeated with great loss of life, 
and a check was put upon the ambition of 
Italy to make for herself a position like 
other European nations on African soil. The 
defeat created great excitement in Rome and 
other parts of Italy, and led to the instant 
downfall of the Crispi Ministry. 

Abyssinia consists of two districts, Tigre 
and Amhara and Shoa. The country is 
mountainous, but in the vales the soil is 
fertile. The rainy season continues from 
June to September, succeeded without in¬ 
terval by a cloudless sky and a vertical sun, 





















500 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


but cold nights follow those scorching days. 
Though situate between the tropics, the 
productions of Abyssinia rather resemble 


those of the temperate than of the torrid 
zone. The population is estimated at 
3,000,000. 


• I- 



REPUBLICS IN SOUTH AFRICA 




a 


NE of the earliest settlements 
in South Africa was that of 
the Dutch at the Cape of 
Good Hope. In 1806 Great 
Britain acquired their do¬ 
main, following which the 
Dutch emigrated in large 
numbers, moving north and 
east. They acquired by force of arms from 
the Zulas the country known as Natal, where 
they settled. The number of the Boers, as 
they were called, who left the British 
colonies was about 10,000. They organized 
a government, and in 1854 the British guar¬ 
anteed them complete independence. 

The Boers also established a republic 
known as the Transvaal, the independence 
of which was acknowledged in 1852. Here 
they have remained until the present time. 
They have had the name of being very ex¬ 
clusive and refusing rights to foreigners who 
wished to enter their country. In 1887 the 
British attempted to take the country, and 
for a while occupied it. In 1 880 the Trans¬ 
vaal Boers threw off the British yoke and re¬ 
established the republic, after a conflict with 
the British, in which the latter were defeated 
with great loss. 

Early in 1896 a British company, with 
possessions bordering on the Transvaal, at¬ 
tempted to conquer the Boers. In this 
attempt they were led by Dr. Jameson, but 
his force was signally defeated. This disaster 


caused excitement throughout England, 
especially as Germany expressed its sym¬ 
pathy with the Boers. 

The population of the Transvaal is 119,- 
128 Europeans, of whom half are Dutch. 
The native population is 560,000. 

The state has immense latent wealth in 
its minerals, for, in addition to the numerous 
gold-fields the deposits of silver, copper and 
lead, iron, coal, cobalt, and other metals and 
minerals, are sufficient to show that nature 
has favored the Transvaal beyond all African 
States. The country is rich in corn and pas¬ 
ture land. The climate is, as a rule, healthy, 
and in some parts exceptionally bracing. 
The number of English-speaking residences 
is fast increasing on account of emigration. 

Republic of Liberia. 

Liberia is a small Republican State of 
West Africa and occupies a part of the coast 
of North Guinea. Length, 600 miles ; 
breadth interiorward, 50 miles. Monrovia 
is its capital, at the mouth of St. Paul’s 
River. The principal exports are coffee, 
sugar, palm-oil, camphor, indigo, ivory and 
gold dust. The population consists of 
20,000 “Americo-Liberians ” (immigrants 
from America and their descendants) and 
600,000 aborigines. The first settlement 
was formed by free negro colonists from the 
United States, at Cape Mesurado, in 1820. 
The colony became an independent republic 


















THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


501 


in 1847. The constitution and government 
are based upon the model of those of the 
United States. 

The Congo Free State has sprung out of 
the discoveries of Stanley and the explora¬ 
tions of the International Association, founded 
at Brussels for the opening up to civilization 
of the Congo and its tributaries. Its auton¬ 
omy was recognized during 1884 and 1885 
by the leading powers of Europe, and by 
the United States, conditioned upon its main¬ 


taining the principles of free trade. There 
are twelve territorial divisions, the capital 
being Boma. 

The central government is at Brussels, 
and consists of the King of the Belgians as 
sovereign, and three departmental chiefs. 
On the Congo there is an Administrator- 
General and several European administra¬ 
tors of stations and districts. The rest of 
West Africa is variously “protected” by 
England, France, Germany and Portugal. 



APE COLONY is an extensive 
territory belonging to Great 
Britain, comprising the greater 
portion of the South African 
continent. It has an area of 
183,286 square miles, with a 
coastline of 1,150 miles. The entire country 
consists of three elevated plateaux inter¬ 
sected by three great mountain-chains, be¬ 
tween two of which is what is called the 
Great Karroo, a desert plain nearly 500 
miles long by 100 broad. The principal 
rivers are the Orange, Great Fish River, 
Elephant, and their affluents. Saldanha 
Bay is by far the best harbor on the coast. 
Minerals are known variously to exist, but 
have been hitherto little mined. Some gold 
has been found, together with diamonds and 
and other precious stones. The products 
are fruits, tobacco, wool, etc. Sheep-farm¬ 
ing is the staple industry of the country. 
The chief towns are Cape Town (the capi¬ 
tal), Grahamstown, Zwellendam. 


The aborigines consist of Hottentots and 
Caffres; the colonists are chiefly Eng¬ 
lish, Dutch and French. Cape Colony is 
governed by an English viceroy, and is an 
important British military and naval station, 
being considered the key to the Indian 
Ocean. In 1650, the cape was colonized by 
the Dutch, from whom it was taken by the 
English in 1795, and finally ceded to them 
in 1815. Population, 566,158. 

Ostrich-F arming. 

Ostrich feathers have long been an article 
of export from the Cape. For many years 
they were obtained at the expense of the 
death of the birds, but in 1864, ostrich-farm¬ 
ing was commenced at the Cape and is now 
one of the leading industries. The feathers 
of the wild bird are more beautiful than 
those of the tame bird, and are recognized 
at once by those engaged in the feather 
trade. A few elephants and buffaloes are 
still preserved. 









502 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


^"TT * ~ ------ —- - * R :4 

lilt " '•"* 


It "i|i 

At -ijjl 

If >1 


MADAGASCAR 


t 


.. 1 .V-.VA 

I| 1 ' i}0. 


Cl 


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'll'l 




w*. 


>iSS 




^ ‘ ADAGASCAR is the larg- 
i vljraraiy est °f the African islands, 

\ pm •*,** / 

^rn.v/.fi situated to the east of the 

continent, from which it is 
separated by the Mozam¬ 
bique Channel, and sur¬ 
rounded by the waters of 
the Indian Ocean. It contains a population 
of about 4,000,000. It is ioio miles in 
length, and 370 at its greatest breadth, con¬ 
taining an area estimated at 228,540 square 
miles. 

The island was known to the early Arabs 
as Jezira-el-Komr, and became known under 
its present name through Marco Polo. Its 
actual discovery is due to the Portuguese, 
1506. By a treaty signed at Tamatave, 


December 12, 1885, Madagascar was de¬ 
clared a French protectorate, and a port on 
Diego Suarez Bay was ceded to France, 
now converted into a naval station. The 
British acknowledged the French protec¬ 
torate of Madgascar in 1890. 

The soil is fertile, with rich pasturage, 
and magnificent forests abounding in valuable 
trees and medicinal plants ; the other pro¬ 
ducts are rice, sugar, silk, cotton, cocoanuts, 
bananas, sweet potatoes, indigo, pepper, 
India rubber, etc. Iron ore is found in 
several places, and coal is also said to exist; 
gold, silver, copper and lead are also found 
in small quantities. The principal manufac¬ 
tures are jewelry, chains, necklaces, straw 
hats and dresses, termed lambas. 



USTRALIA is an immense is- 
land, containing 3,000,000 of 
square miles, and is about 
as extensive as all the United 
States. The natives of Aus¬ 
tralia are described as the most 
degraded people in the world. They are 
black, and have frizzled hair like negroes ; 
and they have veiy lean arms and legs. 



Their features have a resemblance to the 
monkey tribe, and they are said to be not 
much handsomer or more intelligent than 
the orang-outangs found in the Malaysian 
Islands. 

This great island was discovered by the 
Dutch, in 1610, but the whole of it is now 
claimed as a territory of Great Britain 
Captain James Cook, the celebrated naviea- 

o 


































































































THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


503 


tor, took possession of it in 1770. It is 
divided into North Australia, Western Aus¬ 
tralia, South Australia, Victoria, Queens¬ 
land and New South Wales. The latter 
began to be settled in 1778. It was then 
called Botany Bay. 

The first colonists were not a very respec¬ 
table sort of people. The English Govern¬ 
ment conceived the plan of sending criminals 
to Australia, instead of keeping them in 
jail, or sending them to the gallows. Ac¬ 
cordingly, ship-loads were transported every 
year. This cannot be considered a severe 
punishment, for the soil of Australia is 
fertile, and the climate is delightful. During 
many years there were hardly any honest 
men in the new colony. Few of the inhabi¬ 
tants felt any reluctance to commit crimes, 


or were ashamed to be found out; for they 
knew that their neighbors were as bad as 
themselves. In later years, however, the 
people began to improve. The children of 
the convicts were now growing up, and their 
parents had taught them to be more virtu¬ 
ous than they themselves had been. 

Criminals became so numerous in Austra¬ 
lia, that it was found necessary to plant new 
colonies of them ; and in 1804 Tasmania 
was appropriated to that purpose. In the 
year 1853 the home government abandoned 
the practice of transportation for crime. In 
1850, rich gold mines were found in Austra¬ 
lia, which caused a sudden and extraordi¬ 
nary prosperity in these colonies. Many 
millions of dollars, in gold, are now sent 
from this island to Great Britain every year. 



iANICA comprises what may 
be called the fifth division of 
the globe, including the great 
island of Australia and a 
majority of the smaller 
islands lying between the 
Indian Ocean and the China 
Sea on one side and the 
Western world on the other. A sketch of 
Australia has already been given; others 
may be noticed as follows 1 

New Guinea was discovered by the Portu¬ 


guese in 1511. It is now divided between 
Holland, England and Germany; the Ger¬ 
man portion is called Kaiser Wilhelm’s 
Land. 

Borneo, which, until the naturalist Wal¬ 
lace's explorations proved that New Guinea 
had the greater area, was believed to be the 
largest island in the world except Australia, 
was discovered in 1578 by the Portuguese. 
In 1690 they effected a settlement, but were 
soon driven out from it. In 1702 and 1774 
England made unsuccessful attempts to 























504 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


colonize the island, but of late years she has 
managed to acquire a controlling influence 
over the northwestern coast of the island. 

Sumatra, Java, Celebes are among the 
larger single islands, while among the most 
important groups are the Malay Archipelago, 
in which these are included, and almost all 
of which have been subjugated by the Dutch, 
the Spaniards, the Portuguese and the 
British ; the New Hebrides and Polynesia, 
which general terms include, among others, 
the Hawaiian, which is one of the most im¬ 
portant in the Pacific Ocean. In 1829 the 
independence of these islands was acknowl¬ 
edged by the United States, who were fol¬ 
lowed in 1843 by the British and in 1844 by 
the French. Oueen Liliuokalani, who sue- 
ceeded Kalakaua, was deposed in 1894 and a 
republican form of government was adopted. 

New Caledonia, an island lying to the east 


of Queensland, was taken possession of in 
1853 by the French, who established there 
a naval station and a penal colony, which are 
still maintained. 

New Zealand was first visited by the 
Dutch navigator Tasman in 1642. A colony 
was first established in 1840. Gold fields 
were discovered in 1857 which brought a 
large immigration. Executive authority is 
vested in a Governor appointed by the 
Crown ; there is also a General Assembly 
consisting of a Legislative Council and a 
House of Representatives. 

Tasmania, formerly known as Van Die- 
man’s Land, ceased being a penal colony in 
1853, since which time its population and 
prosperity have largely increased. A Gov¬ 
ernor appointed by the Crown holds the 
executive ; there are also a Legislative 
Council and a House of Assembly. 



OLUMBUS on his first voyage 
discovered the Paria coast on 
the 31st of July, 1498. The 
next year the whole Venezulean 
coast was skirted by Ojeda and 
Amerigo Vespucci,and the name 
“ Little Venice” was given to an Indian vil¬ 
lage built on piles (as is common) on the 
shores of Lake Maracaybo ; this is the 
origin of “Venezuela,” the name now of the 
whole country. 

In 1527 the territory of Coro was pledged 
by Charles V. to the Welsers of Augsburg, 
whose governors and adventurers had eyes 
and thoughts only for gold and the fabled 
El Dorado. In 1558 the Crown resumed 


possession; Caracas was founded in 1567, 
and in 1578 became the seat of govern¬ 
ment. 

During the 17th century the attentions ot 
the Crown were limited to extracting as 
much revenue from the colony as possible, 
while the people entered earnestly on agri¬ 
culture and stock raising, and the various 
religious orders arrived and partitioned out 
the territory among themselves. 

But the next century saw the beginning of 
troubles. The government insisted on all 
trade being carried on with Spain alone, and 
ultimately with only one city—first Seville, 
then till 1778, Cadiz. Legitimate commerce 
dwindled away, and smuggling by the 






















THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


505 


Dutch and English alone interfered to keep 
down the enormous prices of European 
goods. The first revolt occurred in 1749; 
other outbreaks kept the land in a ferment, 
until in 1810 the revolution began which 
ended in the independence of the country 
and the withdrawal of the royal forces in 
1821. 

From 1870 to 1877 the “Illustrious 
American,” General Guzman Blanco, was 
first dictator and then president, and did 
much to rescue the country from its embar¬ 
rassments. Joaquin Crespo is the present 
ruler. 

There has never been any agreement be¬ 
tween Great Britain and Venezuela as to the 
boundary line between the latter country and 
Britis 1 Guiana. T.b^ Venezuelan Govern¬ 


ment represented to ours at Washington that 
Great Britain was disposed to make encroach¬ 
ments and claim territory that did not by 
right belong to her. 

In December, 1895, President Cleveland 
sent a strong message to Congress on this 
subject, in which he took occasion to assert 
in very plain terms the Monroe Doctrine. 
The message was received with great favor, 
and a commission of investigation was ap¬ 
pointed by Congress. For a time there was 
loud talk of war between Great Britain and 
the United States, but wiser counsels pre¬ 
vailed, and Great Britain furnished the com¬ 
mission with all information in its posses¬ 
sion, which could be of service in reaching a 
just and equitable conclusion. Population of 
Venezuela, 2,270,000. 



# LONG the sea coast and banks 
of some of the rivers, besides 
some extensive tracts in Minas- 
Geraes, the country has been 
brought under cultivation ; but 
by far the greater portion of 
the surface remains in a state of nature. 
The dense forests furnish almost every 
variety of useful and ornamental timber, 
more than one hundred species of palms, 
logwood, mahogany, Brazil, and numerous 
other dye-woods, with sassafras, sarsaparilla, 
ipecacuanha, and a great variety of other 
drugs. Cocoa is an indigenous product; 
maize, sugar, cofifee, cotton, rice, wheat and 
tobacco, have been introduced by European 
culture. 

The animal as well as the vegetable pro¬ 
ducts here present the greatest diversity. 


The diamond mines of Minas-Geraes are at 
present the most productive known. Other 
gems, and large quantities of gold, besides 
silver, copper, iron and platinum, are among 
the mineral riches of the same province. 
Manufactures in Brazil are confined to cotton¬ 
weaving, tanning, and the production of 
goods of primary necessity. 

Brazil was discovered on the 26th of Jan¬ 
uary, 1 500, by the Spaniards under Pinzon, 
one of the companions of Columbus. In 
the same year the Portuguese fitted out an 
expedition to follow up the successful dis¬ 
coveries of Vasco de Gama in the East, and 
finally took possession of the country in 
1640. 

In 1808 the royal family of Portugal was 
expelled by the French and took refuge in 
Brazil, and the first act of Dom Joao VI., 











506 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


was to open Brazilian ports to foreign com¬ 
merce. Other wise and liberal measures 
greatly stimulated the growth of the country. 
In 1822 he was succeeded by his son who 
was proclaimed and crowned Emperor as 
Dom Pedro I. His reign, however, was not 
a fortunate one. Vexed with the opposition 
he encountered he abdicated in 1831 in 
favor of his eldest son Dom Pedro II. 


After a brief government by regencies, 
Dom Pedro II. was crowned in 1840. He 
proved to be a wise and liberal ruler and 
was popular with his people until the revo¬ 
lutionary disturbances of 1895, when he fled 
to Europe where he soon afterward died. 
The population of Brazil is 14,000,000. and 
a good deal of enterprise is shown in devel¬ 
oping the resources of the country. 


flii'Tl 


rap* rv- j . 

SFr.t;-;v ; v.*: Vv';'*"-*::: 


Nlll. "“'H|„ lu ' l| 'jl|lnn'll|, 

'"‘III 


m 


0 PERU # 




m 


'III 1 


""lit, 


V 


.i 


.. 


. . 


Hr 


ERU is, for the most part, of 
igneous formation and contains 
a number of active volcanoes, 
that of Omati being the prin¬ 
cipal. Earthquakes are fre¬ 
quent and violent. Lying off 
the coast near Callao are the Chincha Islands, 
which, with those of Guadafe and Macabo, 
yield guano in vast quantities. Agriculture 
is much neglected, although the land is pro¬ 
ductive of excellent coffee, cocoa, cotton ; 
besides drugs, tobacco, pimento, dyestuffs, 
etc. The chief articles of export are, after 
guano, gold, silver, wine, sugar, quinine, 
wool, etc. 

When Pizarro, at the head of a small band 
of Spanish adventurers, first landed on the 
shores of Peru, 1532, he found it governed 
by sovereigns called Incas, who were looked 
up to by their subjects with awe and venera¬ 
tion ; and the inhabitants were distinguished 
for their mild and polished manners. But 
the avarice of their European conquerors led 
lo scenes of blood and desolation ; the last 
Inca, Atahualpa, was put to death, and the 
Peruvians became the victims of the most 
unheard-of cruelties. 

After being for nearly three centuries a 


Spanish viceroyalty, Peru, in 1821, along 
with the rest of Hispano-America, achieved 
its independence. In 1864, the Spaniards 
seized the Chincha Islands until Peru should 
make reparation for injuries inflicted upon 
Spanish subjects, and held them till 1866, 
when Peru agreed to pay an indemnity of 
60,000,000 reals. This treaty was not rati¬ 
fied, and an alliance entered into with Chile. 
After war for nearly three years, peace was 
restored in 1869 by the intervention of the 
United States. In 1881, war broke out be¬ 
tween Peru and Chili, resulting in the defeat 
of Peru, and the occupation of portions of 
the country by the Chilean army. 

As a Republic. 

On June 3, 1886, General Caceres, who 
had gallantly defended his country against 
the Chilians from first to last, became con¬ 
stitutional president of Peru. His policy 
was retrenchment and the protection of the 
Indian population. Payment of interest of 
the foreign debt had become impossible. 
General Caceres served his term of office, 
and was peacefully succeeded as president, 
on August 10, 1890, by Colonel Don Remijio 
Morales Bermudez. Peru is thus slowly 









THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


507 


recovering from the disastrous effects of a 
great calamity. 

The natural resources of the country are 
being developed, a greater interest is taken 


in public affairs, and with a more stable 
government, supported by the popular will, 
there is reason to predict a bright future for 
Peru. 



HE backbone of this country is 
found in the Great Cordil- 
lerras of the Andes, here at¬ 
taining an average height of 
14,000 feet, many of whose 
peaks are volcanic, notably 
that of Aconcagua (the high¬ 
est Andean summit), which has an altitude of 
23,910 feet above the sea. The coast-line 
presents steep and rocky shores, broken into 
by some excellent harbors. The rivers and 
lagoons are so small as to be undeserving of 
mention. Climate healthy, taken, as a whole; a 
scarcityof rain is, however, often felt. Earth¬ 
quakes are of common occurrence ; the last 
great shock doing much damage in 1868. 

Chili is one bed of metals : silver, gold, 
lead, and iron are found largely and worked; 
copper, however, is the principal resource of 
the national wealth, and is mined by Eng- 
lishmen on an immense scale. Sulphur, 
antimony, zinc, manganese, alum, nitre, salt, 
coal, are other mineral items which influence 
a large exportation. The soil is of varying 
fertility, fattening most towards the South 
and the foothills of the Andes. 

Many hard woods are made useful, instead 
of iron, and the fruits of the temperate zone 
thrive excellently. The Chilenos have thriven 
greatly since their emancipation from Spanish 
rule : the bulk of commercial transactions is 
carried on with Great Britain. 

Valparaiso is the chief port, Santiago is 


the capital; Valdivia, Concepcion, Talca are 
among the largest and finest towns. The 
government is formed on the constitu¬ 
tion of 1833, and consists of three depart¬ 
ments—the executive, legislative and judicial. 
The first is in the hands of a president, whose 
tenure of office is five years ; the legislature 
consists of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. 
The state religion is the Roman Catholic; 
other religions are tolerated, but their public 
exercise is not allowed. Chili, before the 
Spanish irruption, belonged to the Incas of 
Peru; in 1535-1540, its whole extent, ex¬ 
cepting only Araucania, was conquered by 
the lieutenants of Pizarro. It thenceforward 
become a Spanish colony, until 1817, when, 
after a seven years’ war with Spain, the vic¬ 
tory of Maypu, gained by General San Mar¬ 
tin, secured the independence of the country. 
At present Chili is the most flourishing of all 
the Hispano-American republics. 

Climate and Scenery. 

The temperature of Chili is remarkably 
even and pleasant and always cool at nights. 
In the south it is dry for about eight months 
in the year and rainy the other four. Vines 
ptow well on the hillsides and are a source 

o 

of large income. The Andes are almost 
everywhere visible, covered with perpetual 
snow. There are many volcanic peaks, 
mostly extinct. Chili is subject to frequent 
shocks of earthquake and occasionally tc 






















508 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


destructive tornadoes. The railway system 
of Chili is well developed, and in the north¬ 
ern provinces there are several mineral rail¬ 


ways belonging to English companies. The 
Constitution of Chili is Republican and based 
upon that of the United States. 



UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA 





ORMERLY known as New 
Granada, the United States of 
Colombia is one of the most 
progressive of the South 
American Republics. It lies 
in the extreme northwest 
angle of the continent. On 
the north is the Caribbean Sea ; on the 
northeast and east, Venezuela ; on the south¬ 
east and south, Brazil and Ecuador; and on 
the west, the Pacific and Costa Rica. Its 
extreme length from north to south is 1000 
miles, and the extreme breadth from east to 
west, 760 ; on the Isthmus of Panama, how¬ 
ever, the breadth is but 28 miles. It has an 
area estimated at from 480,000 to 520,000 
square miles. The population by the last 


census was 2,880,633. Of these, rather 
less than a million are whites, and about an 
equal number have a large admixture of 
Indian blood. The remainder are civilized 
Indians, mulattoes, savage Indians, and the 
various crosses between whites, Indians and 
negroes. 

The form of government established by 
the constitution of 1863 resembles in many 
respects that of the United States. The 
president is elected for two years. The 
Senate consists of three members from each 
of the states, and the lower house of dele¬ 
gates from the several states, each sending a 
member for every 50,000 inhabitants. Each 
state has its own legislative and executive 
officer. 




NDER the head of Central 
America the countries em¬ 
braced are the Republics of 
Guatemala, San Salvador, 
Honduras, Nicaragua and 
Costa Rica. They declared 
their independence Septem¬ 
ber 21, 1821, and separated 
from the Mexican confederation July 21, 


1823. ihe states made a treaty of union 
between themselves March 21, 1847. There 
has been among them since much anarchy 
and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the 
irruption of American filibusters under Kenny 
and Walker, 1854-5. 

In January, 1863, a war began between 
Guatemala (afterward joined by Nicaragua) 
and San Salvador (afterward supported by 


















509 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


Honduras). The latter were defeated at 
Santa Rosa, June 16th, and San Salvador was 
taken, October 26th; the President of San 
Salvador, Barrios, fled, and Carrera, the dic¬ 
tator of Guatemala, became predominant 
over the confederacy. General Barrios, 


President of Guatemala, attempts the union 
of the five states, himself to be dictator, 
opposed by all except Honduras, February. 
He is defeated and killed in a prolonged 
battle at Chalchuapa, April 2d ; peace with 
the states signed April 16, 1885. 



£4 EM of the Antilles,” as 

Cuba has long been called, 
it is at once the largest, 
most picturesque and in¬ 
viting of all the West 
India Islands. Here are 
scenes of tropical loveli¬ 
ness, plantations with fertile soil and thrifty 
products, flourishing towns and beautiful 
harbors, a mixed population comprising all 
social grades and all degrees of intelligence. 

The insurrection going on in Cuba in 1895 
and 1896, aroused the sympathies of the 
American people. Spain sent a large army 
to beat back the rising tide of patriotic im¬ 
pulse and hold the island still under her domi¬ 
neering rule. Secret expeditions were fitted 
out from the United States, and the sym¬ 
pathy for the Cuban cause expressed in 
C©ngress stirred the hot blood of the proud 
Castilian and mobs in different parts of 
Spain assaulted and dishonored the Ameri¬ 
can flag. 

Cuba was discovered by Columbus in 
1492. The Spanish settlement was consum¬ 
mated in 1512, and the culture of sugar-cane 
and tobacco introduced about 1580. Ameri¬ 


can filibustering expeditions against the is¬ 
land occurred in 1850-51, both or'which 
ended disastrously to their projectors. Ow¬ 
ing to the oppressive rule sanctioned by the 
home government, the island broke out into 
revolt in September, 1868, and her people, 
declaring their independence, formed a so- 
called National Junta, and appointed Don 
Manuel Cespedes their commander-in-chief. 

Years of Warfare. 

A sort of guerrilla warfare was thus initi¬ 
ated, and carried on until 1878, marked by 
random engagements and resultant mas¬ 
sacres on both sides. Since October, 1868, 
about 90,000 soldiers have been sent to 
Cuba from Spain, of whom scarcely 15,000 
survived. In addition to these, nearly 100,- 
000 were sent in 1895—96. 

The soil is fertile in the extreme ; forests 
of vast extent are interspersed over the in¬ 
terior, presenting a vegetation almost un¬ 
equalled for luxuriance and variety. The 
climate is hot and variable ; hurricanes and 
shocks of earthquake are frequent. Sugar 
is the chief staple followed by tobacco, coffee, 
rice, maize, tropical fruits and vegetables. 












510 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


The Cobre mines yield large supplies of 
copper-ore, and coal, bitumen and varieties 
of marbles and valuable stones are found. 
Sugar, rum, molasses, cigars and applica¬ 
tions of wax are the manufactures. The 
heroic effort of the Cubans to throw off the 
yoke of Spain, beginning in 1895, aroused 
the sympathies of the American people and 
for a time threatened complications between 


this country and the government at Madrid.. 
Spain sent over 200,000 troops to Cuba to 
quell the insurrection, but the heroism dis¬ 
played by the Cubans prevented the success 
of the Spanish army. Even the death of the 
famous Cuban leader, Gen. Antonio Maceo, 
who was lured into ambush and shot, failed 
to dispirit the insurgents, who gallantly con¬ 
tinued their struggle for independence. 




HAWAII 

OR 

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 






NUSUAL interest was awak¬ 
ened throughout America 
by the agitation in Hawaii, 
or the Sandwich Islands, 
which resulted in the over¬ 
throw of the monarchical 
government and the estab¬ 
lishment of a Republic. 

In 1843 the independence of the govern¬ 
ment was formally guaranteed by the English 
and French. A line of monarchs followed, 
the last male member of which was King 
Kalakaua, who died at the Palace Hotel, in 
San Francisco, January 20, 1891. 

It was his travels and extravagance that 
caused the financial troubles which led to a 
change in the form of government. Princess 
Liliuokalani, who succeeded her brother, 
proved herself to be an erratic and self-willed 
ruler. She was constantly at variance with 
her legislature and advisers, and in January, 
1895, attempted to promulgate a new con¬ 
stitution, depriving foreigners of the right of 
franchise and doing away with the existing 


House of Nobles, at the same time giving 
herself power of appointing a new house. 
This was resisted by the foreign element of 
the community, who at once appointed a 
committee of safety consisting of thirteen 
members, who called a mass meeting of 
their class, at which twelve or fifteen hundred 
persons were present. 

The Queen Condemned. 

That meeting unanimously adopted reso¬ 
lutions condemning the action of the Queen 
and authorizing a committee to take into 
further consideration whatever was necessary 
to protect the public safety. The committee 
issued a proclamation to the Hawaiian people, 
formed itself into a provisional government, 
took possession of the national property and 
sent commissioners to the United States, 
inviting this republic to annex the islands. 
A treaty to that end was proposed by Presi¬ 
dent Harrison in February, 1893. 

When Mr. Cleveland entered upon his 
second administration he set this treaty 



















THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 


511 


aside and was openly accused of expressing 
sympathy with the party who favored the re¬ 
tention of the Queen upon the throne. The 
new form of government, however, has ex¬ 
isted, and the islands are now under its 
control. 

The Sandwich Islands are thirteen in 
number, the eight principal of which are in¬ 
habited, viz., Hawaii, Oahu, Maui, Molokai, 
Lanai, Nihau, Kahoolani and Atuai. Hawaii, 


The Sandwich Islands constitute a calling 
place (Honolulu) for the mail-steamers 
which ply between San Francisco, Japan and 
China. The inhabitants are of the pure 
Polynesian (Malay) type. Discovered by 
Captain Cook in 1778, they were erected 
into a constitutional monarchy in 1840. 

Lying as they do in the middle of the 
Pacific Ocean, the Hawaiian Islands, though 
within the tropics, enjoy a fairly temperate 



THE GRAND MAUNA LOA IN ACTION. 


the largest of the group, contains the capi¬ 
tal. Honolulu has an area of about 4000 
square miles, and embraces within its limits 
two of the largest volcanic mountains in the 
world—Mouna Loa and Mouna Koa—each 
with an elevation of about 14,000 feet above 
the sea. These islands are very fertile, pro¬ 
ducing grain, coffee, sugar, cocoa, arrow- 
root, tobacco and fruits ; while on their fine 
pastures great quantities of cattle are reared 
to supply the needs of merchant-vessels. 


climate. Rains, brought by the northeast 
trade wind, are frequent on the side of the 
mountains which faces that quarter, but on 
the other parts of the islands little rain falls, 
and the sky is generally cloudless. The 
yearly rainfall at Honolulu, being on the 
leeward side of Oahu, is under forty inches ; 
that of the islands generally about fifty-four 
inches. 

The soil, whose constituent parts are 
mainly scoriae, decomposed lava and sand, 



























































































































































































































512 


THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 


is generally thin and poor, but at the bases 
of the mountains and in the valleys there 
are extensive tracks as fertile as they are 
beautiful. In Hawaii alone, on the Waimea 
plains, thousands of sheep of the merino 
breed find grazing ground; and on most of 
the islands, while the upland slopes of the 
mountains are clothed with dense forests, the 
lower levels spread into grassy plains rich 
with sugar and rice plantations. 

The islands are separated from other lands 
by a broad expanse and great depth of sea, 
consequently their natural history has many 
special features of its own. In the high 
mountains there are some species of plants 
akin to those of the American continent. The 
forest trees are mainly to be found on the 
windward, being the rainy side of the moun¬ 
tain ranges. Tropical fruits are numerous. 
There are now, as has been stated, numerous 
sugar and rice plantations on the islands. 

The staple food of the natives consists of 


poi , a kind of thick paste made from the root 
of the taro plant and raw or dried fish. The 
only indigenous animals are rats, mice, bats, 
does and hoes, but others have been added 

o o 1 

since white men came to the islands ; cattle, 
sheep, etc., having been introduced by Van¬ 
couver and other navigators. There are 
large numbers of semi-wild horses in the 
kingdom, and in some parts of the mountains 
wild dogs are also to be found. 

Reptiles are few, including on land one 
species of the lizard and a few of the gecko ; 
and the native birds, of which there are nine¬ 
teen species, are rapidly disappearing, though 
foreign importations more than supply their 
place. The archipelago has unfortunately 
no mineral resources. Coral rock is the 
material chiefly used for building purposes, 
and to a less extent, basalt, compact lava 
and sandstone. There is a large variety of 
sea-shells, some of which are of exquisite 
beauty and loveliness. 







HE most exact, as 
well as the most 
sublime oh all the 
sciences, is astron¬ 
omy. Where are 
the souls to whom 
the spectacle of 
starry night is not an elo¬ 
quent discourse ? Where 
are those who have not 
been sometimes arrested 
in the presence of the 
bright worlds which hover 
over our heads and who 
have not sought for the 
key of the great enigma 

The solitary hours of night are in truth 
the most beautiful of all our hours, those in 
which we have the faculty of placing ourselves 
in intimate communication with Nature. 
The orb of day conceals from us the splen¬ 
dors of the firmament; it is during the night 
chat the panoramas of the sky are open to us. 
At the hour of midnight, the heavenly vault 
is strewn with stars, like isles of light in the 
midst of an ocean extending over our heads. 

In the vaporous darkness our eyes gaze 
freely on the sky, piercing the deep azure of 
the apparent vault, above which the stars 
33 


shine. They traverse the white constellated 
regions, visiting distant realms of space, 
where the most brilliant stars lose their 
brightness by distance ; they go beyond this 
unexplored expanse, and mount still higher, 
as far as those faint nebulae whose diffused 
brightness seems to mark the limits of the 
visible. In this immense passage of sight 
thought is carried away by its flight and 
wonders at these distant splendors. 

It is then that thousands of questions 
spring up in our minds, and that a thousand 
points of interrogation rise to our sight. 
The problem of creation is a great problem ! 
The science of the stars is a sublime science; 
its mission is to embrace all created things ! 
At the remembrance of these impressions, 
does it not appear that the man who does 
not feel any sentiment of admiration before 
the picture of the starry splendor, is not yet 
worthy of receiving on his brow the crown 
of intelligence ? 

No one can study the human frame, its 
marvelous bones, joints, muscles, arteries, 
nerves; its breathing lungs and beating 
heart, sending its thrill of life through every 
fibre of the complicated system, without 
being led to the thought of an all-wise 
Creator. Far more true is it, if possible, that 
“ an undevout astronomer is mad.” 


513 






















514 


ASTRONOMY. 


Of all the sciences astronomy is the one 
which can enlighten us best on our relative 
value, and make us understand the relation 
which connects the earth with the rest of 
creation. Without it, as the history of past 
centuries testifies, it is impossible for us to 
know where we are or who we are, or to 
establish an instructive comparison between 
the place which we occupy in space and the 
whole of the universe; without it we should 
be both ignorant of the actual extent of our 
country, its nature, and the order to which 
it belongs. Enclosed in the dark meshes of 
ignorance, we cannot form the slightest idea 
of the general arrangement of the world; a 
thick fog covers the narrow horizon which 
contains us, and our mind remains incapable 
of soaring above the daily theatre of life, and 
of going beyond the narrow sphere traced by 
the limits of the action of our senses. 

A Universe of Wonders. 

On the other hand, when the torch of the 
Science of the Worlds enlightens us, the 
scene changes, the vapors which darkened 
the horizon fade away, our mistaken eyes 
contemplate in the serenity of a pure sky the 
immense work of the Creator. The earth 
appears like a globe poised under our steps ; 
thousands of similar globes are rocked in 
ether ; the world enlarges in proportion as 
the power of our examination increases, and 
from that time universal creation develops 
itself before us in reality, establishing both 
our rank and our relation with the numerous 
similar worlds which constitute the universe. 

The sun, which so many have worshiped, 
and which is, humanly speaking, the source 
of life to us all, is a perpetual wonder. Its 
circumference is about two million seven 
hundred and seventy thousand miles. Its 
distance from the earth is so great that a 
railway train moving at thirty-two miles per 


hour would take three millions of hours, or 
three hundred and forty-two years and three 
months, to travel from us to the sun, sup¬ 
posing that it could travel incessantly night 
and day during that time. When arrived, it 
would be rather more than a year and a half 
in reaching the sun’s centre; three years and 
a quarter in passing through the sun, sup¬ 
posing it was tunnelled through, and ten 
years and one-eighth in going round it. 
How great these dimensions are, may be 
conceived from the statement, that the same 
train would attain the centre of the earth in 
five days and a half, pass through it in 
eleven days, and go round it in thirty-seven 
days. A cannon ball, moving fifty times 
faster than such a train, would expend seven 
years in reaching the sun. 

Vast Size of the Sun. 

To make a globe like the sun it would 
take one million four hundred thousand 
globes like the earth rolled into one! Or, 
to make these facts simpler, and yet more 
stupendous, the bulk of the sun is five hun¬ 
dred times greater than the aggregate bulk 
of all the other bodies of the solar system of 
which night only reveals to us a small part 
—that which appears above our hemisphere 
and above our particular standpoint. The 
centre of the sun is a dark mass covered 
with a garment of flame. But in this lumi¬ 
nous matter there are vast rents. We talk 
of spots on the sun; spots indeed! the 
space occupied or laid bare by the principal 
spot is nine hundred and twenty-eight million 
square geographical miles. 

Arago, by a physical test, proved that this 
garment of flame, this luminous matter, must 
be gaseous ; so that the sun floats in an 
ocean of flame, and this is so powerful that 
the strongest blast furnace yet ignited by 
man, at its highest power, is seven times 




HOW TO READ THE SKY 


515 


weaker than the sun’s heat at its surface. 

If the heat be electric, how great is the 
wonder! being dispersed over space so great 
that the earth’s surface, at a distance of 
ninety-one million miles, notwithstanding the 
alternation of night, receives in a year suffi¬ 
cient, if uniformly diffused, to liquefy a crust 
of ice one hundred feet in thickness. 

When we come to examine the sun by the 
aid of a telescope, we find that all parts of ! 
the surface do not give out light 
to the same extent, and that there 
are certain places on it darker, 
and some brighter, than the re¬ 
mainder of the disk. The former 
are sunspots, the latter faculae. 

The Sun Revolves. 

The first person who exam¬ 
ined sunspots closely was the 
illustrious Galileo, who pro¬ 
ceeded to determine from them 
the sun’s velocity of rotation 
on his axis; for he perceived 
that they moved across the sun’s 
body. However, since his time, 
it has been shown that the spots 
have a motion of their own ; 
those at the sun’s equator mov¬ 
ing faster than those at his 
poles; so that observations on 
the spots alone cannot tell us 
the rapidity of the revolution of the sun’s 
entire mass. 

It has also been noticed that the number 
of these spots visible at one time does not 
remain the same from year to year, and, in 
fact, that about every ten years there is an 
epoch at which they are especially abundant. 
General Sabine has pointed out that these 
periods of frequency of sunspots are coinci¬ 
dent with the periods of greatest magnetic 
disturbance on our own globe. Accordingly, 


we see that there exists a distinct and close 
connection between variations in the appear¬ 
ance of the sun, and changes in the physical 
constitution of our earth. 

The interesting question now arises : what 
are the sunspots? and what is their cause? 
The very careful investigations of science 
have thrown much light upon this interesting 
subject. One of the most remarkable fea¬ 
tures of the spots is, that their central por¬ 


SUN AND ITS REMARKABLE SPOTS. 

tion is darker than the edge ; and accord* 
ingly, nearly a century ago, it was suggested 
that they were pits in an envelope which sur¬ 
rounded the sun. The results of later 
experiments seem to confirm this idea. 
They further go to show that the faculae, or 
bright patches, are really of the nature of 
luminous clouds, placed, relatively to the 
sun, above the level of the spots. 

These faculae are generally seen behind 
the spot, a position which they would neces- 



THE 















51G 


ASTRONOMY. 



sarily assume if they were thrown up to a 
greater distance from his centre, and would 
move more slowly. The same observations 
have shown that spots are produced below 
the level of the sun’s photosphere, while the 
faculse are suspended in that medium. If 


A TYPICAL SUN-SPOT. 

this be admitted, it seems to follow that the 
two phenomena are effects of a vertical cir¬ 
culation in the gaseous matter surrounding 
the sun, the faculse being produced when a 
portion somewhat denser than the medium 
in which it is suspended is raised into or 


above the photosphere, while spots ai e ob¬ 
served when such a mass is below the pho- 
tospheric stratum. In fact, one of our dili¬ 
gent sun observers has seen a faculae, 
apparently in the act of sinking, lose its 
brightness and gradually pass into a spot, its 
form remaining unchanged dur¬ 
ing the process. 

There is a shorter period of 
twenty months’ duration observ¬ 
able in the recurrence of spots, 
and this coincides with the per¬ 
iods of recurrence of the same 
relative position of Venus as 
regards the sun and the earth. 
The same is true of Jupiter. 

Brotherhood of Worlds. 

These discoveries are of the 
greatest interest, as they show 
us how intimately all the bodies 
of our solar system are related to 
each other, and how the slightest 
change in any one of them ex¬ 
erts a definite influence on the 
condition of the entire system, 
despite their great magnitude and 
distance from each other. 

Let us see then in what the 
spots of the sun consist. Gen¬ 
erally, this is the aspect which 
they present to us in the field 
of the telescope, as seen in the 
accompanying engraving. 

Two very distinct portions are 
noticed; at the centre a well- 
defined black region. Around 
it a region not so black or grayish com¬ 
pared with the surface of the sun which 
surrounds it. The central part has received 
the name of “umbra;” sometimes at the 
centre of this part is noticed a more intense 
dark spot, which is called “the nucleus.” 












HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


517 


The exterior region of the spot has received 
the name of “ penumbra.” When it is stated 
that the centre of the spot is black, this 
expression must be understood as relative to 
the general surface of the sun; for this 
centre, however dark it may appear by con¬ 
trast, has been found of a light equal to two 
thousand times that of the full moon. 

Enormous Gulfs. 

We may be led to the belief that these 
spots, generally invisible to the naked eye, 
are insignificant movements carried on on the 
sun’s surface, and of small extent. It is not 
so. They are daily and very important 
phenomena. Some of them have been 
known to measure 80,000 miles, that is to 
say, they are ten times larger than the earth. 
Our globe falling into most of them would 
be lost as in a well. Besides being of this 
size, they are also the seat of various actions 
and prodigious phenomena. 

They are not formed suddenly as a whole, 
but increase to the limit they attain, and 
afterwards diminish. Some only last a few 
weeks, others months. Now, the movements 
with which they are animated, either for their 
increase or diminution, or in their internal 
action, are sometimes of unheard-of rapidity. 
Lately, astronomers have followed a daz¬ 
zling meteor passing throuph a group of 
spots with a velocity of eight thousand miles 
per minute. In other parts, they have 
watched circular whirlwinds, dragging into 
their commotion large spots like the earth, 
and swallowing them up in abysses with fear¬ 
ful velocity. 

Sometimes are seen the crests of stormy 
waves extending over parts of the penumbra, 
and rising on the white surface of the sun as 
a still whiter and brighter substance, doubt¬ 
less projected in their ebullition by interior 
forces. There have, besides, been seen 


immense bridges of fiery substances cast 
suddenly over a black spot, crossing it from 
one end to the other, like an arch of lumin¬ 
ous striae, which sometimes is dissipated, and 
falls down into the abysses of lower whirl¬ 
pools. 

This body, wiicb each day pours out over 
our heads such a pure and calm light, is the 
seat of powerful actions, and prodigious 
movements, of which our tempests, hurri¬ 
canes and waterspouts give us but a slight 
idea ; for these gigantic disturbances are not 
performed, as here, in an atmosphere of a 
few miles thickness and over a few miles 
area, but in proportions as vast as its volume. 
One of the first results of the observation of 
solar spots was to discover that the sun turns 
on its axis in about twenty-five of our days. 

Rapid Movement of Sun-spots. 

Indeed, if we watch for several consecu¬ 
tive days any of the spots visible on the 
solar surface, or a group of spots, or even 
the whole sun, we shall not be long in 
remarking that the spots are all animated 
with the same movement from one edge to 
the other of the solar disk. If, for instance, 
we begin to follow a spot from its appearance 
at the eastern edge, we observe that it ad¬ 
vances slowly towards the middle of the 
body, which it reaches about seven days 
after its appearance ; then it passes it, and 
continues its course towards the west, and 
seven days afterward it reaches the edge and 
disappears. 

After a period of fourteen days, employed 
in traveling over the opposite hemisphere, it 
reappears at the same place, and follows the 
path previously pointed out. These obser¬ 
vations evidently show that the sun turns on 
an axis. This rotation of the sun shows its 
spots in the following manner: If the period 
of the reappearance of the spots is from 





518 


ASTRONOMY. 


twenty-five to twenty-eight days, this does 
not refute the number of twenty-five days 
before mentioned. 

The difference proceeds from the earth not 
remaining immovable in space, but turning 
round the sun. Now, in its translatory 
movement round the sun, the earth advanc¬ 
ing in the direction of its rotation, sees the 
spots two days and a half after they have 
disappeared at the point where the earth was 
at the commencement of the observation. 

The Sun’s Eternal Day. 

This rotary movement takes place from 
west to east, like that of the earth and all 
planets of the system. Thus, by telescopic 
examination, this body declared fixed and 
incorruptible in antiquity, is stripped of its 
two distinctive qualities. The diurnal rota¬ 
tion of the sun is twenty-five times longer 
than that of the earth ; but it differs essen¬ 
tially in its immediate consequences, because 
it does not produce on the surface the alter¬ 
nate day and night, which we derive from 
this movement. It cannot, then, be stated 
that this is the length of the solar day, for it 
is not the sign of a succession of light and 
darkness : the sun’s day does not go out, 
and the twilight of evening does not pale it. 
This world lives in a permanent light. 

It neither knows our seasons nor years, 
and the elements of our calendar cannot be 
applied to its astronomical role. It seems 
that the rapid succession of things which 
constitute our time, and the changing series 
of phenomena which we experience, do not 
fall to his lot; continuance and endless dura¬ 
tion are his characteristics ; and he is free 
from counting for his individual personal life 
the successive ages which, on our globe, 
measure life and overwhelm it with their 
number. 

The size of the sun exceeds the degree of 


our habitual measurements too much for us 
to hope to give a sufficient idea of it. In 
the matter of volumes, as in that of distances 
and times, the numbers too far surpass our 
ordinary conceptions to appeal to our minds, 
and every care that we take to represent 
them to ourselves remains almost sterile. 
Nevertheless, a comparison will be able to 
inspire at least a nearer idea of the size to 
which we refer. 

If we placed the terrestrial globe in the 
centre of the solar globe, like a kernel in the 
middle of a fruit, the distance of the moon 
would be included in the interior of the solar 
body; the moon itself would be absorbed in 
it, and beyond the moon to the surface of 
the sun, following the same radius, we 
should still have to traverse a distance of 
200,000 miles. From the earth to the sun 
are reckoned 91,000,000 miles. It is on 
account of this great distance that this 
immense body only appears to measure a 
foot in diameter ; and this explains why the 
ancients, and Epicurus in particular, did no' 
believe it larger than that measure. 

How to Ascertain the Distance. 

This distance equally explains why it does 
not appear to us larger than the moon, which 
is only 240,000 miles away. From this it 
may reasonably be asked, how this distance 
from the sun to the earth could possibly be 
determined. The method is too complicated 
for us to explain it here in detail ; but an 
idea may be given of it without exceeding 
the limits of this chapter. 

Between the sun and the earth there are 
two planets, Mercury and Venus: the latter 
has rendered the greatest service in the study 
of the distance, which separates us from the 
sun. As its orbit (the circumference which 
it describes round the central body) is nearly 
on the same plane as the earth’s orbit, it 



HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


519 


liappens from time to time that it passes 
between the sun and ourselves, and appears 
like a black spot crossing the luminous disk. 
This passage takes place at the singular 
intervals of eight years, 113^ years —8 
years, 113^ years A 8 years. 

At these valuable periods, astronomers of 
all countries forget their nationality, and lis¬ 
tening to each other like brothers, place 
themselves so as to observe the pas¬ 
sage of Venus in different countries. 

Two observers situated in the sta¬ 
tions most distant from each other, 
note the two points where the planet, 
seen from each of their stations, 
seems to be projected at the same 
moment on the solar disk. This 
measure gives them the angle formed 
by two lines starting from their sta¬ 
tions, and crossing each other on 
Venus, and passing on to the sun. 

The measure of this angle, gives what 
is named the parallax of the sun. 

Waiting Eight Years. 

At the transit of Venus, in 1761, a 
French astronomer, Le Gentil—-his 
name should have preserved him 
from such disappointments on the 
part of Venus—was curiously re¬ 
quited for his love of science and 
his disinterestedness. Sent to India 
by the Academie des Sciences, he 
embarked with arms and baggage to observe 
the passage of the planet at Pondicherry. 
His great activity and ardor could not con¬ 
quer the chances of the sea voyage; he 
landed a few days after the phenomenon had 
taken place.. The obstacles irritated him and 
increased his courage. He formed the 
heroic resolution of remaining for eight 
years in the midst of that unknown country, 
in order to compensate himself for his lost 


observation ; he waited for the passage of 
1769, and then made all desired arrange¬ 
ments to obtain a perfect observation. 

The year and the day at length arrived! 
The sky was clear and no obstacle hindered 
his long resolution from at last receiving its 
reward. But, alas! exactly at the moment 
when the black spot was about to enter on 
the solar disk, a small cloud formed in the 


atmosphere and remained before the sun 
until the moment when Venus left the disk, 
putting an end to the possibility of all obser¬ 
vation. The astronomer again took the 
voyage to France with a stormy sea, which 
brought his days to a close. 

The last transit of Venus was in 1882, and 
there will not be another until June, 2004. 

From considerations based on the mag¬ 
netic action of the sun, we may be led to 



THE EARTH FLOATING IN SPACE. 










5!20 


ASTRONOMY. 


believe that its light is of the same nature as 
the electric light, only incomparably more 
powerful, seeing that the elements which we 
have at command are infinitely inferior to 
those commanded by nature. However 
bright our electric foci may be, however 
dazzling their light, the whiteness of which 
astonishes us, when it is projected on the 
solar disk, the electric light has the appear¬ 
ance of a black spot. 

Inconceivable Heat. 

The intensity of solar heat is not less dif¬ 
ficult to conceive; the most intense of our 
furnaces, which rise to the temperature of 
white heat, does not give us a faint idea of 
it. However, the following comparisons 
will indicate its value. If we represent the 
sun under the form of an enormous globe 
built up of a million four hundred thousand 
terrestrial globes, and covered entirely with 
a stratum of coal fourteen miles thick, the 
heat which it pours out annually in space is 
equal to that which would be furnished by 
this stratum of flaming coal. This solar heat 
would also be capable of melting in one 
second a column of ice which would measure 
1 590 square miles at its base, and 192,000 
miles high. 

It is curious to inquire how much this 
gigantic body weighs. When astronomers 
place the sun in one of the pans of the im¬ 
mense scales with which they determine the 
weight of the stars, it is necessary for them 
to put in the other one, 350,000 terrestrial 
globes like our own to restore equilibrium. 

Many of the chemical effects of the sun’s 
light are, and long have been, familiar. Linen 
and cotton cloth exposed to it, for a length 
of time, as is well known, will be bleached ; 
and fabrics dyed of certain colors will be 
faded, or changed into a different shade. 
Yellow wax laid beneath the solar rays will 


be turned white; and the colorless horn 
silver in a few minutes changed into a violet 
tint. And so of many other substances. 

If a piece of paper, or a finger, be dipped 
in lunar caustic, and then be exposed to the 
sun, it will quickly turn black. If initial let¬ 
ters or names be written on linen with what 
is called indelible ink, they will be at first 
quite pale, but by a short exposure to the 
sunlight they turn dark. If a sheet of paper 
be plunged into a solution of common salt,, 
then dried, and again be dipped into a solu¬ 
tion of silver, it becomes so sensitive to the 
action of the sunrays, that if ferns and leaves 
such as those represented in Fig. 1, be placed 
upon it, and then exposed to the summer’s 
sun, the uncovered part of the paper will 
turn black, while that beneath the ferns and 
leaves will remain white, presenting an exact 
im^ess G f the w ] 10 le group, as in Fig. 2. 

Pictures Made by the Sun. 

Nothing can give a more beautiful picture 
of them ; the light works through the slender 
leaves, but not through the thicker and more 
compact stems, and thus copies all, even to 
the minutest veins. This process has been 
turned to important practical purposes; it 
has been of great service, for example, in 
military operations, where it was necessary 
to make quickly a copy of some map of 
which there was only one impression. If a 
duplicate had to be made by hand, it would 
require several days to accomplish it; nor 
would it then have been as correct as that 
printed by the sun in the above manner. 

It is by the chemical action of the sun, as 
is well known, that the photographer brings 
forth his marvelous productions—produc¬ 
tions which are not only of pleasing per¬ 
sonal interest, but of the greatest practical 
value in art, science, and literature. By the 
simple action of the sunrays upon certain 





HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


521 


substances overspreading the surface of metal¬ 
lic or paper tablets, he can obtain an accurate 
likeness of any person, place, or thing he 
may desire. In this way he is enabled to 
preserve for us the lineaments of those who 
have benefited their race by their learning, 
their skill or their bravery. 

By the agency of the very rays which 
illumine the countenance and reveal the bril¬ 
liancy of the laughing eye and the charm of 
the roseate cheek, he can at once secure for 
us a lifelike picture of the form and features 
we most admire and love. In the same 


nearly every branch of human study or inves¬ 
tigation. By its means the traveler is enabled 
to bring home accurate representations of 
the scenery, inhabitants, and productions he 
has witnessed in foreign climes; the geol¬ 
ogist, to secure unerring delineations of the 
marvellous fossils of the flora and fauna he 
has discovered in the deep strata of the 
earth; the astronomer, to present the tran¬ 
sient appearances of the eclipses he has 
observed in the heavens; the meteorologist, 

, to furnish a correct registry of his baro¬ 
meter and thermometer every hour. 




Fig. I. WREATHS COPIED BY THE SUN. Fig. 2. 


manner he can copy the outlines and details 
of natural scenery with perfect fidelity. In 
his picture will be found every undulation 
of the landscape, every projecting rock, 
every sinuous stream, each spreading tree, 
each grazing ox, the peasant’s home, the vil¬ 
lage spire, together with every other object 
and feature in the scene—these, all these, he 
can faithfully transfer to his plate, in all their 
varied and delicate shades, by the agency of 
the sunbeams which illuminate the whole. 

The chemistry of the solar rays, in our day, 
has become a most important auxiliary to 


By its aid the antiquarian is able to obtain 
a fac-simile of the ruined temples, broken 
statuary, and obscured inscriptions which he 
has found on the fields of ancient civili¬ 
zation and power; the botanist, to copy with 
nature’s exactness the forms and parts of 
plants, the stamens, and corolla, and pistils, 
and pollen of flowers; and the anatomist, to 
exhibit the various organs and functions of 
the body, both in their normal and abnormal 
conditions. 

As nothing is more general in its applica¬ 
tion, so nothing is more perfect and ad- 




522 


ASTRONOMY. 


mirable in its execution, than the sunbeam. 
No object is too great, and none too min¬ 
ute for it to depict. It can give us large 
pictures, with every detail perfect and in its 
right proportion, of the minutest objects, 
such as insects and animalcula; and it can 
furnish us with microscopic pictures, equally 
correct, of objects huge or vast. This is 
achieved by the intervention of lenses that 
magnify or diminish the image. 

Microscopic photography is of great im¬ 
portance in relation to anatomic prepara¬ 
tions, which quickly change and become 
decomposed; it is also of very essential 
help in the study of fixed and permanent 
bodies. Jewelry, and even toys are some¬ 
times made, containing minute photographs 
beneath small magnifying glasses. When 
these are held before the eye, small trans¬ 
parent images, some of them portraits, some 
statues, and others, writings, come into view 
in admirable perfection. Such things, how¬ 
ever, serve rather for amusement than use. 

Microscopic Photography. 

But there are cases where microscopic 
photography may prove of no little value 
and importance. It has been suggested 
that in this way the contents of ponderous 
volumes might be concentrated within a few 
square inches, and the books of a whole 
library be reduced within the capacity of a 
single drawer. Though nothing of this sort, 
as far as the author is aware, has thus far 
been done, yet the process has been em¬ 
ployed for other ends under most interesting 
circumstances. 

Professor Hermann Vogel relates that 
during the seige of Paris, in 1870, the block¬ 
aded city held communication with the 
world outside by means of balloons and 
carrier pigeons. The first mode of commu¬ 
nication was almost engrossed for political 


objects ; the second only admitted the trans 
mission of very minute writing. Letters, 
however condensed, could scarcely have 
been sent more than two or three at a time 
by a pigeon. In this case, microscopic 
photography presented a valuable means of 
concentrating many pages on a collodion 
film of only one square inch, and of expe¬ 
diting more than a dozen of such almost 
imponderable films packed in one quill. 

What the Sunbeam Can Do. 

Dagrand, at Paris, who first prepared 
microscopic photographs, also set going the 
system of these pigeon dispatches. All the 
correspondence which had to be diminished 
was first set up in type, and printed together 
on a folio page. A microscopic photograph 
was made of this folio page, contained in 
about the space of 1 y 2 square inches. 
This collodion film, with the image upon it, 
was then glazed over by pouring leather 
collodion over it; that is, collodion contain¬ 
ing a solution of glycerine. This glucose 
collodion easily dries, separates from the 
picture, and forms a transparent film; a 
membrane of this kind could contain as 
many as fifteen hundred despatches. 

At the place of arrival these membranes 
were unrolled, and then enlarged by the 
help of a magic lantern; a number of writers 
thereupon set to work to copy the enlarged 
despatches, and ultimately forwarded them 
to their respective addresses. Thus Paris 
corresponded, by the aid of photography, 
for six months with the world without, and 
even poor persons were able to let their 
relatives know that they still lived. 

Another marvelous fact pertaining to the 
chemistry of the solar ray is, the rapidity 
with which it produces its effects upon cer¬ 
tain substances. A new negative process 
has lately been discovered; it consists in the 







HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


523 


use of a gelatine emulsion of silver bro¬ 
mide for the sensitive surface. With a plate 
thus prepared, a photograph may now be 
taken in one second of time which it for¬ 
merly took thirty seconds to secure ; and a 
plate can be prepared which needs an ex¬ 
posure of only one-sixtieth of a second, 
when a view is fairly lighted, to secure a soft 
and harmonious negative. 

Thus it appears that the solar rays are capa¬ 
ble of instantaneous chemical action, and 
of producing for us a perfect picture of a 
man in full activity, or of an object in rapid 
motion. The likeness of an orator may be 
taken at the moment of his highest pitch of 
eloquence, giving not only his attitude and 
gesticulation, but the very expression of his 
features. A squadron of cavalry can be 
pictured as they advance with rushing speed 
to the deadly charge, each man, each 
horse appearing a distinct figure in the 
scene. 

Nay, a view has been taken in which 
the shadow and reflections of a swallow 
passing in the air over a pond were per¬ 
fectly represented. How wonderful the 
workings of the laws of nature! how 
closely related all its parts! how admira¬ 
bly constituted every ray of the sun to 
move every atom to accomplish the pur¬ 
poses of Him who worketh all in all. 

Eclipse of the Sun. 

The total eclipse occurs when the moon is 
near to the earth, and when her distance 
from us is such that her apparent diameter 
is sufficient to cover the entire disk of the 
sun. This is an event of great interest to 
the astronomer, both on account of its short 
duration and rare occurrence. 

The longest time an eclipse of the sun 
can be total is seven minutes; but often 
it does not exceed three or four minutes. 


And it takes place at any one locality 
only at distant intervals; for instance, at 
London, prior to the total eclipse of 1715, 
no such phenomenon had been visible for 
a period of 575 years. 

Among all the evolutions of the crea¬ 
tion, visible to us, no occurrence is more 
striking or impressive than this. “A total 
eclipse of the sun,” says Lockyer, “ is at 
once one ot the grandest and most awe¬ 
inspiring sights it is possible for man to 
witness. As the eclipse advances, but 
before the disk is wholly obscured, the 
sky grows of a dusky livid, or purple, or 



THE SUN ECLIPSED. 


yellow crimson color, which gradually gets 
darker and darker, and the color appears 
to run over large portions of the sky, 
irrespective of the clouds. The sea turns 
lurid red. This singular coloring and dark¬ 
ening of the landscape is quite unlike the 
approach of night, and gives rise to strange 
feelings of sadness. 

“The moon’s shadow sweeps across the 
surface of the earth, and is even seen in the 
air; the rapidity of its motion and its intense¬ 
ness produce a feeling that something mate¬ 
rial is rushing over the earth at a speed 
perfectly frightful. All sense of distance is 
lost ; the faces of men assume a livid hue, 











524 


ASTRONOMY. 


flowers close, fowls hasten to roost, cocks 
crow, birds flutter to the ground in fright, 
dogs whine, sheep collect together as if 
apprehending danger, horses and oxen lie 


down, obstinately resisting the whip and the 
p-oad • in a word, the whole animal world 
seems frightened out of its usual propriety 
and all things wear the garb of terror.” 


ELESTIAL phenomena, also, at¬ 
tend a total eclipse, still more 
grand and imposing. A few 
seconds before the commence¬ 
ment of the total obscuration, 
the stars burst out, and sur¬ 
rounding the dark moon on all sides is seen 
a glorious halo, commonly of a silvery white 
light, which is called the corona. This 
radiates and extends beyond the moon, to a 
distance equal to her apparent diameter, and 
in some eclipses is observed to reach to a 
much greater distance. 

This luminous appendage is supposed to 
be the sun’s atmosphere, which is not seen 
when the sun itself is visible, owing to its 
overpowering splendor. General Myer gives 
the following description of the corona, as 
observed by him from the summit of White 
Top Mountain, Virginia, 5530 feet above the 
level of the sea, this elevated station being 
chosen in order to escape the smoke and 
haze which generally prevail in lower re¬ 
gions : 

“The eclipse presented, during the total 
obscurations, a vision magnificent beyond 
description. As a centre stood the full and 
intensely black disk of the moon, surrounded 



by the aureola of a soft, bright light, through 
which shot out, as if from the circumference- 
of the moon, straight, massive, silvery rays,, 
seeming distinct and separate from each 
other, to a distance of two or three diameters 
of the lunar disk, the whole spectacle show- 
, ing as upon a background of diffused rose- 
colored light. 

A Gorgeous Spectacle. 

“This light was most intense, and ex¬ 
tended farthest, at about the centre of the 
lower limb, the position of the southern 
prominence. The silvery rays were longest 
and most prominent at four points of the 
circumference, two upon the upper and two- 
upon the lower portion, apparently equi¬ 
distant from each other, giving the spectacle 
a quadrilateral shape.” 

Great changes in the solar prominences, as 
a rule, take place only very slowly, or quite 
imperceptibly. In some cases, however, the 
change in the form of a prominence is so 
extraordinary, and occurs with such rapidity, 
that it can only be ascribed to extremely 
violent agitations in the upper portions of the 
solar atmosphere, compared with which the 
cyclonic storms occasionally agitating the: 







































































HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


-earth’s atmosphere, sink into insignificance. 

Professor Respighi is of the opinion that 
the solar prominences are of an eruptive 
origin and of a gaseous nature, and that 
electric action in some form is concerned in 
producing these eruptions. He observed 
some prominences that exceeded three 
minutes, or ten times the earth’s diameter, 
in height; and one prominence that was not 
less than twenty times the earth’s diameter, 
or 160,000 miles in altitude. He also 
noticed that the formation of a prominence 
is usually preceded by the appearance of a 
rectilinear jet, either vertical or oblique, and 
very bright and well defined. 

Wonderful Eruptions. 

This jet rising to a great height, is seen 
to bend back again, falling toward the sun 
like the jets of our fountains, and presently 
the sinking matter is observed to assume the 
shape of gigantic trees, more or less rich in 
branches and foliage. Gradually the whole 
sinks down upon the sun, sometimes forming 
isolated clouds before reaching the solar 
surface. It is in the upper portions of such 
prominences that the most remarkable and 
rapid transformations are witnessed ; but a 
great difference is observed in the rate with 
which prominences change in figure. 

Their duration, too, is very variable. Some 
develop and disappear in a few minutes, 
while others remain visible for several days. 
He considers that the sharply defined bases 
of the eruptive jets prove that the eruption 
takes place through some compact substance, 
forming a species of solar crust. He also 
holds that the enormous velocity with which 
these gaseous masses rush through the solar 
atmosphere implies that the latter is of ex¬ 
ceeding tenuity. 

Professor Young, of Dartmouth College, 
by means of an instrument called “ telespec¬ 


troscope,” witnessed the most remarkable 
outburst from the sun ever yet seen by man. 
“On the 7th of September, 1871, between 
12.30 and 2 p. m.,” he says, “there occurred 
an outburst of solar energy remarkable for 
its sudden violence. Just at noon I had 
been examining with the telespectroscope an 
enormous protuberance of hydrogen close 
on the eastern limb of the sun. It had 
remained with very little change since the 
preceding noon—a long, low, quiet-looking 
cloud, not very dense or brilliant, nor in any 
way remarkable except for its size. 

“ It was made up mostly of filaments 


REMARKABLE CORONA. 

nearly horizontal, and floated above the 
chro) latosphere with its lower surface at a 

height of some 15,000 miles, but was con¬ 
nected with it, as is usually the case, by 
three or four vertical columns brighter and 
more active than the rest. Lockyer com¬ 
pares such masses to a banyan grove. It 
was about 100,000 miles long by 54,000 
high. 

“At 12.30, when I was called away for a 
few minutes, there was no indication of what 
was about to happen, except that one of the 
connecting stems at the southern extremity 
of the cloud had grown considerably brighter, 
and was curiously bent to one side ; and 



















526 


ASTRONOMY. 


near the base of another at the northern end 
a little brilliant lump had developed itself, 
shaped much like a summer thunder-head. 
The annexed figure represents the promi¬ 
nence at this time, a being the thunder-head. 

“What was my surprise, then, on returning 
in less than half an hour, to find that in the 
meantime the whole thing had been literally 
blown to shreds by some inconceivable up- 
rush from beneath. In place of the quiet 
cloud I had left, the air, if I may use the 
expression, was filled with flying debris —a 
mass of detached vertical fusiform filaments, 
brighter and closer together where the pillars 
had formerly stood, and rapidly ascending. 

“ When I first looked, some of them had 



BANYAN GROVE ON THE SUN. 


already reached a height of nearly 100,000 
miles, and while I watched them they rose 
with a motion almost perceptible to the eye, 
until in ten minutes the uppermost were 
more than 200,000 miles above the solar 
surface. This was ascertained by careful 
measurement. The velocity of ascent also, 
166 miles per second, is considerably greater 
than anything hitherto recorded. 

“A general idea of its appearance when 
the filaments attained their greatest elevation 
may be obtained from the accompanying cut 
(Fig. 1). As the filaments rose they grad¬ 
ually faded away like a dissolving cloud, and 
at 1.15 only a few filmy wisps, with some 
brighter streamers low down near the chro¬ 
matosphere, remained to mark the place: 


“ But in the meanwhile the little thunder- 
head, before alluded to, had grown and 
developed wonderfully into a mass of rolling 
and everchanging flame, to speak according 
to appearance. First it was crowded down,, 
as it were, along the solar surface (Fig. 3, a ) ! 
later it rose almost pyramidally 50,000 miles 
in height; then its summit was drawn out 
into long- filaments and threads which were 
most curiously rolled backwards and down¬ 
wards, like the volutes of an Ionic capital 
(Fig. 2) ; and finally it faded away, and by 
2.30 had vanished like the other. The 
accompanying cuts show it in its full devel¬ 
opment ; the former having been sketched 
at 1.40, and the latter at 1.55. 

Grand Burst of Flame. 

The whole phenomenon suggested most 
forcibly the idea of an explosion under the 
great prominence, acting mainly upwards, 
but also in all directions outwards, and then, 
after an interval, followed by a corresponding 
in-rush. The same afternoon a portion of 
the chromatosphere on the western limb of 
the sun was for several hours in a state of 
unusual brilliancy and excitement. 

Such are some of the marvelous phenom¬ 
ena made known to us by astronomical 
science. We can say with Byron in his 
brilliant apostrophe : 

Glorious orb ! the idol 

Of early nature and the _.xrous race 

Of undiseased mankind, the giants’ sons 

Of the embrace of angels with a sex 

More beautiful than they which did draw down 

The erring spirits who can ne’er return,— 

Most glorious orb ! that wert a worship ere 
The mystery of thy making was revealed ! 

Thou earliest minister of the Almighty, 

Which gladdened, on their mountain-tops, the hearts 
Of the Chaldean shepherds till they poured 
Themselves in orisons? Thou material God ! 

And representative of the Unknown— 

Who chose thee for His shadow ! Thou chief star, 
Centre of many stars ! which make’st our earth 





HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


527 


Kndurable, and temperest the hues 

And hearts of all who walk within thy rays ! 

Sire of the seasons ! Monarch of the climes, 

And those w'ho dwell in them ! for near or far, 

Our inborn spirits have a tint of thee, 

Even as our outward aspects : thou dost rise, 

And shine, and set in glory. 

The formation of visible vapors, and their 
aggregation in masses, take place generally 
in high regions of the atmosphere under the 
action of currents, in con¬ 
sequence of a decrease of 
temperature and a due 
supply of aqueous elastic 
vapor being present in 
those parts where clouds 
arise. It is easy to per¬ 
ceive that these two con¬ 
ditions, necessary to the 
production of cloud-land, 
may be fulfilled in one 
stratum of the atmosphere 
and not in another ; and 
hence the frequent diver¬ 
sity in the appearance of 
the sky, the clear blue 
fields and patches of ether 
alternating with visible 
vaporous structures. 

The clouds are sup¬ 
posed to consist of minute 
globules of water filled 
with air; but there is 
great difficulty, even with 
the aid of this view of 
their structure, in explain¬ 
ing their suspension aloft, for the globules 
must be specifically heavier than the air by 
which they are upborne. The theory of as¬ 
cending currents of heated air has been pro¬ 
posed by Lussac to account for their posi¬ 
tion ; and the retention of solar heat in the 
clouds themselves, buoying them up and 
causing them to float, by Fresnel. 


The clouds float at different elevations, 
but the higher we ascend the drier the 
atmosphere is found, and the less loaded 
with vapors. We shall not err much, says 
Leslie, if we estimate the position of extreme 
humidity at the height of two miles at the 
pole, and four miles and a half under the 
equator, or a mile and a half beyond the 
limit of congelation. Dalton asserts that 


small, fleecy patches of cloud are frequently 
from three to five miles in height, and such 
have been observed sailing above the most 
elevated peaks of the Andes, which rise 
twenty-five thousand feet above the level of 
the sea ; but other authorities claim for 
some visible clouds a still greater elevation. 
The height varies at different seasons of the 


Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3- 



EXPLOSIVE PHENOMENA IN THE SUN. 








528 


ASTRONOMY 


year, and there is little doubt that it is much 
more frequently below than above a mile. 



STRIKING APPEARANCES OF CLOUD-LAND. 


The effect is striking when, from an emi¬ 
nence which commands a view of an exten¬ 
sive plain or valley, we see the gossamer 


curtain of the night resting upon the surface, 
gradually rent and torn by the action of the 

sun’s rays, reflect¬ 
ing their golden 
hue as it disap¬ 
pears. Many of 
the most felicitous 
images of poetty 
are derived from 
this source, as in 
Ossian: “The soul 
of Nathos was sad, 
like the sun in a 
day of mist, when 
his face looks 
watery and dim ; ” 
HH and again, when 
two contending 
factions are si¬ 
lenced by Cath- 
mor : “ They sunk 
from the king on 
either side, like 
two columns of 
morning mist, when 
the sun rises be^ 
tween them on the 
glittering rocks.” 

The stratus is 
occasionally seen 
under peculiar and 
striking circum¬ 
stances, extending 
over the surface of 
a sheet of water, 
without passing the 
boundary of its 
banks. Thus a lake 
or river will exhibit 
a white cloud of 
visible vapor resting upon it, from which the 
adjacent land is perfectly free. Sir Humphry 
Davy thus explains this curious phenomenon: 






















































































































































































HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


520 


“All persons who have been accustomed to 
the observation of nature must have fre¬ 
quently witnessed the formation of mists 
over the beds of rivers and lakes in calm and 
clear weather after sunset; and whoever has 
considered these phenomena in relation to 
the radiation and communication of heat and 
the nature of vapor, can hardly have failed 
to discover the true cause of them. 

Phenomena of Heat. 

“ As soon as the sun has disappeared from 
any part of the globe, the surface begins to 
lose heat by radiation, and in greater pro¬ 
portions as the sky is clear; but the land and 
the water are cooled by this operation in a 
very different manner; the impression of 
cooling on the land is limited to the surface, 
and very slowly transmitted to the interior; 
whereas in water above forty degrees Fah¬ 
renheit, as soon as the upper stratum is 
cooled, whether by radiation or evaporation, 
it sinks in the mass of fluid, and its place is 
supplied by water from below; and till the 
temperature of the whole mass is reduced to 
nearly forty degrees Fahrenheit, the surface 
cannot be the coolest part. 

“It follows, therefore, that wherever water 
exists in considerable mass, and has a tem¬ 
perature nearly equal to that of the land, or 
only a few degrees below it, and above forty 
degrees Fahrenheit at sunset, its surface 
during the night, in calm and clear weather, 
will be warmer than that of the contiguous 
land; and the air above the land will neces¬ 
sarily be colder than that above the water; 
and when they both contain their due pro¬ 
portion of aqueous vapor, and the situation 
of the ground is such as to permit the cold 
air from the land to mix with the warmer air 
above the water, mist or fog will be the 
result.” 

The atmosphere of our globe is composed 

34 


mainly of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, 
whose combination forms a perfectly trans¬ 
parent medium. In this medium, however, 
there floats at all times a vast quantity of 
aqueous vapor, raised daily by the heat of 
the sun, in the form of steam, from the sur¬ 
face of the sea and of the dry land. The 
amount of water thus lifted into the air by 
the process of evaporation is very great, and 
far exceeds that discharged into the ocean, 
during the same length of time, by all the 
rivers of the earth. 

How the Sun is Colored. 

The aqueous vapor produced in this man¬ 
ner is diffused through the whole body of 
the atmosphere, and is in a state of perpetual 
motion and change, being rarefied into an 
invisible condition, or condensed into mists 
and clouds, according to the varying degrees 
of heat or cold to which it is exposed; and 
in this way it affects, sometimes more and 
sometimes less, the general transparency of 
the air, and modifies both the colors and the 
forms of objects seen through it. And in 
the present chapter we are to speak of the 
various aspects which it gives to the solar 
orb. 

The sun, viewed through a vaporous 
atmosphere, appears in “false colors.” When 
the vapor is dry and rarefied, or in an invisi¬ 
ble condition, the air is clear, and the sun is 
seen in its natural brightness. But if the 
vapor be slightly condensed, and takes the 
form of mist, he appears through it as if 
shorn of his glories, a white orb, upon which 
the eye can rest without pain or inconve¬ 
nience ; as he descends he grows still more 
dull; and finally, as he approaches the hori¬ 
zon, he gradually assumes a rosy tint, and 
at last a deep red color. 

These changes are thus explained. Every 
ray of the sunlight which comes to us has to 





530 


ASTRONOMY. 


pass through the whole thickness of the 
atmosphere, and the greater the distance it 
has to travel the greater the portion of it 
that is absorbed by the vapors in the air. 
And this distance, as is obvious, increases 
with the increased declination of the sun. 

If we admit the atmosphere to extend 
vertically to the height of sixty-two miles, a 
ray of light coming from the sun at the 
zenith has only these sixty-two miles to pass 
through m order to reach us. But a ray 
from the sun on the horizon has to travel 
through seven hundred and six miles, or 
more than eleven times the former distance, 
and that, too, through the densest portion of 
the atmosphere. In traversing this great 
distance, the various colors combined in the 
perfectly white ray, except the red, are, for 
the most part, absorbed by the slowly con¬ 
densing vapors along the cooling surface of 
the earth. Hence the red color in which 
the sun appears at its setting and rising. 

The Sun’s Apparent Form. 

The sun, viewed through a vaporous at¬ 
mosphere, often appears, also, in a “ false 
form.” Seen on the meridian, through a 
clear sky, he appears as a perfect circle, 
which is his true outline. But as seen near 
the horizon, in certain conditions of the at¬ 
mosphere, instead of being circular, he ap¬ 
pears of an oval form, the upper and lower 
sides being flattened, and the latter more so 
than the former. On high mountains, and 
on plateaux near the seacoast, this flattening 
of the disk appears very considerable, amount¬ 
ing sometimes to one-fifth the apparent diam¬ 
eter of the sun. This peculiar deformation 
is caused by the refraction or bending of the 
rays of light in passing through the vapors 
of the atmosphere. Sometimes the want of 
homogeneity in the successive layers of the 
atmosphere, caused by the unequal admix¬ 


ture of vapors, gives to the sun an apparent- 
form of so irregular a character that he is 
scarcely recognizable. 

Again, the sun, viewed through the atmos¬ 
pheric vapors, in a certain state, appears sur¬ 
rounded by appendages which do not belong 
to him. When the sky is hazy, and presents 
a dull, milky appearance, there is frequently 
to be seen around the sun a colored circle, 
or halo, and the sun occupying the centre of 
the circle, as h h. The inner edge of the 
circle is colored red, and is well defined. 
The sky within the halo is much darker 
than it is for some distance without. 

Magnificent Halos. 

Sometimes there may be seen around the 
sun a second halo or colored circle, as H H. 
The inner edge of this also is red, and toler¬ 
ably well defined, while the outer edge is of 
a pale blue color, and but faintly marked. 
At rare intervals, a third halo, radius, as H' 
H', has been observed, surrounding the sun. 
Unlike the other two halos, this one shows 
scarcely a trace of color. 

All these phenomena are produced by the 
refraction of the sunlight in passing through 
the minute crystals of frozen vapors floating 
in the atmosphere ; these crystals being of 
various kinds and having their facets set at 
different inclinations to one another, refract 
the various colors of the sunrays at different 
angles, and thus produce halos of different 
diameters. 

When a halo is formed around the sun. 

r 

there is often to be seen a white circle pass¬ 
ing through the sun, and parallel to the 
horizon, as represented by A P P. This is 
called parhelic circle, and is produced like 
the foregoing by the reflection of the sun’s 
light from ice prisms or snow crystals, whose 
surfaces have a vertical position. At or near 
those points where halos cut the parhelic 



HOW TO READ THE SKY 


531 


circle, there is a double cause of light; and 
here the illumination is sometimes so great 
as to present the appearance of a mock-sun, 
and is called parhelion. 

The number of these mock-suns, or par¬ 
helia, visible at the same time, is variable ; 
sometimes one or two only are to be seen, 
at other times four or five ; on some occa¬ 
sions as many as seven have been observed 
at once. The mock-suns 
generally seem about the 
size of the true sun, but 
not quite so bright, though 
occasionally they are said 
to rival their parent lumi¬ 
nary in splendor. These 
beautiful phenomena ap¬ 
pear most commonly in 
high latitudes, but often 
occur in the more tem¬ 
perate regions. 

Parhelia have been ob¬ 
served frequently both in 
ancient and modern times. 

Aristotle records two ap¬ 
pearances of these meteors, 
and Pliny mentions their 
occurrence at Rome. A 
double parhelion,which was 
noticed before the Christian 
era, is referred to by St. 

Augustine. Many others 
have been observed from 
different points on the continent. On the 
2d of January, 1586, Christopher Rotham 
saw, at Cassel, before sunrise, an upright 
column of light of the breadth of the sun’s 
disk. As the sun rose, he was preceded 
and followed by a parhelion, which appeared 
in contact with his orb, and continued visible 
for thirty minutes and then were hidden by 
a cloud. On the 28th of February, 1551, 
mock-suns were seen at Antwerp ; and on 


the 17th of March of the same year, a similar 
phenomenon, with two halos, was witnessed 
at the same place. Four days after the last 
named, two parhelia, with three halos, were 
seen at Magdeberg. 

Scheiner witnessed a singular one at Rome, 
on the 20th of March, 1629. From the 
zenith as a centre there was seen a great 
white circle, having the true sun in its cir¬ 


HALOS AND PARHELIA. 

cumference; this was intersected by two 
concentric circles around his disk. Where 
the outer of these smaller rings cut the 
zenithal circle, two parhelia appeared, and 
in the great circle, nearly opposite to these, 
but separated by a wider arc, two others 
were visible. 

Gassendi describes a very remarkable in¬ 
stance of this phenomenon, which was seen in 
1630. Around the sun were two concentric 



























ASTRONOMY. 


colored, and these with very long 
tails waving and pointing from 
the true sun, together with cer¬ 
tain white arches crossing one 
another. The true sun was about 
25° high, and surrounded almost 
entirely by a circle whose diame¬ 
ter was 45°, and colored like a 
rainbow with purple, red and 
yellow, its under limb being 
scarcely 2 l / 2 ° above the horizon. 

On each side of the sun, to¬ 
wards the west and east, there 
appeared two mock-suns, col¬ 
ored, especially towards the sun, 
with very long and splendid tails 
of a whitish color, terminating 
in a point. A far greater circle 
encompassed the sun and the 
halos ; the larger cut the horizon, and con- former lesser circle, and extended itself down 
sequently was incomplete; these were colored in the horizon. It was very strongly colored 
like the rainbow, excepting that 
/he red was internal. In the 
direction of the zenith, there was 
a tangental arc external to these 
halos ; and with the zenith as a 
centre, a great white circle ran 
parallel with the horizon, having 
the true sun in its circumference. 

At the five intersections of these 
circles and arcs parhelia appeared, 
and a sixth was seen in the inter¬ 
nal halo between the true sun 
and the zenith. 

One of the finest meteors of 
this kind on record was seen by 
Hevelius, at Sedan, on the 20th 
of February, 1661. “ A little 
before 11 o’clock,” he says “the 
sun being towards the south and 
the sky very clear, there appeared 
seven suns together, in several 
circles, some white and others 



PARHELIA OBSERVED BY HEVELIUS. 




























HOW TO READ THE SKY 


533 


to its upper part, but was somewhat duller 
and fainter on each side. At the tops of 
these two circles were two inverted arcs, 
whose common centre lay in the zenith, and 
these were very bright and beautifully 
colored. 

In the middle of the lower arc, where it 
coincided with the circle, there appeared 
another mock-sun, but its light and colors 
were dull and faintish. There appeared a 
circle much bigger than the former, of a 
uniform and whitish color, parallel to the 


horizon, w 


hich 


from the 


arose, as it were, 
collateral mock-suns, and 
passed through three other 
parhelia, of a uniform whitish 
color like silver. There passed 
also two other white arches of 
the greatest circle of the 
sphere through the eastern 
and western parhelia, and also 
through the pole of the 
ecliptic. They went down to 
the horizon, crossing the great 
white circle and obliquely, so 
as to make a white cross at 
each parhelion; so that seven 
suns appeared very plainly at 
the same time. This phe¬ 
nomenon, with certain changes in the bright¬ 
ness of its several parts, continued visible for 
an hour and twenty minutes.” 

Such parhelia have been observed at 
various times and places in North America. 
Barker describes a curious halo with accom¬ 
panying mock-suns, which he saw at Fort 
Gloucester, near Lake Superior. A circle 
with tangental arc surrounded the sun ; about 
midway between the horizon and zenith, a 
circle ran parallel to the horizon, having the 
sun in its circumference ; in this horizontal 
circle there appeared altogether five mock- 
suns, with this peculiarity, that, directly 


opposite the true sun in this great circle, a 
St. Andrew’s cross was seen, the upper limbs 
of which extended higher above, than the 
lower one descended below, this circle ; in 
the intersection of this cross and the circle, 
one of the parhelia was placed. A very 
curious system of circles, with several mock- 
suns, appeared on the 19th of August, 1825,. 
at Jackson, Tennessee. 

An exceedingly curious optical appearance- 
belonging to this class of phenomena, was 
observed by Mr. Fallows, at the Cape of 
Good Hope, when the sun’s disk was just: 



PARHELIA OBSERVED IN TENNESSEE. 

dipping in the ocean. On either side of the 
true luminary, and within the breadth of a 
degree and a half of his disk, lour mock-suns 
appeared on the left, and three on the right. 
They had the same shape as the true sun, 
touched the water at the same instant, and 
all of them disappeared together, shining as 
bright spots upon the water’s edge. This 
magnificent scene occurred on a delightful 
evening, when not a cloud was to be seen. 

Such are a few of the marvelous appen¬ 
dages which the vapors of the atmosphere 
sometimes create around the great luminary 
of the day. 












534 


ASTRONOMY 


Now, evanescent as is the nature of all 
these meteoric phenomena at which we have 
glanced, and irregular as their occurrence 
may be, yet they are in no sense to be re¬ 
garded as the result of chance. On the con¬ 
trary, we see in them the play of exact and 
beautiful laws. All are produced according 
to the principles of order established in the 
beginning, by the One Supreme Lawgiver. 
In all, brightness and shade prevail in their 
ordained degrees; and heat and cold produce 
their designed effects in sea and land and 
sky. The sunrays in their passage through 


visible mists, or viewless vapors, are reflected, 
refracted, and absorbed, according to uniform 
rules. 

The diameters, distances and intersections 
of the encircling halos are all measured off 
after the undeviating principles of geometry. 
Every tint and shade in their coloring, and 
every facet and angle in the frozen particles 
that produce them, display the operations 
of the unerring laws of optics. Invisible 
vapors, icy crystals, luminous arches, colored 
halos, splendid parhelia—all proclaim the 
observance of law and order. And though 


the whole magnificent diorama may fade and 
vanish within the brief space of five minutes, 
yet, in its production, nothing has been 
slighted, nothing imperfectly formed, nothing 
left to be determined by chance. 

If a pebble be dropped into the bosom of 
a still and smooth sheet of water, a circular 
depression is formed, at the point where it 
sank, which spreads wider and wider, with 
uniform velocity. In the meanwhile an ele¬ 
vation has been formed at the point where 
the pebble, in entering the water, had origi¬ 
nally caused a depression; then as this sinks 
back to its original level it pro¬ 
duces a wall-like circular elevation 
around it, which follows up the 
preceding circular depression 
with equal velocity. Whilst the 
water continues its up-and-down 
movement at the point struck, 
fresh wave-rings appear to pro¬ 
ceed from this central point, 
which, owing to their constantly 
spreading more and more widely, 
give the illusory appearance of 
the fluid steaming out on all sides 
from the middle point. 

Now, let us suppose that, in¬ 
stead of one pebble, two are 
dropped into the water at the 
same instant, but at a short distance one 
from the other. We shall have then two 
systems of circular waves moving and spread¬ 
ing out as before. As these two systems 
intersect each other, they divide the surface 
of the water into a regular net-work of small 
elevations and depressions, as represented in 
the annexed figure. Yet the one does not 
destroy or efface the other ; at the points 
where two wave-crests meet, the surface of 
the water, if the two waves are equal, rises 
to twice the height, and where two depres¬ 
sions meet, it sinks to double the depth. 



BRIGHT HALO IN NORWAY. 



































HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


r.o.r 

<J<jO 


Thus each wave maintains and extends 
unbroken its circular and moving form, as if 
it had the entire surface to itself. And if, 
instead of two, we had three, or in fact, any 
number of pebbles dropped, the same result 
would be produced by each of them. In 
other words, it may be said, that every wave 
system superimposes itself upon, or adds it¬ 
self to, a surface already moved by waves, 
as it would do were it acting alone on that 
surface at rest. Every wave system forms 
itself unhindered by those already present, 
and spreads after it has crossed these, upon 
the still quiescent surface of the water. 

Large and Small Waves. 

Once more : suppose that when we 
have flung a handful of pebbles upon the 
water, each creating its little system of 
spreading waves, a succession of large 
billows or swells be produced by the 
wind or a passing steamboat, we shall 
see that even these do not destroy the 
little waves of the pebbles, but take 
them on their backs, and having passed, 
leave them behind with their original 
forms and motions unaltered. Of all this 
we may witness a beautiful illustration 
when large drops of rain begin to fall 
upon the agitated surface of a lake or river. 

Now, similar results, though invisible, are 
produced in the atmosphere by a blow 
on a drum or a bell, or by any number of 
such blows given in succession. These 
aerial vibrations, like the waves upon the 
water, do not destroy or extinguish one 
another. If a whole orchestra, composed 
of numerous and diverse instruments, play a 
piece of music together, each pipe and each 
string will create its own system of vibra¬ 
tions, which will pass outward through the 
atmosphere without disorder, each being 
endowed with an individuality as indestruc¬ 


tible as if it alone had disturbed the quietude 
of the still air. 

If now we advance to the far more attenu¬ 
ated and elastic medium of light, the ether, 
we shall find the same law still hold good. 
Here, as in the water and in the air, one 
system of vibrations, whether set in motion 
immediately by the sun, or by reflection of 
the sun’s rays from some terrestial object, 
does not interrupt or confuse another 
system. Each, though it may have crossed 
a hundred or a thousand others, maintains 
its existence and its identity unchanged, and 


INTERSECTION OF TWO WAVE SYSTEMS. 

bears on its bosom a correct and clear repre¬ 
sentation of the centre or object from which 
it has proceeded. These radiant vehicles of 
light are infallible in their progress and office; 
from ten thousand points, and in ten thou- • 
sand directions, they unceasingly carry and 
imprint the messages of the world and of 
the universe. 

If we enter the garden, and bend over a 
bed of diverse flowers, we shall find that 
each green leaf and each variegated petal 
sends forth its little system of ethereal vibra¬ 
tions, announcing infallibly its particular 
form and color. If we stand confronted by 


















53 G 


ASTRONOMY. 


a regiment of soldiers, the countenance of 
each individual, in like manner, sends forth 
its system of vibrations, and all meet in the 
eye, and imprint their pictures of those coun¬ 


tenances on the retina within a circle that 
does not exceed in circumference that of a 
dime—not one is omitted ; not one is blurred. 
Light treats all objects alike. 




FINE family of planets is that 
over which the sun presides, and 
an accurate description of these 
will be of interest to the reader. 
We are now speaking of the 
orbs that revolve around him. 


MERCURY. 

Above the sun, in the west, when that 
radiant body sets, or again before its rising 
in the east, is seen sometimes a small white 
star, slightly tinged with red. The Greeks 
call it Apollo, god of day, and Mercury, the 
god of thieves, who take advantage of the 
night to commit their misdeeds; for they 
saw in it two different planets, one a morn¬ 
ing and the other an evening one, as they 
did also for a longtime in the case of Venus, 
the Egyptians and Indians doing the same. 
The former gave it the names of Set and 
Horus; the latter those of Boudda and 
Rauhineya; names which bring to mind, 
like the preceding, the divinities of day and 
night. The Latins who, however, employed 
themselves very little with astronomy, in 
this respect remained in doubt. It has 
been only in later times that the identity of | 


these two stars winch, like Castor and 
Pollux, to which they are assimilated, never 
appear together, has been proved ; its evening 
name Mercury, was the one retained. 

Being the first planet of the system, Mer¬ 
cury always remains absorbed in the royal 
radiation of the prince of day; also, like a. 
courtier, it is deprived of its individuality and 
blended in the personality of the ruling star. 
It gains nothing and loses much, seeing that 
it had not the honor of being known tO' 
the founders of astronomy. Copernicus 
despaired of ever seeing it: “I fear,” said 
this great man, “that I shall descend to the 
tomb without having oeen the planet.” And, 
indeed, he who had transformed the system 
of the world, and taken in hand each of the 
planets to place them round the sun, died 
without having seen the first amongst them. 
Galileo was able to observe it, thanks to the 
glasses which he had invented, but it could 
not be said that he understood it sufficiently, 
as it was impossible for him ever to distin¬ 
guish its phases. 

The adversaries of the new system op¬ 
posed the first astronomers, Copernicus, 
Galileo, and Kepler, on account of the 


























HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


537 


absence of phases in the planets Mercury 
and Venus. “For,” said they, “if these 
planets revolved around the sun, they would 
change their aspect to our eyes, as the moon 
does, according as we see in front, in profile, 
or in rear, the illumined part, the side in 
fact which they turn towards the sun.” 

Copernicus and his colleagues replied, 
“We do not distinguish any phases, it is 
true; but if it only requires them in order 
that you should adopt our system, God 
will cause that there may be some.” 
Indeed there were some. By the observa¬ 
tion of the irregularities visible in the 
interior of the crescent or quarter, it has 
been observed that Mercury is rugged 
with high mountains, higher than those 
of the earth, although Mercury is a much 
smaller globe than ours. The existence 
of a denser and higher atmosphere than 
ours has been suspected. 

Grotesque Romances. 

In the middle of the last century, one 
of the numerous romancers who feigned 
voyages to the planets, pretended to know 
that the mountains of Mercury were all 
crowned with beautiful gardens, in which 
grew naturally not only the most succu¬ 
lent fruits which served as food to the 
Mercurians, but also the greatest variety 
of dishes. It is better, perhaps, to believe 
this than to think with Fontenelle, that 
the inhabitants of Mercury are all mad, 
and that their brains are burned with the 
violent heat which the sun pours upon their 
heads. But until an authentic voyager has 
made us sufficiently acquainted on this head, 
we will confine ourselves to the astronomical 
elements of the planet. 

It revolves at a distance of 35,000,000 of 
miles from the sun ; its diameter is 2960 
miles; its day is 24 hours, 3 minutes, 28 


seconds long; its year, 87 days, 23 hours,. 
14 mmutes ; and its seasons, 22 days only* 
its mass, compared to that of the earth is 
only yjpo ; its density is three times more than 
ours, and bodies which fall on its surface 
travel 7.45 feet during the first second of 
fall; and, lastly, it receives six times and 
a half more light and heat than the earth does. 



CELEBRATED ASTRONOMERS. 


COPERNICUS. 

GALILEO. ISAAC NEWTON. 

KEPLER. TYCHO BRAHE. 

VENUS. 

Thou little sparkling star of even, 

Thou gem upon an azure heaven I 
How swiftly will I soar to thee 
When this imprisoned soul is free ! 

The young poetess who sang this charm¬ 
ing song, Maria Lucrecia Davidson, escaped 
from her earthly prison towards her well- 
1 beloved star when she had scarcely seen her 


























538 


ASTRONOMY. 


seventeenth spring blossom forth. Some ill- 
disposed minds have asserted that although 
Venus is beautiful afar, it is frightful on a 
nearer view. We fancy our young and 
amiable readers are not of this opinion. 

Indeed all the magnificence of light and 
day which we enjoy on the earth, Venus 
posseses in a higher degree. Like our 
globe, it is surrounded by a transparent 
atmosphere, in the midst of which are com¬ 
bined thousands and thousands of shades of 
light. Clouds rise from the stormy ocean, 
and transport into the sky, snowy, silvery, 
golden and purple tints. At morning and 
evening, when the dazzling orb of day, twice 
as large as it appears from the earth, lifts its 



CRESCENT AND SPOTS OF VENUS. 

enormous disk at the east or inclines towards 
the west, the twilight unfolds its splendors 
and charms*. From here we can be spec¬ 
tators of this distant spectacle; for we 
distinctly see the daybreak and the close of 
day in the plains of Venus. 

Day and night are of nearly the same 
duration as on the earth ; the diurnal period 
of rotation of the planet is twenty-three 
hours, twenty-one minutes, seven seconds ; 
it is consequently thirty-five minutes less 
than ours. Its year is two hundred and 
twenty-four days. Its mountains are much 
higher than ours. The inequalities which are 
noticed in the interior of the crescent are the 
highest points of the surface which still 


receive the sun’s rays after these have left 
the plain. The height can be concluded 
from the time that these light-points take to 
disappear. 

Rapid Motions. 

We have just spoken of Venus as a cres¬ 
cent. Like Mercury, this planet is situated 
between the earth and the sun; and the 
circle which it describes during its year is 
comprised in the circle which the earth 
describes round the same body. Hence 
it follows that at certain epochs the planet 
Venus is exactly between us and the sun ; 
and then it presents its dark part to us, as its 
illuminated portion is naturally on the side 
of the sun. At other times, 
when it is to the right or left of 
the sun, it presents only a quar¬ 
ter. Lastly, when Venus is on 
the other side of the sun, it pre¬ 
sents its entire illuminated por¬ 
tion to us. At such times it is 
one of the beauties of the firma¬ 
ment, a gem of the first water. 

The phases of Venus were 
seen for the first time by Galileo 
in the month of September, 1610, who 
beheld this spectacle with a joy impossible 
to describe, seeing that it eloquently testified 
in favor of the system of Copernicus, show¬ 
ing that like the earth and moon, the planets 
receive their light from the sun. When we 
say that these phases were for the first time 
seen in the month of September, 1610, you 
must not conclude that they did not exist 
before that epoch, but you must understand, 
that before that year no one had turned the 
telescope to the planet, and that with the 
naked eye, these phases are imperceptible. 

According to the custom of the period, 
the illustrious astronomer disguised his 
discovery under an anagram, to maintain 























































HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


539 


the authenticity of this discovery in case 
of rivalry, and to give himself time to con¬ 
tinue his observation and to perfect them. 
He finished a letter with this phrase: “Hcec 
immatura a me jam frustra leguntur , d. y." 
which means, “ These things unripened and 
as yet hidden to others, are at length read 
by me.” 

Under this cryptogram, it would be diffi¬ 
cult to discover the idea of the phases of 
Venus. Our farthers were very ingenious, 
and in the present time certain discoveries 
would not have been so greatly contested, if 
astronomers had sometimes used the same 
ruse. In this phrase there are thirty-four let¬ 
ters. By placing them in another order, we get 
these words, in which the whole discovery is 
elegantly inscribed : “ Cynthice jiguras emu- 
latur mater Amorum." “The mother of the 
Loves puts on the phases of the moon.” 

A Shrewd Reply. 

Galileo was very cunning. Two months 
later, Father Castelli asking if Venus had 
phases, he replied, “ My state of health is 
very bad, and I find it better to be in my 
bed than in the dew.” It was only two 
days before the end of the year that he 
announced the above discovery. 

This globe presents the greatest sem¬ 
blance to our own, and it has nearly the 
same astronomical elements, size, volume, 
weight and density; only it is much nearer 
to the sun than we are. From the com¬ 
mencement of ancient poetry, its position 
near the sun, which causes it to appear at 
sunrise and sunset, attracted contemplative 
minds towards it. In the middle ages, a 
worthy father took an ecstatic voyage in 
the heavens, and in Venus saw only young 
people of ravishing beauty, living in the 
midst of perfect happiness; in his sight, 
these were the guiding spirits of the planet 


Venus, for in olden times it was believed 
that a legion of angels or genii presided 
over the direction of each of the heavenly 
spheres. 

MARS. 

All the maledictions of mortals have fallen 
on Saturn and Mars. Beginning with war, 
that scourge of humanity of which it will 
have great trouble to rid itself, all public 
misfortunes caused by power have been 
attributed to Mars, which, if it knew what 
the earth thought of it, ought to regard us 
with an evil eye. It is, nevertheless, inno¬ 
cent of all these calumnies, and we ought 
not to speak ill of it, presenting, as it does, 
most resemblance to ourselves. Indeed the 
world of Mars resembles the earth so much, 
that if we happened one day to be traveling 
there and lost our way, it would be almost 
impossible to recognize which of the two 
were our planet. Without the moon, which 
would charitably remove our uncertainty, we 
should run a great risk of arriving amongst 
the inhabitants of Mars, expecting to descend 
into the United States, or some other ter¬ 
restrial quarter. 

Indeed, the planet Mars in our telescopes 
presents the same aspect as the earth must 
do to the inhabitants of Venus; a circular 
disk, rather flattened, turning on itself in 
about twenty-four hours, furrowed from time 
to time by fleeting clouds, diversified with here 
dark and there light plains, revolving ob¬ 
liquely on an axis enveloped with an atmos¬ 
phere and with snow-covered poles. On 
this planet the seasons are nearly of the 
same intensity as our own, but their dura¬ 
tion is twice as long; for Mars only accom¬ 
plishes its annual revolution around the sun 
in i year, 321 days, and 22 hours, or 1 year, 
10 months and 21 days. 

We may notice certain differences be- 




540 


ASTRONOMY. 


tween the aspect of Mars and our own 
world. Whereas the earth seen at a distance 
must appear tinted with green, on account 
of the color of its atmosphere, its vegetation 
and water, Mars is shaded with red, and it is 
this shade which gives it the reddish light 
with which it is seen to shine. Doubtless 
"■his characteristic color is produced by the 
dominant coloring of its surface; either its 
soil is thus colored like that of our deserts, 
or its seas, its vegetation, or the vapors 


rising into its atmosphere, are chiefly clothed 
with this shade. Nevertheless, the poles 
always preserve their brilliant light. In 1837, 
it once happened that Mars was, during the 
observations, completely darkened by a cloud, 
with the exception of the poles which 
stood out distinctly. 

Removed from the sun to a mean distance 
of 139,000,000 of miles, and encircling the 
the earth’s orbit in that which it describes 
round the central body, there are certain 


periods where these planets aie very near 
together; that is, when they are both on 
the same side of their path with regard 
to the sun. Sometimes they are not more 
than 48,000,000 of miles distant irpm each 
other. Mars has two satellites, which have 
been discovered at a comparatively lecent 
date. 

The conjunction of two planets is the 
point of their orbits where they are on the 
same side of the sun, and are the nearest 
possible to each other; the term 
opposition is given to the opposite 
point of their paths, when they 
are on opposite sides of the sun, 
except in the case of Mercury and 
Venus. In olden times these 
positions greatly exercised the 
sagacity of horoscope-seekers, and 
human destinies received fancied 
predictions, according as the god 
of war was in conjunction in such 
and such a sign of the zodiac. 

The Little Worlds. 

The interior planets, Venus and 
Mercury, whose orbits are en¬ 
closed in that of the earth, have 
no opposition, but they have two 
conjunctions ; the superior, when 
the planet is beyond the sun and 
in one right line; the inferior^ 
when it is situated between the sun and the 
earth. The exterior planets, those which 
enclose the terrestrial orbit, and of which 
Mars is the first, have only the superior 
conjunction. 

At about 80,000,000 of miles, beyond the 
planet Mars, between the orbit of this planet 
and that of Jupiter, we meet with the group 
of small planets, of which we have already 
spoken. These are very little worlds, if 
even they deserve this name, which have 



















HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


541 


scarcely the extent of a province, or even a 
department. They gravitate in this zone in 
considerable numbers, for there may exist 
several thousands. Perhaps they are debris 
of a larger world, shattered by some catas¬ 
trophe; perhaps they have been formed in 
this region of space in the fragmentary state 
in which we now see them. 

Putting aside the title of original greatness 
of these asteroids, and the fate which attends 
them, let us traverse their colony, and 
beyond it get near the most magnificent of 
the worlds of our system. 

JUPITER. 

She said : 

Oh ! that it were my doom to be 
The spirit of yon beauteous star, 

Dwelling up there in purity, 

Alone, as all such bright things are :— 

My sole employ to pray and shine ; 

To light my censer at the sun ! 

The orb of Jupiter is more bulky than all 
the other planets of our system ; it is only a 
thousand times smaller than the sun, which 
makes it, if we remember the volume of that 
radiant body, from fourteen to fifteen hun¬ 
dred times larger than the terrestrial globe. 
Also, although it revolves in an orbit nearly 
475,000,000 of miles distant from the sun, 
and receives a much fainter light than that 
received by the earth, its size is evidenced by 
the light with which it shines during our 
starry nights, equal and often superior to 
that with which Venus shines. Jupiter is 
therefore reckoned among the most beautiful 
objects of the heavens. As it is always in 
the zodiac, and when Venus is visible in the 
evening, it is always in the west, it is easily 
recognized. At whatever period of the year, 
therefore, you see a very bright star, either 
in the east, or high up among the zodiacal 
■constellations, you may be certain that it is 
Jupiter. 


This planet is a charming one, so far at 
least as we are able to judge from afar and 
without going there. To begin with, a con¬ 
tinual spring rejoices its surface. If it is 
ornamented with flowers, which we do not 
doubt, though we know not of what these 
flowers consist, they do not only survive 
“the span of a morning,” as our roses do, 
but live much longer. Scarcely have the 
oldest begun to dry up and fade but they 
are replaced by lovely buds, opening before 
the first have died away. Not only is the 
Jovian year equal to twelve of ours, but it is 
scarcely known when the yearly period 
begins or ends. 

The King of the Planets. 

Then Jupiter presents a surface 126 times 
more extensive than the terrestrial surface. 
We speak of surface, not volume. Now, a 
hundred and twenty-six earths placed side 
by side, and on which the human race would 
be able to spread itself at will, would con¬ 
stitute a very fine country. We ought, then, 
not to doubt that such an empire has been 
formed to serve as an abode for a race of 
beings, venerable and worthy of our re¬ 
spect. We reason thus of Jupiter, because 
we have had the necessary means to measure 
and appreciate it at its just value. But it is 
necessary to add something to complete the 
comparison between this world and our own. 

Because we find, by observation of the 
Jovian planet, excellent reasons for believing 
that its inhabitants are very favored, it does 

not follow that the aforesaid inhabitants 
make similar reflections on us. There is a 

very good reason why they do not occupy 
themselves with us—they are probably not 
acquainted with our existence. And, indeed, 
if ever, at a future time, more or less dis¬ 
tant, you should happen to inhabit Jupitei, 
you would have great trouble to discover 





ASTRONOMY 


542 



your old country. To do so you would 
have to rise a little before the sun (and mark 


or six minutes before the rising look to the 
east for a very small white star. With good 

eyes, you perhaps would 
perceive it. In this case, 
you would know that our 
earth exists. 

Again, you would make 
the same search six months 
later, at the west, a few 
moments after the setting 
of the sun. Such is the 
condition of the inhabitants 
of Jupiter with regard to us. 
They can never see the 
earth during the night, al¬ 
though it is precisely in 
the middle of clear nights 
that we are best able to 
this 


RELATIVE SIZES OF THE SUN AND PLANETS 


there are only five hours from the setting to 
the rising of this body on Jupiter) and five 


observe 

planet. 


magnificent 


SATURN. 

If you were to take 
journey to the planet Sat¬ 
urn, which is scarcely more 
than 900,000,000 of miles 
from us, you would feel on 
approaching it an unspeak¬ 
able astonishment, to which 
certainly no sentiment of 
surprise felt on the earth 
can be compared. Imagine 
an immense globe, not only 
of the size of the earth, but 
as large as 734 earths put 
together. It revolves on 
an axis with such rapidity, 
that in spite of its size it 
accomplishes its diurnal 
rotatory movement in 
about ten hours. Around 
it, at 20,000 miles distance above its equator 
an immense ring, flat and relatively very thin. 






HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


543 


surrounds it on all sides. This ring is fol¬ 
lowed by a second, and this one by a third. 

Now this system of multiple rings is only 
a few miles thick, while its diameter is 
166,000 miles. They do not remain im¬ 
movable, but are carried along with a circular 
movement round the planet, this movement 
being of still greater rapidity than that of the 
planet itself. The domain of the Saturnine 
world is not confined to this. Beyond the 
ring, eight moons are seen revolving in the 
heavens around this strange system ; the 
nearest of these satellites is separated from 
the planet’s centre by a distance of 120,000 
miles; the most remote has an orbit of 
2,293,000 miles from the centre of the 
planet. Saturn then governs a system which 
measures not less than four and a half millions 
of miles in diameter. 

By the side of this world the earth makes 
but a poor figure, and Micromegas, in the 
fable, was to be pardoned when on coming 
out of Saturn he mistook the earth for a 
molehill. Its years are thirty times longer 
*han ours ; of its seasons each lasts seven 
years and four months ; a change remarkably 
like that which distinguishes our own diver¬ 
sifies them ; a regenerating spring succeeds 
the rigor of winter ; summer and autumn 
pour forth their alternate fruits. 

URANUS. 

On the 13th of March, 1781, between ten 
and eleven in the evening, a quondam organ¬ 
ist of Halifax, who had himself made the 
best telescope then in existence, observed 
the small stars of the constellation of the 
Twins, with a telescope of nine feet focal 
length, and a magnifying power of 227. 
During his observation he perceived that 
one of the stars presented an unusual dia¬ 
meter. Astonished and desiring to prove 
the fact, he took an eyepiece magnifying 


double, and found that the diameter of the 
star increased whilst that of the others 
remained the same. More and more sur¬ 
prised, he fetched his magnifying power of 
932, being quadruple that of the first, and 
again observed it. The mysterious star was 
still larger. 

From that time, he no longer doubted ; 
this was a new body, not a star. He con¬ 
tinued the following days, and noticed that 
it slowly moved among the others. It was 
then a comet. Herschel described it to the 
Royal Society in a paper entitled, “Account 
of a Cometand the scientific world of all 
countries registered this new cometary body, 



THE PLANET SATURN. 

and set about observing it in order to deter¬ 
mine its orbit. If Herschel had directed his 
telescope towards the constellation of the 
Twins eleven days sooner, said Arago, the 
real movement of Uranus would have 
escaped him, for this planet was on the 
second at one of its stationary points. It 
may be seen by this remark on what the 
greatest astronomical discoveries depend. 

The name of the astronomer was then so 
little known that it is found written in every 
way; Mersthel, Herthel, Hermstel, Horo- 
chelle. Nevertheless, the discovery of a new 
comet was an event important enough to 
induce a study of the new body. Laplace, 
Mechain, Boscowich and Lexell endeavored 











544 


ASTRONOMY. 


to determine the orbit along which it moved. 
Many months elapsed before the astrono¬ 
mers guessed that it was a real planet ; and 
it was not until after having observed that 
all the imagined orbits for the pretended 
comet were soon contradicted by observa¬ 
tion, and that it probably had a circular 
orbit, much more distant from the sun than 
Saturn, until then the ooundary of the 
system, that they agreed to regard it as a 
planet. 

The New Member cf the Family. 

Still this was but a provisional agreement. 
It was, indeed, more difficult than was 
thought thus to increase unscrupulously the 
family of the sun. Many reasons of pro¬ 
priety were opposed to it. Old ideas are 
tyrannical. It had been the custom for so 
long to regard the venerable Saturn as 
keeper of the frontiers, that it required a 
great effort to determine upon extending 
these frontiers, and guarding them by a new 
world. It happened in this as in the dis¬ 
covery of the small planets situated between 
Mars and Jupiter. 

Two years before this discovery was 
made, Kepler imagined, for the harmony of 
the world, a large planet in this space, and 
the most frivolous and senseless considera¬ 
tions were urged against it. For instance, 
they reasoned : “ There are only seven open¬ 
ings in the head, the two eyes, the two ears, 
the two nostrils, and the mouth; there are 
only seven metals, there are but seven days 
in the week, therefore there are but seven 
planets,” etc. Considerations like these, 
and others no less imaginary, often hinder 
the progress of astronomy. 

When William Herschel, having been 
present as a spectator at the debates created 
by his discovery, came to the belief that his 
comet was a planet situated at the confines 


of our system, he claimed the right, which 
was indisputably his, of christening the new 
star. Animated by a lawful motive of grati¬ 
tude towards George III., who had appre¬ 
ciated his astronomical worth and given him 
an annual pension, he at first proposed the 
name of Georgium Sidus, George’s star, as 
Galileo had called the satellites of Jupiter 
discovered by him, the Medici’s stars, and 
as Horace had said Julium Sidus. 

Others proposed the name of Neptune, in 
order to preserve the mythological character; 
Saturn would be thus found between his 
two sons, Jupiter and Neptune. Others 
added to Neptune the name of George III., 
others again proposed Astrae, considering 
the goddess of Justice was as far as possible 
from the earth; Cybele, mother of the gods; 
Uranus, the most ancient of all to whom 
reparation was due after so many hundred 
years of neglect. Lalande suggested Her- 
schel’s name to immortalize the discoverer. 
These two denominations prevailed. 

For a long time the planet bore the 
name of Herschel, but custom has since 
declared for the mythological appellation of 
Uranus. The discovery of Uranus has in¬ 
creased the radius of the solar system from 
872,000,000 of miles to 1,753,000,000. 
Compared with the preceding, this planet is 
not very large, for it is scarcely eighty-two 
times more bulky than the earth. Its seasons 
last twenty-one years, of ours, and its years 
eighty-four years and a quarter. Around 
it revolves eight satellites, six of which Her¬ 
schel himself discovered. 

NEPTUNE. 

The world which here marks the frontiers 
of the system, is situated at such a distance 
from the sun, that the light and heat which 
it receives from it are thirteen hundred 
times less than that with which the earth 



HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


545 


is enriched, so that no great difference ean 
be noticed between the day and night of 
this distant planet, and to it the solar disk 
is nearly reduced to the smallness of the 
stars. 

In Eternal Twilight. 

Two billions seven hundred and forty- 
six millions of miles is the distance which 
separates this world from the sun. Until the 
time of its discovery, the frontiers of the 
planetary system already augmented by the 
addition of Uranus, were confined to an 
orbit of 1,753,000,000 of miles in radius. 
Does this, then, imply that these are the 
utmost limits, and that analysis will not be 
able to go further and add fresh members to 
the already increasing family of the sun? 
No ; when observations spreading over a 
long series of years shall have been made, 
and compared with each other, the uni¬ 
versal law of gravitation by which the 
existence of this planet was known before 
ever being perceived in the field of the tele¬ 
scope, will prove the existence of others if 
others exist, which is probable; and the 
progress of optics following equally the 
progress of astronomy will give to the visual 
power, again magnified, the power to dis¬ 
cover such distant planets which will, doubt¬ 
less, be of the sixteenth or seventeenth mag¬ 
nitude. 

Imagine a body a hundred times larger 
than the earth carried into the gloomy des¬ 
erts of space to the distance of the Neptunian 
orbit. It floats, isolated, in the obscurity 
of space, following an immense but purely 
ideal curve, and which exists only in 
theory in the decree of eternal laws. It 
follows this curve, and revolves on itself 
without ever deviating from its path. To 
finish its immense route and return to its 
starting point, it requires one hundred and 
sixty-four years. It will return and again 
35 


pass through this mysterious point of space 
which it passed nearly two centuries before. 

What power moves it ? What hand guides 
this blind body through the night of the dis¬ 
tant regions, and what causes it to describe 
this harmonious curve? It is universal 
attraction. 

Instead of following a regular ellipse round 
the sun, the planet Uranus underwent, from 
some unknown cause, a perturbation, which 
retarded its theoretical path, and extended its 
circular curve towards a certain point, as if 
an attractive cause had seduced the traveler 
from its path, and had made it deviate from 
its proposed route. It was calculated that, 
in order to produce at this point an attrac¬ 
tion of such intensity, it was necessary that 
there should be on that side of the system 
beyond Uranus, a planet of a certain mass, 
and at a certain distance. 

A Remarkable Discovery. 

Two astronomers, the one French, the 
other English, set to work at the same time 
in this research. They discovered the dis¬ 
turbing cause theoretically, and observers 
directed their telescopes to the spot thus 
indicated by theory. They were not long in 
actually discovering the body near the spot 
pointed out, and they were able to announce 
to the world the most brilliant confirmation 
of universal gravitation. 

This discovery justly ranks as one of the 
most celebrated among the dazzling triumphs 
of astronomical science. If anything in crea¬ 
tion might be expected to be circumspect 
and steady, it is one of the planets, like 
Neptune, that helps to form the solar sys¬ 
tem. But like a swift-running locomotive, it 
swayed, trembled, threatened to leave the 
track. “ Surely,” said the astronomer, “there 
must be some world beyond that is drawing 
it.” And there was. 




54(5 


ASTRONOMY. 



he Earth’s 


*4 










UR earth is not rich in respect 
to satellites, possessing as it 
does only one, which, how¬ 
ever, is of dimensions ample 
enough as compared to it; 
this is the moon, the faithful 
companion of its course. 
Other planets, it is true, like 
Jupiter and Saturn, are more richly endowed, 
and have from four to eight satellites ; but 
again there are others which do not possess 
any, as is the case with Venus and Mercury. 

The sole and faithful satellite of the earth, 
formed by a fragment detached from it, now 
cold and wan, rolled round us when it began, 
a red and blazing sphere, vomiting torrents 
of fire from its whole surface. Whilst gravi¬ 
tation was regulating its form and path, the 
moon, in the course of thousands of years, 
exhausted its fires to show us at last its pale 
and silvery face, the sa,d luminary of our 
nights, the splendid nocturnal mirror which 
reflects to us, pale and cold, the divergent 
rays of the sun. 

Compared to the immeasurable distances 
of the nebulae and stars, the space which 
separates us from our satellite is quite insig¬ 
nificant ; she is our next-door neighbor and 
the eye can so clearly discern her form and 
peculiarities, that she seems almost to touch 
us. But this insignificant distance, abstractly 
considered, is yet vast enough. The dis¬ 


tance from the earth to the moon is about 
237,000 miles. If it were possible to get 
there by means of steam, it would require 
one year and about three hundred and 
twenty-two days for a locomotive starting 
from our globe and traveling at a high rate 
of speed to reach the moon and land its 
passengers ; yet this is but a step compared 
to the distances of the stars. 

Grand Lunar Mountains. 

The moon is in. every part roughened 
with eminences of different shapes, but they 
om j . uy rarely group themselves into moun¬ 
tain chains comparable to those of our globe. 
The Alps, Caucasus, and the Apennines 
represent the principal ones. Certain iso¬ 
lated summits have received the names of cele¬ 
brated men, but those of past times have been 
chosen in order not to excite any jealousy ; 
we travel from the Mountain of Aristotle to 
that of Hipparchus, from that of Ptolemy to 
that of Copernicus. The astronomers have 
very properly not forgotten their claims. 

The highest lunar mountains attain an 
altitude which surpasses most terrestrial 
elavations, a fact which may well astonish 
us. Generally they do not rise beyond 22,750 
feet. But in proportion to the size of the 
planet, we may say that the mountains in 
the moon are much loftier than those of the 
earth. The summits of Mount Doerfel are 










HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


547 


24,700 feet above the valleys which environ 
it, whilst the crest of Mont Blanc only rises 
15,632 feet above the level of the sea. 

Most of the mountains of our pale com¬ 
panion are of volcanic origin, and its surface 
has been so shattered by subterranean fires 
that in many places the craters are heaped 
up close beside each other. Probably no 
star was ever so horribly torn by the fury of 
volcanoes. These 
even attain propor¬ 
tions far beyond what 
is seen in our globe. 

Some of those lunar 
craters are four or five 
leagues in diameter, 
and the gaping mouth 
of the volcano of 
Aristillus, still more 
prodigious, is ten 
leagues from one 
ridge to the other! 

Our glasses enable 
us to see these ex¬ 
tinct craters in such 
proportions, that none 
of their details escape 
us; whilst, were we 
on the moon, our 
telescopes, according 
to Humboldt, would 
scarcely enable us to 
make out terrestrial 
volcanoes. 

It seems strange to say that the geography 
of the moon, or at least of much of that 
portion of her surface which is presented to 
our view, is better known than that of many 
parts of our own earth; and yet this is quite 
true. Our telescopes are of such power that 
if there were an object on the moon’s surface 
as large as the Capitol at Washington, they 
would surely reveal it to us. 


Seen from the earth many lunar volcanoes 
appear very much depressed, and the edges 
of their craters resemble so many flattened 
rings, projecting very little above the plains. 
Some regions are so riddled with them that 
their mouths touch. Others surmount lofty 
summits, and their crenelated ramparts sur¬ 
round enormous excavations, which pierce 
deep into the mountains below. 


Formerly the dark patches which cover 
part of the moon’s surface were considered 
as representing lunar seas, but at present 
men are disposed to look upon them as only 
immense plains. The first astronomers gave 
them names full of poetry. There was the 
Sea of Tranquility, the Sea of Clouds, the 
Sea of Nectar, the Ocean of Tempests, and 
the Sea of Serenity. 

















































































548 


ASTRONOMY. 


The rocky and shattered soil of our satel¬ 
lite is perfectly bare; not a blade of grass 
grows there, not a flower opens. Totally 
deprived of water and air, life is an impossi¬ 
bility. A threefold death would overtake 
the least animal that happened to alight 
there; a squirrel would perish of hunger, 
thirst, and asphyxia! In these cold and hor¬ 
rid realms of the moon, everything is plunged 
in torpor and silence; the echoes are mute, 
and the breath of a zephyr never plays around 
the summits of the rugged mountains. 

A Desert World. 

By means of our instruments, which have 
now been brought to so great perfection, we 
can pry into the minutest details of our satel¬ 
lite, and examine them with as much accu¬ 
racy as if it were some distant view on earth ; 
hence we can, to a certain extent, make out its 
geological disposition. The precision of our 
glasses has been carried to such a* pitch, that 
we could with them easily perceive large 
buildings, if any existed on the lunar surface; 
we could even make out troops of animals 
moving about. It would, it is true, be im¬ 
possible to perceive one of its inhabitants 
traversing the valleys of its silver crescent, 
but if the much spoken of Selenites existed, 
we should certainly perceive their movements 
when they were collected into dense masses. 
According to Humboldt, however, there is 
only a noiseless, silent desert there. 

Sir Walter Scott gives us, in one of his fine 
poetical outbursts, this apostrophe to the 
lunar world : 

Hail to thy cold and clouded beam, 

Pale pilgrim of the troubled sky ! 

Hail, though the mists that o’er thee stream 
Lend to thy brow their sullen dye ! 

How should thy pure and peaceful eye 
Untroubled view our scenes below ? 

Or how a tearless beam supply, 

To light a world of war and woe ? 


There is a great contrast, not only appa¬ 
rent but real, between the serene tranquility 
of the lunar disk and the great movements 
which are ceaselessly carried on on the sur¬ 
face of our world. On approaching the 
moon nothing is seen of the physical causes 
which make the earth a vast laboratory 
wherein a thousand elements contend or 
unite with each other. 

There are none of those tumultuous tem¬ 
pests which sometimes sweep over our 
undulated plains; none of those hurricanes 
which descend in waterspouts to be swal¬ 
lowed up in the depth of the sea; no wind 
blows, no cloud rises to the heavens. There 
white trains of cloudy vapors are not seen, 
nor those laden masses with heavy cohorts ; 
the rain never falls, and neither snow, nor 
hail, nor any of the meteorological phe¬ 
nomena are manifested there. 

Silence and Death. 

But, on the other hand, the magnificent 
tints which color our sky at sunrise and twi¬ 
light, the radiation of the heated atmos¬ 
phere, are never seen there; if winds and 
tempests never blow, neither is there the 
balmy breeze which descends npon our 
coasts. In this kingdom of sovereign im¬ 
mobility, the lightest zephyr never comes to 
caress the hilltops ; the sky remains eter¬ 
nally asleep in a calm incomparably more 
complete than that of our hottest days when 
not a leaf moves in the air. This is because ' 
on the surface of this strange world there is 
no atmosphere. From this privation results 
a state of things difficult to realize. 

In the first place, the absence of air 
implies also the absence of water and every 
liquid, foi water and liquids can only exist 
under atmospheric pressureif this pressure 
is taken away they evaporate and their beds 
are dried up. Thus, for instance, if you 





HOW TO READ THE SKY 


549 


place a vessel filled with water under the 
receiver of an air-pump, and then, by pump¬ 
ing out the air which is in the receiver, you 
make a vacuum, you will soon see the water 
boil, even when the place where the experi¬ 
ment is made is frozen with the most intense 
:old. The boiling disengages vapors, and, 
finally, the water is evaporated. Now let us 
suppose, that, at a certain period of its past 
existence the moon had, like 
the earth, seas and rivers, and 
that by the aid of any apparatus, 
its seas and rivers 
were made to boil 
and to fall into vapor 
again; by continuing 
this operation long 
enough the moon 
would be made com¬ 
pletely dry: this is 
precisely what has 
happened. 

Since the distant 
period of its forma¬ 
tion in a fluid state, 
it has lost all its 
liquids and vapors, 
and now a linnet 
would die of thirst 
in the midst of the 
seas of the moon. These seas 
do not contain a drop of water. 

These, it will be said, are sing¬ 
ular seas. And, indeed, no on*, 
will hold that their title is logical. But we 
have seen that they were named at a time 
when people did not know the lunar surface 
sufficiently well to guess that it existed with¬ 
out air and water. 

From the absence of air follows another 
very curious fact—the absence of sky. An 
immensity without depth is traversed by the 
sight, and in the day as in the night are seen 


the stars, planets, comets, and all the bodies 
of our universe. The sun passes among them 
without extinguishing them, as it does to us. 
Not only does the moon not possess this 
perpetual diversity which the movements of 
the air produce on our world, but it has not 
the azure vault which covers the earth with 
such a magnificent dome ; space is a black 
and a perpetually black abyss. 


Whilst on high there reigns darkness, 
below there is silence. Not the least sound 
is ever heard ; the sigh of the wind in the 
woods, the rustling of foliage, the song of 
the morning lark, or the sweet warbling of 
the nightingale never awakens the eternally 
dumb echoes of this world. No voice, no 
speech has ever disturbed the intense soli¬ 
tude with which it is overspread. Unchange- 



TELESCOPIC VIEW OF THE MOON. 















































































































550 


ASTRONOMY 


able silence reigns there in sovereignty. Tall 
perpendicular mountains divide its surface. 
Here and there are seen worn out craters 
rising towards the sky, white rocks heaped 
up like the ruins of some long-passed revo¬ 
lution, crevasses crossing the surface as in 
lands dried by the burning rays of long 
summer days. 

That which renders the spectacle more 


height. This paradox, rather difficult to 
understand, arises from the fact that the 
mountains of the moon are not like those of 
the earth, but are hollow. When we arrive 
at the top there is a ring, the white, rugged 
and sterile mountains, and lofty and deserted 
craters. 

These solitary and dried-up landscapes 
remind us of what Fontenelle said regarding 



PART OF THE MOON’S CRESCENT DURING THE FIRST QUARTER. 


strange is that the absence of vapors causes 
the absence of perspective as well as the 
absence of all tints, and we see only white 
or black according as the object is in the 
sun’s light or in shadow, the objects suc¬ 
ceeding each other as far as the horizon with¬ 
out losing brightness or contour. The moon 
is such a singular world that its mountains 
may be measured as well by depth as 


the changes at work on the surface of our 
satellite, caused, not by the movements of 
life, like those which regulate terrestrial 
nature, but by the simple falling down of 
lands. w Everything is in perpetual motion,” 
he says. “ Even including a certain young 
lady, who was seen in the moon with a tele¬ 
scope about forty years ago, everything has 
considerably aged. She had a pretty good 





















































































HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


551 


face, but her cheeks are now sunken, her nose 
is lengthened, her forehead and chin are now 
prominent to such an extent, that all her 
charms have vanished, and I fear for her days.” 

“ What are you relating to me now?” in¬ 
terrupted the Marchioness. 

“This is no jest,” returned the author. 
“Astronomers perceived in the moon a par¬ 
ticular figure which had the aspect of a 
woman’s head, which came forth from be¬ 
tween the rocks, and then occurred some 
changes in this region. Some pieces of 
mountain fell, and disclosed three points 
which could only serve to compose a fore¬ 
head, a nose, and an old woman’s chin.” 

Gleaming Mountain Crests. 

We do not know whether the face, of 
which the ingenious writer speaks, existed 
anywhere but in his imagination; but changes, 
even caused by simple fallings, are extremely 
rare, if even they are still produced. For a 
hundred years, for instance, during which 
period a day has not elapsed in which the 
moon has been visible, without it being ob¬ 
served by the telescope, the slightest move¬ 
ment has never been noticed. 

At the commencement of the century, it is 
true, people fancied they observed active vol¬ 
canoes, but they have since discovered that 
very probably what were then taken for vol¬ 
canoes were nothing more than the white 
crests of certain mountains, their form or 
their structure being more favorably adapted 
to reflect light. Thus the orb of night 
remains dumb and silent. Why this sad and 
solitary fate ? This is the question asked by 
the poet Shelley : 

Art thou pale for weariness, 

Of climbing heaven and gazing on the earth, 
Wandering companionless 
Among the stars that have a different birth, 

And ever changing, like a joyless eye 
That finds no object worth its constancy. 


Now that we have pointed out how the 
moon is an inhospitable world, poor and 
destitute of nature’s gifts, it is necessary to 
retrace our steps, and show it to you as a 
magnificent world, worthy of admiration and 
esteem. We do not wish to contradict the 
foregoing words ; but in order not to leave 
a bad impression with regard to our faith¬ 
ful friend, we wish to remind you that nature, 
even when it appears to disgrace some of its 
works from some points of view, favors them 
with very desirable riches when regarded 
under other aspects. 

A Magnificent Spectacle. 

To an astronomer, the moon would be a 
magnificent observatory. In the daytime he 
could observe the stars at noon, and thus 
discover, without trouble, that they reside 
eternally in the heavens. With us, on the 
contrary, among the ancients, were a great 
number who imagined that they were lighted 
up in the evening and extinguished in the 
morning. If, then, people make astronomical 
observations on the moon, the sun is not a 
tyrant who governs the heavens absolutely ; 
it allows the stars to be enthroned peaceably 
with it in space; and studies commenced 
during the night can be carried on without 
difficulty during the day until the following 
night. 

On our satellite the nights are fifteen times 
twenty-four hours long, and the days are of 
the same length ; but there is an essential 
difference to remark between the nights of 
the lunar hemisphere, which faces us, and 
those of the hemisphere which we do not 
see. 

You must have noticed that the moon 
always presents the same side to us. From 
the beginning of the world it has never 
shown but this side. We read in Plutarch, 
who wrote nearly two thousand years ago, 




ASTRONOMY 


552 


a thousand conjectures relative to the side of 
the moon always turned toward us. Some 
said it was a large mirror, well polished and 
excellent, which sent back from afar the 
image of the earth ; the dark portions repre¬ 
sented the oceans and seas, while the bright 
portions represented the continents. 

Others believed that the spots were forests, 
where some placed the hunts of Diana, and 
that the most brilliant parts were the plains. 
Others, again, saw in it a very light, celestial 


earth ; they stated that its inhabitants must 
pity the earth which is below them, and 
which is only a mass of mud. Others, again, 
and their singular opinion was widely spread, 
added that the beings who peopled it were 
fifteen times larger than those of our earth, 
and by the side of the lunar trees our oaks 
would only be small bushes. All this to 
explain the nature of the lunar face eternally 
turned towards us. 

Now, if we never see but one side of the 
moon, it follows that there is only one side 


of this body which sees us ; so that half of 
the moon has a moon—namely, our earth, 
and the other half is deprived of one. If 
there are any inhabitants on the hemisphere 
turned from us, they do not guess that the 
moon is only a body placed for illumination 
of our nights, and they must be greatly 
I astonished when the narratives of travelers 
relate to them the existence of our earth 
in the heavens. If the travelers there re¬ 
semble those here, what tales must they 

spread with regard to 
us? But, also, how use¬ 
ful must the earth be to 
the lunar nights, and 
how beautiful we are— 
from afar! 

Silvery Splendors. 

Fancy to yourself 
fourteen moons like that 
which gives us light, or 
more properly speaking, 
a moon with fourteen 
times the extent of sur¬ 
face, and you will have 
an idea of the earth as 
seen from the moon. 
Sometimes it only pre¬ 
sents a fringed crescent, 
a few days after the new 
earth ; sometimes it presents the first quarter; 
sometimes it shines out with its full disk, 
spreading its silvered light in floods. The 
most fortunate thing is, that it begins to shine 
precisely in the evening, that its brightest 
light, its full disk, is precisely at midnight, and 
that it fades away in the morning at the time 
when it is no longer required. And it is 
known that from the evening to the morning 
is fifteen times twenty-four hours with our 
neighbors the Selenites. 

How much more reasonable are these 































HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


553 


inhabitants than we are in believing that the 
moon was created and placed in the world 
expressly for them, and that we are only 
their very humble servants ! 

The lunar caverns form a very peculiar 
and prominent feature of the moon’s surface, 
and are to be seen in almost every region, 
but are most numerous in the southwest 
part of the moon. Nearly a hundred of 


In some instances their margins are level 
with the general surface of the moon ; but 
in most cases they are encircled with a high 
ridge of mountains marked with lofty peaks. 
Some of the larger of these cavities contain 
smaller cavities of the same kind and form, 
particularly in their sides. The mountain¬ 
ous ridges which surround these cavities 
reflect the greatest quantity of light; and 



SINGULAR ASPECT OF THE MOON’S SURFACE. 


them, great and small, may be distinguished 
in that quarter. They are nearly of a cir¬ 
cular shape, and appear like a very shallow 
egg cup. The smaller cavities appear within 
almost like a hallow cone, with the sides 
tapering towards the centre ; but the larger 
ones have, for the most part, flat bottoms, 
from the centre of which there frequently 
rises a smal lconical hill, which gives them 
a resemblance to ridges and mountains. 


hence that region of the moon in which they 
abound appears brighter than any other. 

From their lying in every possible direc¬ 
tion, they appear, at and near the time of 
full moon, like a number of brilliant streaks 
or radiations. These radiations appear to 
converge towards a large brilliant spot sur¬ 
rounded by a faint shade, near the lower part 
of the moon, which is known by the name 
of Tycho, and which every one who views 































































554 


ASTRONOMY. 


the full moon even with a common tele¬ 
scope, may easily distinguish. 

In regard to their dimensions, they are of 
all sizes, from three miles to fifty miles 
diameter at the top ; and their depth below 
the general level of the lunar surface varies 
from one-third of a mile to three miles and a 
half. Twelve of these cavities, as measured 
by Schroeter, were found to be above two 
miles in perpendicular depth. These cavities 
constitute a peculiar feature in the scenery 
of the moon, and in her physical constitution, 
which bears scarcely any analogy to what 
we observe in the physical arrangements of 
our globe. 

A Remarkable Crater. 

11 is a curious fact that the surface of the 
lunar hemisphere was known before that of 
our own earth, and the heights of all its 
mountains were measured before the same 
thing was done for our own. The volcano 
of Aristillus in particular was one of the first 
and best known. Lecouturier, the author of 
a very good map of the moon, gave a long 
description of it, and this description may be 
applied to the most of the lunar mountains. 
It is composed of a crater about twenty-four 
miles across, from the centre of which rise 
two cones, the highest of which attains nearly 
984 yards; the whole is surrounded by a 
> ircular rampart. 

When the bottom of the crater is exam¬ 
ined with a powerful telescope, and under 
favorable circumstances, numerous rough 
portions are noticed which seem to indicate 
hardened lava and blocks of rock heaped 
together. From this mountain, taken as a 
centre, start five or six lines and rocky rami¬ 
fications directed towards the east and south. 
These ramifications give rise to the radia¬ 
tion of Aristillus. They are surmounted by 
an enormous quantity of peaks or basaltic 


columns which rise from their summits, and 
make them resemble from afar the multitude 
of bell towers that are seen on some Gothic 
cathedrals. Aristillus presents the general 
aspect of most of the mountains of our satel¬ 
lite. 

Thus the moon would appear very inhos¬ 
pitable to us. The sense of speech, like the 
sense of hearing, would be lost, and, conse¬ 
quently, would not exist. To the privation 
of these two senses, perhaps, must be added 
an inferiority in the pleasures which sight 
gives to us, seeing that wherever the eye 
would be ^directed, it would only meet with 
a scene of comparative desolation. 

It is doubtless this proximity which has 
caused the great reputation of the lunar orb 
amongst us. No celestial body, except the 
sun, has ever had a similar influence. The 
whole world, it was supposed, was accessible 
to the lunar influences, men, animals, plants, 
minerals. The astrological opinions with 
regard to this body 'were most singular. 
We must quote some ; they are really too 
curious to be passed over in silence. Let us 
choose one or two good astrologers, learned 
on the moon, and let us question them. 

Curious Opinions. 

Cornelius Agrippa, a famous geomancer, 
thus expresses himself: The moon is called 
Phoebe, Diana, Lucinus, Proserpine, Hecate, 
who governs the months, half-formed ; who 
illuminates the nights, wandering, in silence, 
with two horns ; queen of divinities, queen 
of heaven, who rules over all the elements, 
to whom respond the stars, to whom return 
the seasons, and whom the elements obey ; 
at whose direction the thunders sound, the 
seeds germinate, the germs increase; the 
primordial mother of fruits, heart of Phoebus, 
shining and brilliant, carrying light from one 
planet to another, illuminating by her light 





HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


555 


all the divinities, stopping various inter¬ 
courses with the stars, distributing the light 
rendered uncertain on account of meetings 
with the sun ; queen of beauty, mistress of 
shores and winds, giver of riches, nurse of 
men, governor of all states good and un¬ 
happy; protecting men by sea and land, 
moderating the reverses of fortune ; dispens¬ 
ing with destiny, nourishing all which comes 
out of the earth, arresting the insults of 
phantoms, holding the cloisters of the earth 
closed, the heights of heaven luminous, the 
currents of the sea salutary, and ruling at 
will the deplorable silence of the lower 
regions, governing the world, treading Tar¬ 
tarus under foot; of whom the majesty 
causes the birds which fly in the sky, savage 
beasts in the mountains, the serpents hidden 


under the earth, and the fish in the sea, to 
tremble. 

According to Eteilla, the moon governs 
comedians, butchers, tallow and wax chand¬ 
lers, ropemakers, lemonade-vendors, publi¬ 
cans, playwrights of all kinds, masters of 
great works, menageries of animals ; and, on 
the other hand, professional gamblers, spies, 
sharpers, cheats, bankrupts, false money- 
coiners, and mad-houses ; that is to say, the 
moon rules over all those whose business it 
is to work during the night until sun-rising, 
or to sell provisions for the night; and it 
also rules over all which people would be 
ashamed to commit in full day, in sight of 
those who have manners. Thus each reader 
may easily find out what denomination he is 
and what it is that governs him. 



PACE has neither beginning nor 
end. The heavens are infinite 
space, indefinite expanse, a void 
without limits ; no frontier cir¬ 
cumscribes them, they have 
neither beginning nor end, 
neither top nor bottom, right 
or left ; there is an infinity of 
spaces which succeed each other in every 
direction. The earth is a little material 
globe, placed in this space without support 
of any kind, like a bullet which sustains itself 
alone in the air, like the little captive balloons 
which rise and float in the atmosphere when 


the thin cord which retains them is broken. 

A multitude of suns, surrounded like ours 
with a family of which they are the foci and 
the light-givers, float likewise in all parts of 
the expanse. These suns are the stars with 
which the fields of heaven are scattered. In 
spite of the appearance caused by perspective, 
immense spaces separate all these systems 
from ours, spaces so great that the highest 
figures of our great numeration can scarcely 
number the smallest amongst them. A dis¬ 
tance that our figures can scarcely express 
also separates these stars from each other, 
extending from depths unto depths. 












ASTRONOMY. 


5 5 G 

Notwithstanding these prodigious inter¬ 
vals, these suns are in number so consider¬ 
able that their numeration as yet exceeds all 
our means ; millions joined to millions are 
inadequate to enumerate the multitude ! 
Let the mind try, if it is possible, to represent 
to itself at one time this considerable number 
of systems and the distances which separate 
them one from the other! Confused and 
soon humbled at the aspect of this infinite 
richness, it will only learn to admire in silence 
this indescribable wonder. 

Heavens Piled on Heavens. 

Continually rising on the other side of the 
heavens, going beyond the distant shores of 
this ocean without limits, it will endlessly 
discover fresh new space, and new worlds 
will reveal themselves to our eager gaze, 
heavens will succeed to heavens, spheres to 
spheres ; after deserts of expanse will open 
other deserts, after immensities other immen¬ 
sities ; and even when carried away without 
rest, during centuries, with the rapidity of 
thought, the soul would continue its flight 
beyond the most inaccessible limits that im¬ 
agination could conceive,—there even the 
infinite of an unexplored expanse would 
remain still open before it; the infinite of 
space would oppose itself to the infinite of 
time; endlessly rivalling, without our ever 
being able to take away from the other: 
and the spirit will be arrested, overcome with 
fatigue, at the entrance of infinite creation as 
if it had not advanced a single step in space. 

Ye stars ! bright legions that, before all time, 

Camped on yon plain of sapphire, what shall tell 
Your burning myriads but the eye of Him 
Who bade through heaven your golden chariots 
wheel ? 

Yet who, earth-born, can see your hosts, nor feel 
Immortal impulses—eternity ? 

What wonder if the o’erwrought soul should reel 
With its own weight of thought, and the wild eye 
See fate within your tracks of deepest glory lie ? 


The immensity of the heavens has been 
sung on many lyres ; but how can the song 
of man express such a reality ? Poets have 
tried to render it in verse, when one feels the 
insufficiency of speech to note the immense 
thoughts which this wonderful contemplation 
develops in us. 

Marvelous Flight Through Space. 

We wish to open space before us and em¬ 
ploy ourselves there, in trying to penetrate 
its depth. The velocity of a cannon-ball 
from the mouth of the cannon makes swift 
way, 437 yards per second. But this would 
be too slow for our journey through space, 
as our velocity would scarcely be 900 miles 
an hour. In nature there are movements in¬ 
comparably more rapid, for instance, the 
velocity of light. This velocity is 186,000 
miles per second. We will place ourselves 
on a ray of light and be carried away on its 
rapid course. 

Taking the earth as our starting-point, we 
will go in a straight line to any point of the 
heavens. We start, and at the end of the 
first second, we have already traversed 186- 
000 miles ; at the end of the second, 372,000 
We continue : ten seconds, a minute, ten 
minutes have elapsed—111,600,000 miles 
have been passed. Flying away during an 
hour, a day, a week, without ever slackening 
our pace—during whole months, and even a 
year, the time which we have traversed is 
already so long that expressed in miles, the 
numbers exceed our faculty of comprehen¬ 
sion, and indicate nothing to our mind; 
they would be trillions, and millions of mil¬ 
lions. 

But we will not interrupt our flight. 
Carried on without stopping by this same 
rapidity of 186,000 miles each second, let us 
penetrate the expanse in a straight line for 
whole years, fifty years, even a century—- 





HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


557 


where are we ? For a long time we have 
gone beyond the last starry regions which 
are seen from the earth, the last that the 
telescope has visited; for a long time we 
travel in other regions, unknown and un¬ 
explored. No mind is capable of following 
the road passed over ; thousands of millions 
joined to thousands of millions express noth¬ 
ing : at the sight of this prodigious expanse 
the imagination is arrested, humbled. 

Well ! this is the wonderful point of the 


every direction; and when after centuries 
employed in this giddy course, we should 
stop ourselves, fascinated or in despair before 
the immensity eternally open, eternally re¬ 
newed, we should again understand that our 
flights had not measured for us the smallest 
part of space, and that we were not more 
advanced than at our starting point. In 
truth, it is the infinite which surrounds us, 
as we before expressed it, or the infinite 
number of worlds. We should be able to 



CYCLONE OF SPIRAL NEBULA. 


problem : we have not advanced a single 
step in space. We are no nearer a limit than 
if we had remained in the same place ; we 
should be able again to begin the same 
course, starting from the point where we are, 
and add to our voyage a voyage of the same 
extent; we should be able to join centuries 
on centuries in the same itinerary, with the 
same velocity,—to continue the voyage with¬ 
out end and without rest; we should be able 
to guide ourselves in any part of space, left, 
right, forwards, backwards, above, below, in 


float for eternity without ever finding any¬ 
thing before us but an eternally open infinite. 

In the bosom of infinite space, the un¬ 
fathomable extent of which we have tried to 
comprehend, float rich clusters of stars, each 
separated by immense intervals. These rich 
groupings of stars have received the name of 
nebulae. This name was given at the time 
of the invention of astronomical lenses, when 
these starry tribes were distinguished only 
under a diffused, cloudy aspect, which did 
not enable the eye to distinguish the com- 











558 


ASTRONOMY. 


posing stars. This appearance not revealing 
in any way the idea of solar clusters, it was 
thought that fchey were only phosphorescent 
vapors, whirlwinds of luminous substance, or 
possibly primitive fluids, whose progressive 
condensation would in the future effect the 
formation of new stars. The first nebula 
observed by the aid of the telescope and 
pointed out as an object of particular nature, 
the nebula of Andromeda, was considered 
for three centuries and a half as entirely 
deprived of stars. 

Infinite Clusters of Stars. 

Only a few years ago a Cambridge astrono¬ 
mer counted within the limits of this nebula 
i 500 little stars, notwithstanding which, the 
centre still keeps the aspect of a diffused 
light, in spite of the best instruments. Later, 
the astronomer Halley thought no more of 
the star-clusters. 

Thus, infinite space must be represented as 
an immense void in the bosom of which are 
suspended archipelagoes of stars. These 
archipelagoes are themselves of infinite num¬ 
ber; the stars which compose them can be 
counted by millions, and from one to the 
other the distance is incalculable. They are 
distributed in space in every direction, fol¬ 
lowing every imaginable course, and invested 
with every possible form. 

The fixed stars are in reality suns, many 
of them thousands of times larger than our 
little sun. 

The existence of binary stars was dis¬ 
covered by Sir William Herschel toward the 
close of last century. It had long been 
noticed by astronomers as a remarkable 
coincidence that, in several instances, a pair 
of bright stars were found in close proximity 
to each other, much closer than we should 
have expected, supposing the stars to have 
been scattered up equally distant from all 


its four suns. A green and a red sun are 
above the horizon, and when we look directly 
at either, its color is clear, brilliant and well- 
defined. But their rays meet and mingle 
and unite into a dazzling snowy white, which 
imparts to the whole landscape the pure 
radiant look which seems to fill the firma¬ 
ment on a sunny day when the ground is 
covered with snow. A light cloud-wreath 
steals over the green sun, and a faint rosy 
blush overspreads the face of the sky. The 
cloud thickens, and the rosy hue deepens 
into a mellow crimson. 

Then the green sun sets and a blue one 
rises, changing the red light of the sky into 
a rich purple, veined here and there with pale 
amethyst, as a few rays from the green sun 
struggle through the clouds just as it sinks 
beneath the horizon. The purple changes 
into a deep gold as the blue sun is succeeded 
by an orange one, and the gold pales down 
as the red sun sinks to his rest in turn. The 
orange is left alone; and when it, too, sets, 
night comes on apace. 

All the Colors of the Rainbow. 

And now the moons rise and shed their 
radiance on the scene. But how differently 
do they show from the pale uniform light 
that beams from our own plain satellite ! 
Every color of the rainbow glows from their 
faces; in belts, in spots, in lunes, their 
checkered disks reflect every shade of hue 
that the artist’s palette can produce. 

The parts illumined by one sun alone 
1 effect, more faintly than the rest, the colors 
of their respective orbs; those which come 
within the light of two or three of them will 
shine more brightly and with gayer com¬ 
binations of colors; while in the parts on 
which all the four suns shine at once we find 
again the snowy white, so bright as to sparkle 
almost with the light of day. 



HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


559 


But where there are four great lights to 
rule the day, night will be of nnfrequent 
occurrence and of short duration; and soon 
the four suns, their noctural course ended, 
begin at once to draw nigh to their rising. 
Pale, slender threads of red, green, blue, and 
orange steal out from the darkness in four 
quarters of the horizon ; and these widen and 


lengthen till they mingle together at their 
extremities in softly shading hues of white, 
indigo, and gold. Brighter and broader they 
grow, and the gorgeous variegated belt 
spreads rapidly from horizon to zenith, till at 
last the suns have fairly risen, and their 
many-colored rays combine again into the 
dazzling white of the perfect day. 











.. 


EPRESENTATIVE maps were 
formed of the heavens by the 
ancients, and from the time of 
Hipparchus, the Greek astrono¬ 
mer, they were able to class the 
stars, distingushing them ac¬ 
cording to their brightness. The bright 
clusters are called constellations, and the 
ancient astronomers gave them, for the most 
part, the names of animals according to 
their supposed resemblance to some repre¬ 
sentative of the animal kingdom. 

Let us form the geography of the heavens. 
The innumerable figures of animals, men or 
objects, with which the sphere is adorned, 
will not all be drawn here, seeing that they 
would only serve to confuse the mind with 
imaginary lines. Formerly they printed 
celestial atlases, where the figures were 
represented with exquisite care, so much so, 
mdeed, that they ended by forgetting the 
stars, and the sky was nothing more than a 
menagerie. In spite of the interest of the 
images, we will not follow this example. 


At present, let us see how to direct our 
course for reading correctly the great book 
of the heavens. 

THE GREAT BEAR. 

There is one constellation known to every¬ 
one ; for greater simplicity we will begin 
with it, as it will serve as a starting-point to 
go towards the others, and as a sign to find 
its companions. This constellation is the 
Great Bear, which has also been called 
David’s Chariot, or Charles’s Wain ; which 
the ancients called Septem trioncs (whence 
came the word septentrion ), or, again, Helix , 
Plaustrum; which the Greeks addressed 
under the name of Arktos Megale; which the 
Arabs called Aldebb al Akbar , and the 
Chinese, three thousand years ago, addressed 
as the Tcheou-pey , the god of the north. 
Thus it can boast of a high celebrity. 

If, 'however, in spite of its universal noto¬ 
riety, some have not yet had occasion to 
make its acquaintance, the following is the 
sign by which it may always be recognized. 





























560 


ASTRONOMY. 


Turn towards the north, that is to say, 
opposite the spot where the sun is at noon. 
Whatever may be the season of the year, 
the day of the month, or hour of the night, 
you will always see there a large constella¬ 
tion formed of seven stars, four of which are 


quadrilateral, and at a right angle with the 
side. 

Have you not all seen it ? It never sets. 
Night and day it watches above the northern 
horizon, turning slowly in four-and-twenty 
hours around a star of which we shall speak 
presently. In the figure of the Great Bear, 
the three stars of the extremity form the 
tail, and the quadrilateral forms the body. 
In the Chariot the four stars form the wheels, 
and the three the car. Above the second 
between these latter, good sights distinguish 
a very small star called Alcor, which is also 
called the Cavalier. The Arabs used it to 
test a good eye. 

This constellation is also called the Big 
Dipper, from its supposed resemblance to a 
dipper. If a straight line be carried through 
the two stars on the side opposite the handle, 
a star less brilliant than the preceding ones 
is found, which forms the extremity of a 
figure like the Great Bear, but smaller and 
directed in a contrary direction. This is the 


Little Bear, or Little Chariot, also formed of 
seven stars. The star to which our line 
brings us, that which is at the extremity of 
the Bear’s tail, or at the end of the shaft of 
the Chariot, is the Pole-Star. Always found 
in its place, it is an example of fidelity. 

The Pole-Star has a certain 
renown, like all personages who 
distinguish themselves from 
others, because, among all the 
stars which twinkle in our starry 
nights, it remains immovable in 
the heavens. At any moment 
of the year, day or night, if you 
observe the sky, you will al¬ 
ways find it occupying the same 
place. All the other stars, on 
the contrary, revolve round it 
every twenty-four hours, a, hold 
for the centre of this immense 
whirlpool! The Pole-Star remains immov¬ 
able over one pole of the world, whence it is 
used as a fixed point by navigators of the 
pathless ocean, as well as by travelers in an 
unexplored desert. 



URSA MINOR. 


CASSIOPEIA. 

Looking at the Pole-Star, stationary in the 
midst of the northern region, we have the 
south behind us, the east to the right, the 
west to the left. All the stars revolving 
around the Pole-Star, from right to left. 



URSA MAJOR, OR GREAT BEAR. 







HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


561 


ought to be recognized according to their 
mutual relations rather than according to the 
cardinal points. On the other side of the 
Pole-Star, relating to the Great Bear, is 
another constellation easily recognized. This 
is Cassiopeia, which is formed of five stars of 
the third magnitude, arranged somewhat like 
the slanting strokes of the letter M. This 
group takes every possible position, going 
round the pole; sometimes being above, 
sometimes below, sometimes to the left and 
sometimes to the right; but it is always easy 
to find, seeing that, like the preceding con¬ 
stellation, it never sets and is always opposite 



TAURUS OR BULL. 


to the Great Bear. The Pole-Star is the 
axle around which these two constellations 
revolve. 

We go from west to east. We shall easily 
recognize the Bull by the group of the 
Pleiades which sparkle on its shoulder, by 
that of the Hyades which glimmer on its 
forehead, and by the magnificent star which 
marks its right eye, the star Aldebaran, of 
the first magnitude. It is, moreover, situated 
just above the splendid constellation of Orion. 

The Pleiades, which are seen in the an¬ 
nexed engraving, are a group of about 80 
stars, resolved by the telescope. The ancients 
counted in the Pleiades seven stars more 
3(5 


brilliant than the ground sprinkled with 
golden dust. At the present time only six 
can be counted with the naked eye. Alcyone 
in Pleiades appears to be the central point of 
the universal heavens. 



This region, marked with Orion, Sirius, 
the Twins, the Goat, Aldebaran and the 
Pleiades, is ths most magnificent region of 
the celestial sphere. It is towards the end 
of Autumn that it shines in our hemisphere 



THE TWINS. 


in the evening. The Twins are, in the fable, 
Castor and Pollux, sons of Jupiter, celebrated 
for their indissoluble friendship, for which 
they were rewarded by immortality. The 
Greeks also gave the name of Castor and 
Pollux to those lights which appear round 
















562 


ASTRONOMY. 


vessels after storms, electrical phenomena 
now called the fires of Saint Elmo. 

The Crab or Cancer may be distinguished 
at the bottom of the line of Castor and 
Pollux, in five stars of the fourth or fifth 
magnitude. It is the least important body 
of the zodiac. While Hercules was fighting 
the Lion of Nemea, the Crab, aiding the ven¬ 
geance of Juno, pinched the heel of the hero, 
who crushed it with his foot, but the queen 
of heaven gave it its reward by placing it in 
the heavens. 

The Lion is a cluster of beautiful stars, 
situated to the east of the Twins. The most 


brilliant of these stars is of the first magni¬ 
tude, and is called Regulus, the heart of the 
Lion; the three others are of the second 
magnitude. The sun enters the Lion at the 
summer solstice, and causes it to disappear 
by covering it with his fires; this is the vic¬ 
tory of Hercules over the Lion of Nemea. 
It was also for the same cause the symbol 
of strength and power. Being the abode of 
the sun during the month of July, it was 
again the sign of burning heats and of plagues 
which they sometimes brought with them. 
In the eyes of astrologers of the middle 
ages, this was its terrible aspect. The Vir¬ 
gin comes after the Lion. 


Copernicus (the He-goat) is not rich in 
bright stars. Those which sparkle on his 
forehead, are the only ones which can be 
distinguished by the naked eye. In some 
authors Copernicus represents the goat Amal- 
thea, which nursed Jupiter on Mount Ida, 
and received a place in heaven as a reward. 
According to others, it represents the return 
of the sun to the winter solstice through the 
gates of the tropics. Again, according to 
others, it was a he-goat which was brought 
up with the king of the gods, and which 
discovered and sounded the marine trumpet, 
and produced fear among the Titans in their 
war with Olympus. The fright¬ 
ened gods hid themselves in the 
forms of different animals; 
Apollo changed into a crane, 
Mercury into an ibis, Diana into 
a cat. Such a metamorphose 
was never seen. Lastly, Pan 
into Capricornus, having a goat’s 
body and the tail of a fish. He 
appeared, also, to wish to steal 
away with the giants who scaled 
heaven. 

Aquarius forms with his three 
tertiaiy stars a very obtuse tri¬ 
angle. The base is prolonged in a string of 
stars from the side of Capricornus, and to¬ 
wards the left to the Urn. Thence begins a 
sinuous line of very small stars descending 
to the horizon. This is the water poured out 
by Aquarius. Aquarius appears to personify 
Ganymede, who was raised by Jupiter’s eagle 
to serve as cup-bearer to the gods after the 
downfall of Hebe. 

The Scorpion, with its heart marked by 
the brilliant Antares, a star of the first mag¬ 
nitude, is easily recognized. It is not that 
the form can be distinguished ; for this form 
is not better sketched out by the stars which 
compose it, than the preceding figures have 







HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


563 


been. But it is well understood that, when 
we speak of recognizing a constellation, we 
refer simply to the groups of stars which 
bear its name and not to its mythological 
figure. The Scales and Scorpion only 
formed one sign, with the Latins before 
Augustus : the Scales were thert the claws 
of the Scorpion. As Augustus was born on 
the 23d of September, flattery leagued itself 
with astrology to celebrate the happiness 
promised to the earth by the birth of this 
emperor ; the Scales, which the Egyptians 
had formerly instituted in the original sphere, 
were replaced in the heavens as a symbol of 
Justice. 

The verses of the Eneid may now be easily 
interpreted. As a sign of misfortune and 
fear, the Scorpion was cursed among all the 
constellations. It was said, especially, that 
it had an invincible hatred towards Orion, 
because this figure sets when the former 

rises, and vice versa. It was not only the 
terror of the stars, but also the terror of the 

sun himself, that Ovid has described it to us. 



ORION. 



THE SCORPION. 


ORION. 

Among the southern constellations Orion 
is the most beautiful; we must not pass it 
without doing homage to it. It is during 
fine winter nights that this constellation 
shines over our heads. No other season is 
so magnificently constellated as the winter 
months. Whilst nature deprives us of cer¬ 
tain enjoyments on the one hand, it presents 
us with others no less precious. The won¬ 
ders of the heavens present themselves to us 
from the Bull and Orion at the east, as far as 
the Virgin and Bootes at the west; of eigh¬ 
teen stars of the first magnitude, which may 
be counted in the whole extent of the firma¬ 
ment, a dozen are visible at nine o’clock in 
the evening, not counting many beautiful 
stars of the second order and the remarkable 
nebulae worthy of the attention of mortals. 








5G4 


ASTRONOMY. 


Thus it is that nature establishes every¬ 
where harmonious compensation and, whilst 
it darkens our short and frosty winter days, 
it gives us long nights enriched with the 
wealthiest creations of the heavens. 

The constellation of Orion is not only the 
richest in bright stars, but it conceals also 
treasures for the initiated which no other can 
present. We might almost call it the 
California of the heavens. Let as speak 
first of its nebulae, situated below the second 
star of the Belt. 

This has been minutely examined and the 
different regions of its cluster have been 
studied and described in all their details. In 
proportion as the instruments have become 


more powerful, the stars, which constellate 
it, appear more numerous, which has hap¬ 
pened in all telescopic observations of 
nebulae; and, whilst in early days it was 
asked with great uncertainty if there was 
only a phosphorescent cloud, a vaporous 
mass—astronomers afterwards arrived at the 
conviction that it was formed of an immense 
number of heaped-up suns. 

It occupies a large space in the sky, its 
apparent dimension being equal to that of the 
lunar disk. When we think of the distance 
which separates us from this agglomeration, 
we are dismayed at the real extent which 
it embraces in the midst of the boundless 
void and limitless expanses of the sky, 





tpcinqe Wanderers in 



pace 






OMETS are tailed bodies that 
suddenly come to light up the 
heavens, and were long re¬ 
garded with terror, like so many 
warning signs of divine wrath. 
Men have always thought them¬ 
selves much more important than they really 
are in the universal order; they have had the 
vanity to pretend that the whole creation 
was made for them, whilst in reality the 
whole creation does not suspect their exist¬ 
ence. The earth we inhabit is only one of 


the smallest worlds; and therefore it can 
scarcely be for it alone that all the wonders 
of the heavens, of which the immense major¬ 
ity remains hidden from it, were created. 

The word comet is derived from a Greek 
word signifying hair, a title which had its 
origin in the hairy appearance often exhibited 
by the haze of luminous vapor, the presence 
of which is, at first sight, the most striking 
characteristic of eomets. 

The chief point of difference between them 
and the planets is, that their orbits are very 










HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


565 


elongated; and, instead of being nearly cir¬ 
cular, they take the elliptical form. In 
consequence of the nature of these orbits, 
the same comet may approach very near the 
sun, and afterwards travel from it to immense 
distances. Thus, the period of the comet of 
1680 has been estimated at 3000 years. It 
approaches the sun, so as to be nearer to it 
than our moon is to us, whilst it recedes to 
a distance eight hundred and fifty-three times 
greater than the distance of the 
earth from the sun. 

• 

Great Velocity. 

On the 17th of December, 

£ 680, it was at its perihelion— 
that is, at its greatest proximity 
to the sun; it is now continu¬ 
ing its path beyond the Nep¬ 
tunian orbit. Its velocity varies 
according to its distance from 
the solar body. At its perihelion 
it travels thousands of leagues 
per minute; at its aphelion it 
does not pass over more than a 
few yards. Its proximity to the 
sun in its passage near that body 
caused Newton to think that it 
received a heat 28,000 times 
greater than that we experience 
at the summer solstice; and that 
this heat being 2000 times 
greater than that of red-hot 
iron, an iron globe of the same dimensions 
would be 50,000 years entirely losing its 
heat. 

Two tnousand years ago, Seneca wrote : 
A day will come when the course of these 
bodies will be known, and submitted to 
rules, like that of the planets. The prophecy 
of the philosopher is realized. It is now 
known that, like the planets, comits gravitate 
round the sun, and depend equally on its 


central attraction. Only, instead of moving 
in orbits, circular, or nearly so, they describe 
oval curves—very long ellipses. This is the 
great distinction established between them 
and planets. Instead of being opaque, 
heavy, and important bodies like our planets,, 
they are of great lightness, and extreme, 
tenuity. 

But there are many comets which astron¬ 
omers can prove will never again return to> 


the neighborhood of the sui They come 
from the remote depths of space, at a stu¬ 
pendous distance from the sun and all his 
train of planets ; on beginning to feel the 
effect of his attraction they move towards our 
system, and at length they come sufficiently 
near to it to be visible through a telescope, 
and as surely as they do so, so surely are 
they detected by the keen eyes of some of 
the numerous astronomers who are always 



VARIOUS FORMS OF COMETS WITH THE DATES OF 
THEIR APPEARANCE. 
















ASTRONOMY 


£6G 


on the watch for these bodies. They come 
on nearer to the sun, till their pace exceeds 
that of the earth itself, but they do not plunge 
headlong into him. 

Notwithstanding the vast powers of his 
attraction, they just whirl around the mighty 
luminary. Exposed to the fearful heat of 
iiis beams, the tail is developed to an enor¬ 


mous length. By some unknown law, which 
Professor Tyndall has recently sought to 
explain in a very ingenious manner, the tail 
stands out away from the sun as the comet 
whirls around it; then, after having passed 
the sun, the comet retreats again. It grad¬ 
ually becomes fainter, gradually is lost sight 
of by our telescopes, gradually plunges again 


into the depths of space, never again to 
revisit our sun, never again to be beheld by 
human eye. Such is the history of many of 
the great comets which at different times 
have struck terror into the inhabitants of the 
earth—they have retreated never more to 
return. 

The great comet of 1843 was one of 
the most remarkable ever ob¬ 
served. The nucleus of this 
was so brilliant that it could be 
seen with the greatest ease in full 
daylight. This comet is remark¬ 
able for coming nearer to the sun 
than any other of these bodies 
whose paths have been deter¬ 
mined with accuracy. It was 
found to approach the sun to 
within a distance of thirty-three 
thousand miles. It is easy to cal¬ 
culate, though not easy to 
imagine, what must be the heat 
in such a position. It would 
doubtless be many hundred 
times greater than the tempera¬ 
ture of molten iron. 

Strange Visitors. 

The distinctive character of 
comets lies especially in the 
length of their course, and in the 
immense duration of their jour¬ 
neys round the sun, through the 
celestial regions. The following 
lines are by the poet Conder: 

Mysterious visitant, whose beauteous light 
Among the wondering stars so strangely gleams ! 

Like a proud banner in the train of night, 

The emblazon’d flag of Diety it streams— 

Infinity is written on thy beams ; 

And thought in vain would through the pathless sk' 
Explore thy secret course. Thy circle seems 
Too \ ast for Time to grasp. Oh, can that eye 
Which numbers hosts like thee, this atom earth 
descry ? 



THE GREAT COMET OF 1 843. 








































































































HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


567 


Meteorites are those solid fiery bodies 
which from time to time visit the earth, 
sweeping through the sky with immense 
velocity in every direction, and remaining 
visible but a few moments ; they are gener¬ 
ally attended by a luminous train, and dur¬ 
ing their progress explosions usually occur, 
followed by the fall of stones, to which the 
name of aerolites is given. 

We must not confound the magnitude of 
the meteorite with that of the aerolite, for 
the latter is nothing 
more than a fragment 
thrown off from the 
former and falling to 
the earth, while the 
main body sweeps 
onward in its course. 

The diameter of the 
Weston meteorite 
was computed to be 
300 feet, and that of 
a meteorite observed 
at Windsor, in 
August, 1783, was 
calculated to be no 
less than 3210 feet, 
or more than three- 
fifths of a mile. 

Meteors or shoot¬ 
ing stars may be oc¬ 
casionally seen on any clear night, but it is 
about the middle of August and November 
that the display is most brilliant. Sometimes 
meteoric showers of several hours’ duration 
are witnessed. Meteors are supposed to be 
small bodies revolving around the sun, like 
the planets, in orbits which cross that of the 
earth. When the earth in its annual revo¬ 
lution arrives sufficiently near, under the in¬ 
fluence of its attraction they approach it with 
great velocity, and on entering the atmos¬ 
phere of the earth they take fire. In most 


cases they are consumed before reaching the 
earth, and thus disappear in the sky. 

Sometimes, however, when the mass is 
large, a loud explosion takes place, and frag¬ 
ments from a few pounds to a ton in weight 
fall to the ground. In one case a meteoric 
stone nearly ten tons in weight was found in 
France. Such wanderers from far distant 
space or from other worlds are made up of 
materials similar to those we find in the 
earth—iron, nickel, quartz, talc, etc. These 


meteors, when large, are often inexpressibly 
brilliant. One seen at Hurworth, England, 
in 1854, lit up the heavens for half an hour 
with as bright a light as that of the sun, and 
finally burst with a thunderous explosion 
heard for many miles. 

The periodical meteoric showers of August 
and November are caused by our orbit carry¬ 
ing us, at those periods of the year, right 
through great clusters of these aerolites. It 
has been estimated that not less than a hun¬ 
dred thousand million of them are annually 



THE GREAT METEOR SEEN AT HURWORTH. 































568 ASTRONOMY. 



A SHOWER OF BRILLIANT METEORS ON THE OCEAN. 


caught by our atmosphere ; and when we 
consider the comparative smallness of the 
ring which we traverse, we can see that the 
absolute number of the meteorites belonging 


to our system must 
be something in¬ 
comparably ex¬ 
ceeding human 
calculation. 

In the immediate 
neighborhood of 
the sun, where his 
attraction exercises 
the most direct and 
potent influence, 
they will be found 
in special abund¬ 
ance; and it is to 
the fact of their ex¬ 
ist e n c e that we 
must look for an 
explanation of the 
corona, and per¬ 
haps of yet greater 
and more interest¬ 
ing mysteries of 
our system. The 
corona is simply 
the sunlight re¬ 
flected from their 
surfaces, as it is 
from the disks of 
the moon and 
planets. For a vast 
distance round the 
sun the whole 
firmament is pow¬ 
dered with them as 
thick as hailstones, 
and the reflection 
from them pro¬ 
duces a continuous 
luminous glow, lost 
indeed in the overpowering brightness of 
ordinary sunlight, but shining out with ex¬ 
quisite lustre when his direct beams are cut 
off from us. 













































































































































HOW TO READ THE SKY. 


569 



f F all optical phenomena, the 

aurora borealis, or the north¬ 
ern daybreak, is one of the 
most striking, especially in 
the regions where its full 
glory is revealed. It fires 
the sky above the horizon 
with shooting jets of flame. 

What fills with dazzling beams the illumined air ? 

What wakes the flames that light the firmament ? 
The lightnings flash : there is bright splendor there, 
And earth and heaven with fiery sheets are blent; 
The winter’s night now gleams with brighter, love¬ 
lier ray, 

Than ever yet adorned the golden summer’s day. 

The appearances exhibited by the autora 
are so various and wonderful. A cloud, or 
haze, is commonly seen in the northern 
region of the heavens, but often bearing 
towards the east or west, assuming the form 
of an arc, seldom attaining a greater altitude 
than forty degrees, but varying in extent 
from five to one hundred degrees. The 
upper edge of the cloud is luminous, some¬ 
times brilliant and irregular. The lower 
part is frequently dark and thick, with the 
clear sky appearing between it and the hori¬ 
zon. Streams of light shoot up in columnar 
forms from the upper part of the cloud, now 
extending but a few degrees, then as far as 
the zenith, and even beyond it. 

Instances occur in which the whole hemi¬ 
sphere is covered with these coruscations ; 


but the brilliancy is the greatest, and the 
light the strongest, in the north, near the 
main body of the meteor. The streamers 
have in general a tremulous motion, and 
when close together present the appearance 
of waves, or sheets of light, following each 
other in rapid succession. But no rule obtains 
with reference to these streaks, which have 
acquired the name of “the merry dancers,” 
from their volatility, becoming more quick 
in their motions in stormy weather, as if 
sympathizing with the wildness of the blast. 
Such is the extraordinary aspect they present, 
that it is not surprising the rude Indians 
should gaze upon them as the spirits of their 
fathers roaming through the land of souls. 
They are variously white, pale red, or of a 
deep blood color, and sometimes the appear¬ 
ance of the whole rainbow as to hue is 
presented. 

Vivid Illumination. 

When several streamers emerging from 
different points unite at the zenith, a small 
and dense meteor is formed, which seems to 
burn with greater violence than the separate 
parts, and glows with a green, blue, or purple 
light. The display is over sometimes in a 
few minutes, or continues for hours, or 
through the whole night, and appears for 
several nights in succession. Captain Beechey 
remarked a sudden illumination to occur at 













































570 


ASTRONOMY 


one extremity of the auroral arch, the light 
passing along the belt with a tremulous, 
hesitating movement towards the opposite 
end, exhibiting the colors of the rainbow ; 
and as an illustration of this appearance, he 
refers to that presented by the rays of some 
molluscous animals in motion. 

Captain Parry notices the same effect as a 
common one with the aurora, and compares 


it, as far as its motion is concerned, to a 
person holding a long ribbon by one end, 
and giving it an undulatory movement 
through its whole length, though its general 
position remains the same. Captain Sabine 
likewise speaks of the arch being bent into 
convolutions, resembling those of a snake in 
motion. Both Parry, Franklin and Beechey 
agree that no streamers were ever noticed 
shooting - downwards from the arch. 


The preceding statement refers to aurora 
in high northern latitudes, where the full 
magnificence of the phenomenon is displayed. 
It forms a fine compensation for the long and 
dreary night to which these regions are 
subject, the gay and varying aspect of the 
heavens contrasting refreshingly with the 
repelling and monotonous appearance of the 
earth. We have already stated that the 

direction in which the 
aurora generally makes its 
first appearance, or the 
quarter in which the arch 
formed by this meteor is 
usually seen, is to the 
northward. 

Effulgent Arch. 

But this does not hold 
good of very high latitudes, 
for by the expeditions 
which have wintered in the 
ice, it was almost always 
seen , to the southward; 
while, by Captain Beechey, 
in the “ Blossom,” in Kot- 
zerne Sound, two hundred 
and fifty miles to the south¬ 
ward of the ice, it was 
always observed in a north¬ 
ern direction. 

Dalton has furnished the 
following account of an 
aurora, as observed by him : Attention was 
first excited by a remarkably red appear¬ 
ance of the clouds to the south, which 
afforded sufficient light to read by at eight 
o’clock in the evening, though there was no 
moon nor light in the north. From half¬ 
past nine to ten there was a large, luminous, 
horizontal arch to the southward, and several 
faint concentric arches northward. It was 
particularly noticed that all the arches seemed 


















































HOW TO READ THE SKY 


0/1 


exactly bisected by the plain of the magnetic 
meridian. 

At half-past ten o’clock streamers ap¬ 
peared, very low in the southeast, running 
to and fro from west to east. They increased 
in number, and began to approach the zenith, 
apparently with an accelerated velocity, when 
all on a sudden the whole hemisphere was 
covered with them, and exhibited such an 


astonishment, but the uncommon grandeur 
of the scene only lasted one minute. The 
variety of colors disappeared, and the beams 
lost their lateral motion, and were converted 
into the flashing radiations. 

The great distinction between the polar 
countries and the other regions of the globe, 
is their long day and long night. Describ¬ 
ing an immense spiral around the horizon, 



BRILLIANT AURORA BOREALIS IN THE ARCTIC SEAS. 


appearance as surpasses all description. 

The intensity of the light, and prodigious 
number and volatility of the beams, the 
grand intermixture of all the prismatic colors 
in their utmost splendor, variegating the 
glowing canopy with the most luxuriant and 
enchanting scenery, afforded an awful, but at 
the same time the most pleasing and sublime 
spectacle in nature. Every one gazed with 


the sun gradually mounts to the highest 
point of his course; then, in the same man¬ 
ner, it returns towards the horizon, and bids 
farewell to the earth, slowly dying away in a 
gloomy and ghastly twilight. And, for six 
months, the Arctic wildernesses knew it not. 

When the navigator, says Captain Parry, 
finds himself buried for the first time in the 
silent shadows of the polar night, he cannot 















































































































































































































































































































572 


ASTRONOMY. 


conquer an involuntary emotion of dread; he 
feels transported out of the sphere of ordin¬ 
ary existence. These deadly and sombre 
deserts seem like those uncreated voids which 
Milton has placed between the realms of life 
and death. The very animals are affected 
by the melancholy which veils the face of 
nature. Under the influence of the almost 
perpetual gloominess Dr. Kane’s Newfound¬ 
land dogs went mad, and died. 

Dazzling Radiance. 

But if the sun for six months of the year 
deprives the circumpolar countries of the 
splendor of its fires, an imposing phenomenon 
frequently illuminates the long nights with 
dazzling radiance, as if nature sought to com¬ 
pensate for the absence of the orb of day by 
the most impressive of all her optical won¬ 
ders. The polar nights are nearly always 
lighted up by the gorgeous lustre of the 
aurora ; called borealis or australis, accord¬ 
ing to the poles at which it is produced. 
Shafts and rays of light shoot upwards to 
the zenith. These luminous sheaves pass 
through all the colors of the rainbow; from 
violet and sapphire to green and purple-red. 

Sometimes the columns of light issue from 
the resplendent arch mixed with blackish 
rays ; sometimes they rise simultaneously at 
different points of the horizon, and unite to 
form a sea of flame pervaded by rapid undu¬ 
lations. On other occasions, fiery dazzling 
standards are unfurled to float lightly in the 
air. A kind of canopy of soft and tranquil 
light, which is known as the corona, an¬ 
nounces the close of the phenomenon. There¬ 
upon the luminous shafts begin to wane in 
splendor, the richly colored arcs dissolve, die 
out, and soon of all the magnificent spec¬ 
tacle nothing remains but a whitish cloudy 
haze. 

The arch of the aurora is only part of a 


ring of light, which is elevated considerably 
above the surface of our globe, and whose 
centre is situated in the vicinity of the pole. 
It is easy, then, to account for the different 
aspects it presents to observers placed at 
different angles to it. A person some de¬ 
grees south of the ring would necessarily see 
only a very small arc of it towards the north, 
from the interposition of the earth between 
him and the observer ; if he stood nearer the 
north, the arc would appear larger and 
higher; if immediately below it, he would 
see it apparently traversing the zenith ; or if 
within the ring, and still further north, he 
would suppose it to culminate in the south. 
It is supposed that the centre of the ring 
corresponds with the magnetic north point, 
in the island of Boothia Felix. 

Magnetic Needle Affected. 

The phenomenon generally lasts several 
hours, and is frequently diversified by pecu¬ 
liar features ; so that sometimes it seems to 
present the hemispherical segment of a 
gigantic wheel ; sometimes it waves and 
droops like a rich tapestry of colored light, 
in a thousand prismatic folds; and, at other 
times, it may be compared to a succession 
of resplendent banners, or streamers, waving 
in the dark and intense sky. 

The arch varies in elevation, but is seldom 
found more than ninety miles above the ter¬ 
restrial surface. Its diameter must be enor¬ 
mous, for it has been known to extend from 
Italy to the polar regions, and has been 
simultaneously visible in Sardinia, Connecti¬ 
cut, and New Orleans. 

Of the magneto-electric origin of the 
aurora no doubt can be entertained. When 
it occurs, the magnetic needle is invariably 
affected, the very noticeable perturbation 
being greatest at the climax of the auroral 
brilliancy. 






F late years the science 
of electricity has made 
strides so rapid as to 
surprise even those 
who are constantly 
looking for wonders 
in scientific discovery. 
The achievement of Ben 
Franklin in drawing lightning 
from the clouds with his kite 
has been surpassed a thou¬ 
sand fold. The triumphs of 
Edison, Bell and others read 
almost like miracles, and 
whereas it was once supposed 
that electricity was little else than a destruc¬ 
tive force, it has now been caught, tamed, 
harnessed and made to work for the good 
of man. 

The electric light, illuminating the streets 
of every city; the telephone, repeating what 
you say here at a point miles distant; the 
phonograph, speaking, singing, reproducing 
sounds of every description ; the kineto- 
scope, exhibiting the motions of actual life ; 
the megaphone, sounding its trumpet blast 
far beyond the natural reach of the human 
voice; the application of the mysterious 
force of electricity to the uses of ordinary 
travel, such as street cars, and even railways 


hitherto operated by steam—these are only 
a few of the wonderful inventions and appli¬ 
cations of the subtle agent which has sud¬ 
denly leaped from the clouds and seems to 
be almost transforming the face of the 
earth. 

If a stick of sealing-wax is rubbed vigor¬ 
ously with a woolen cloth, it will be found 
capable of attracting small shreds of paper. 
This is the simplest experiment in electricity. 
Many other substances, such as resin, vul¬ 
canite, glass, etc., can be made to show the 
same phenomenon. To obtain the best 
effect with any given substance a particular 
rubber must be chosen. For example, a 
cat’s fur, slightly warmed, is every efficient 
in electrifying vulcanite or resin, while silk, 
amongst simple substances should be used 
to excite glass. 

A Powerful Agent. 

Thus, in a simple manner, we discover in 
nature the existence of an invisible force. 
Its power may be said to be unlimited. It 
can shatter the stateliest granite column. It 
can rive in twain the brawniest oak. It can 
destroy instantly every form of animal life. 
Not until within a comparatively recent 
period has this force been mastered and 
made to work out beneficent results. 

573 































574 


ELECTRICITY. 


In a general way it may be said that in 
using electricity it is produced by friction, 
and stored as water might be in a tank and 


then the force is turned on when the power 
is required. All else relates to the con¬ 
struction of the necessary apparatus. 





MR. EDISON TALKING INTO THE PHONOGRAPH. 


l\)q PI)or>o6rapl) 


ERY few even of those who 
have heard the dulcet strains 
of some sweet song from 
the depths of the phono¬ 
graph, understand in the 
least the mechanism by 
which the sounds are produced. The ex¬ 
planation is as follows : The phonograph is 
composed of a metal cylinder covered with a 
thin layer of wax, on which a pointed pen 
inscribes tracings, corresponding to the 
vibrations caught by a membrane placed on 
top of the pen. 


The wax-coated cylinder is rapidly re¬ 
volved by means of an electric battery, and 
as one speaks in front of the membrane, the 
cylinder advances slowly in a horizontal 
position, at the same time revolving rapidly. 

The membrane vibrates much or little, 
according to the sounds emitted by the 
operator. The pen moves according to the 
•vibrations, and peculiar, almost imperceptible 
tracings on the wax are the result. On top 
of the membrane is a funnel into which the 
operator speaks. The picture shows Mr. 
Edison talking into this funnel. 






















































































LATEST DISCOVERIES 


575 


To obtain reproductions of the sounds as 
inscribed on the wax cylinder, it is replaced 
in its original position. Another pen of 
different construction than tne first is put 
into play, and in a most exact and delicate 
manner transfers to the wax of another 
cylinder the tracings on the first. The funnel 
is replaced by a rubber tube having two, 
four or six branches, according to the number 


found in many hotels and public places. 
The first cylinder is carefully made as above 
described, and duplicated as many times as 
required. Each cylinder is then placed in a 
case, and the phonograph may be put in use 
when required. 

The new and perfected Edison phonograph 
has already gone into very general use and 
many thousands are distributed in American 



LISTENING TO SOUNDS FROM THE PHONOGRAPH. 


of the auditors, and the tubes are applied to 
their ears, as in the illustration. 

Not only can we hear the sounds from 
the same phonograph into which they are 
spoken, but the cylinders may be preserved 
and taken wherever we wish; by placing 
them again in a mechanism as above de¬ 
scribed, the original sounds may be re¬ 
produced. 

In this manner are made the phonographs 


business offices, where they facilitate corre¬ 
spondence in a variety of ways. They are 
also employed by stenographers as a help in 
the transcription of their shorthand notes. 
Heretofore these notes have been slowly 
dictated to amanuenses, but they are now 
frequently read off to a phonograph and then 
written out at leisure. The phonograph is, 
however, being used for direct stenographic 
work and it reported verbatim forty thousand 


























































































































































































































































































































































67G 


ELECTRICITY. 


words of discussion at one presidential con¬ 
vention, the words being quietly repeated 
into the machine by the reporter as quickly 
as they were uttered by the various speakers. 
A large number of machines are in use by 


actors, clergymen, musicians, reciters and 
others, to improve their elocution and singing. 
It is also worthy of note that voice records 
remain of distinguished men, who “ being 
dead, yet speak.” 


tl)<e YZT>eeIs Go Roupd 


EW people understand the prin¬ 
ciple upon which street cars 
are propelled by what is known 
as the Trolley system. Most 
people know that a power¬ 
house, a trolley wire and a 
motor are necessary to the 
system, but of the functions of 
the various parts they have but a faint con¬ 
ception. “What makes "he wheels go 
round ” is a mystery, yet it can be easily 
explained. 

First, there are boilers to generate steam 
for the engines, and the engines in turn drive 
the generators, which produce the myste¬ 
rious power or “juice,” as it is commonly 
called by the electricians, for the motors in 
the cars. It is obvious, therefore, that the 
prime factor in the operation of an electric 
railway is steam, the electric current acting 
only as a convenient and subtle agent for 
transmitting and distributing the power. 

The voltage of an electric circuit cor¬ 
responds to the pressure in water pipes. 
The voltage of a dynamo depends on three 
conditions, namely, the speed of revolution 
of the armature, the number of coils of wire 
in the armature, and the strength of the 
magnetic field. For incandescent lighting, 
i io volts are generally used, while for rail¬ 
ways the pressure is 500 volts. 

The current from the generator in the 
power-house goes to the switchboard, where 
it passes through an ammeter, which indi¬ 
cates the amount of current being given out, 


through a switch, by means of which the 
current may be shut off at will, and through 
a circuit-breaker, which opens the circuit 
automatically in case of a short circuit on 
the line or an overload. 

From this point one side of the circuit is 
composed of the feeder (heavy insulated 
copper cables) and the other side of the 
ground or return. Formerly the rails alone 
connected with the ground formed the 
return, but owing to various causes, among 
them the electrolytic action on water and 
gas pipes, the modern practice is to supple¬ 
ment the rails with heavy copper wires, 
which afford an easier path for the current 
than the pipes. The feeders run parallel 
with the tracks, either overhead or under¬ 
ground, as the case may be, and at points 
along the line are “ tapped ” or connected to 
the trolley wire. 

How the Current is Applied. 

Each car is provided with two motors, the 
armatures or revolving parts of which are 
connected to the axles of the cars. A motor 
is made almost exactly like a generator. In 
fact, if driven by an engine, it will generate 
an electric current the same as the generator. 
Therefore, when the power of the engine 
drives the armature of the generator in the 
power house, causing it to give out a cur¬ 
rent, this current supplied to the motor 
causes its armature to revolve and develop 
same mechanical power originally re¬ 
quired to drive the generator, eliminating, of 







LATEST DISCOVERIES. 


577 


course, the various losses due to friction and 
leakage. 

Next the current goes through the motor. 
While delivering a lecture before an audi¬ 
ence of unskilled laymen, a well-known 
electrical engineer was asked how the cur¬ 
rent gets into the car, and he replied : “ The 
conductor brings it in.” Of course he 
meant the copper conductor running down 
the trolley pole, and not the innocent fare- 
taker and bell-ringer. 

Practical Illustration. 

The method of allowing the current to 
pass through the motor in the car is illus¬ 
trated in the annexed sketch. The top line 
is the trolley wire and R shows the rails. 
Between these there is maintained a pressure 
of 500 volts. W is the trolley wheel in 
contact with the trolley wire, and attached 
to the trolley pole. In electrical contact 
with the trolley wheel and running through 
the trolley pole is an insulated copper wire 
C. This wire is shown in the sketch, but is, 
of course, concealed in the car. It runs to 
the familiar metal case on the platform. 
This case contains the controller, which con¬ 
sists of a system of coils of wire, resistance 
arranged so that the speed of the motors 
may be varied by the motorman by turning 
the switch or controller handle to different 
points. 

The controller is also so constructed that 
by turning another handle the motor will 
revolve in the opposite direction, backing the 
,car. The coils are so arranged that the two 
motors may be thrown in parallel or in 
series, which means in the first case that 
each motor completes a circuit by itself, 
while in the second case the same current 
flows through both motors. Only one 
motor is shown in the sketch, which is 
sufficient to illustrate the principle. 


The direction of flow is shown by the 
arrow heads. The current from the gen¬ 
erator G in the power house flows to the 
feeders and trohey wire. From the trolley 
wire it flows through the trolley wheel W, 
through the wire C in trolley pole to the 
controller S, where it is turned on or off by 
means of the controller handle. From here 
it flows through another wire to the brush 
B of the motor M, through the armature of 
the motor and out at the brush B B, then 
through a wire into the car wheel to the rail 
R, which carries the current back to the 
negative brush of the generator G. 

Great Motive Power. 

The flashing often seen at the wheels of 
an electric car is caused by imperfect contact 
between the wheel and rail, and is due often 
to dust on the rail or similar causes. 



Already the electric current has been ap¬ 
plied to ordinary railroad traffic. The most 
advanced thought on this subject points to 
the time not far distant when electricity will 
be the great motive power superseding steam. 
Its advantages are evident at a glance. The 
speed which it is capable of furnishing, the 
absence of annoying smoke, the facility with 
which it can be operated, all indicate that its 
practical results will be of great service, will 
form an epoch in scientific discovery and 
constitute a new mode of carrying on those 
great industries which are dependent upon a 
motive power, at once efficient and easily 
manipulated. 


37 



















578 


ELECTRICITY. 


Successful efforts have been made to place 
the conducting wires in the earth, thus avoiding 
the danger of having them over head. The 
advantage of this is apparent, and being accom¬ 
plished, we shall have the most complete 
motive power ever brought into use. 

The achievements thus far in electrical 


science are among the greatest triumphs of 
the age. These have come rapidly and in 
vivid succession. The most acute thought 
and inventive genius have been displayed in 
the practical application of this greatest and 
most marvelous of all the agents treasured 
in the storehouse of nature. 


Tf>e Telepl^opp 


UPPOSE you want to communi¬ 
cate with your neighbor across 
the street: a wire is stretched 
between the two houses and con¬ 
nected to the two telephones ; 
from the remaining binding 
screw of each telephone wires 
are conducted, say, to the gas-pipe, and 
the bare wire wound round the bare pipe, 


brass pipe, as the joints of the latter some¬ 
times intercept altogether the flow of elec¬ 
tricity. 

Philosophy of the Telephone. 

We already know that when sound-waves 
impinge on anything like the ferrotype 
plate of a telephone, such a plate is made tc 
vibrate ; and a piece of iron like this vibrat- 




COMMUNICATING BY TELEPHONE. 


so that there may be metallic contact. 
Conversation may now be carried on as in 
the annexed figure. For short distances 
you will perhaps find least difficulty by using 
a double wire instead of connecting to the 


ing in the neighborhood of a magnet will 
considerably disturb its lines of force. If 
these fluctuating lines of force, therefore, 
are crossed by rings of wire, currents of 
electricity will be generated in the wire. 































































































































LATEST DISCOVERIES. 


579 


And so it is every time one speaks into a 
telephone, for electricity is generated and 
sent along the wire to the other end, in a 
direction which varies with the “ in-and- 
out ” action of the telephone plate. 

You will clearly see, then, that electricity 
is produced at the transmitting end. What 
happens where the listener has his attentive 
ear to the telephone ? The electricity travels 
round the coil of the receiving telephone, 
and varies the magnetism of the bar within 
it, which in its turn varies its attraction upon 
the ferrotype plate; the ferrotype plate 
begins to vibrate, and it vibrates in such a 
way as to reproduce the sounds which were 
spoken into the transmitting end. 

Transmission of Sound. 

That we should ever be able to “ talk by 
lightning ” was not dreamed of for many 
years after the discovery of the telegraph 
proved that messages could be transmitted 
through motions of the electric instrument 
producing signs. Now we do not have to 
write the communication, but can speak to a 
person many miles away, and converse 
almost as freely as we would with one by 
our side in the same room. 

The principle is that of the transmission 
of sound. The air, the water, woods, 
metals are all conductors, but it has been 
proved that a metallic conductor, a tele¬ 
graphic wire, with electricity for the driving 
force, is the best transmitter ever discovered. 
The telephone has rapidly sprung into use, 
and has become a necessity in our large 
towns, where, on account of the pressure of 
business, time is money and moments count 
for as much as hours did once. A man of 
business can call up his neighbor, who is 
near or his customer miles away, and in a 
brief time the matter in hand is disposed of. 

The description of the instrument is as 


follows : An electro-magnet or spool of 
copper wire is fastened to the end of a steel 
bar which has been charged with magne¬ 
tism ; the ends of the wire are carried down 
to the outer part of the rubber case, and 
connected by screws to the line wire. 

In front of the spool, and a little way 
from the end of the bar magnet, a piece of 
“ ferrotype ” sheet iron is placed. When a 


LIN £ 



THE BELL TELEPHONE. 


current of electricity is sent into the tele¬ 
phone and through the spool of wire, thn 
sheet iron plate is caused to vibrate in unisoe 
with the breaking of the current, by reason 
of the alternate attractions and cessations of 
attraction of the plate by the electro-magnet, 
and a sound is produced, as already ex¬ 
plained. 

The microphone is an instrument for in¬ 
tensifying and making audible very feeble 




























































































































580 


ELECTRICITY. 



sounds. It produces its effects by the 
changes of intensity in an electric current, 
occasioned by variations in the contact resist¬ 
ance of conducting bodies. It has always 
been known that many solids are excellent 


THE MICROPHONE. 

conductors of sound. One of the little ex¬ 
periments of boyhood is for one lad to hold 
his head under water while another, not far 
away, strikes two stones together under the 
surface. The water coming in close contact 


with the ear, and being a good conductor of 
sound, produces something in the nature of 
a shock, quite as startling as would be the 
firing of a pistol near one’s head. This, it 
must be understood, is not the principle of 

the microphone or tele¬ 
phone. There must be a 
conductor for the electric 
current, but the current 
itself is indispensable. 

Thus, not only by the 
telegraph can words be 
transmitted, but also in a 
more direct way, and even 
the tones of the human voice can be distin¬ 
guished. It is literally true that we talk by 
lightning, and can speak to a listener a thou¬ 
sand miles away. Our age finds in electricity 
its most marvelous field of discovery. 


Tl>e Elec 

HE problem, long-studied by 
scientists, of procuring from 
this subtle force in nature a 
light that would be of ser¬ 
vice and outstrip all other 
means of illumination has 
been solved, and in every 
town now, of any dimensions, electric light¬ 
ing is in successful operation. 

Pure incandescence is represented by four 
systems—Edison, Maxim, Swan and Lane 
Fox. The light from this description of 
lamp is from the heating of a carbon filament 
due to its high resistance to the passage of 
the current. This filament is surrounded by 
a hermetically sealed glass bulb from which 
all the air has been extracted. 

The life of the lamp depends greatly as 
to how carefully this process has been car¬ 
ried on. It is not sufficient only to extract 
the air when the lamp is cold, but the pro- 


lirk Liol)t 

cess must be carried on when the lamp is 
burning, and the exhaustion must be con¬ 
tinuous for some time. These Hmps can be 
worked either by an alternating or a con¬ 
tinuous current machine ; and, unlike those 
of partial incandescence, require a tension 
current, while the former work best with a 
quantity one. 

The Edison lamp is generally considered 
to be the pioneer of this system of illumin¬ 
ation. Whether this be so or not the name 
of the inventor has been for a considerable 
time associated with lighting by incandes¬ 
cence, although his early experiments were 
with a lamp containing a metallic substance. 
The lamp consists of a blown glass globe 
containing a very fine filament made from the 
fibre of bamboo carbonized. The length is 
fixed according to the resistance required. 

Each end of the filament is nipped be¬ 
tween a miniature vise composed of platinum 






































LATEST DISCOVERIES. 


581 


connected with the terminals of the lamp. 
These are fixed in an insulated socket, which 
also holds the glass bulb. The socket is 
furnished with a screw which fits into a pro¬ 
jection on the bracket or holder, so that the 
act of screwing in the lamp makes the neces¬ 
sary connection with the conducting wires. 

By turning a tap the lamp can be removed 
without interrupting the passage of the cur¬ 
rent. The maximum duration of the lamp 
is stated to be twelve hundred hours. The 

chief feature of the Edison 
system is the manner in 
which the inventor distrib¬ 
utes the current from a main 
generator of his own design, 
which is always used with 
this system of lighting. 

The engraving on next 
page is a perfect represen¬ 
tation of Edison’s latest 
electric lamp, with its vari¬ 
ous parts shown in detail. 
Fig. I shows the carbon 
horseshoe ready for use, full 
size ; Fig. 2 represents the 
horseshoe when just cut 
from the Bristol board, illus¬ 
trating, by its comparison 
with Fig. i, the enormous 
shrinkage it undergoes dur¬ 
ing the process of carbonization. 

The only index to the completion of this 
process is the crackling of the oxide formed 
on the exterior of the iron boxes in which 
the horseshoes are placed. After their re¬ 
moval from the boxes the carbons are placed 
between the jaws of small platinum vises, 
a, a, supported on thin platinum wires 
blown in the glass base and forming the 
electrodes. The resistance of the slender 
horseshoe is one hundred ohms. ; and while 
the lamp shown, Fig. 3, is intended to give 


a light equivalent to a single four-foot gas 
jet, it may be forced to give a light equal to 
eight or ten of such jets. 

The carbons are so tough that one of 
them has been subjected to the test of ap¬ 
plying and removing the electric current a 
number of times equivalent to thirty-six 
years of actual daily use, and without being 
in the least impaired. The horseshoe form 
of the carbon has a great advantage over 
the voltaic arc, the light being softer, more 
diffused and less trying to the eyes. It is, 
besides, perfectly uniform and steady. The 
lamps are connected in multiple arc, that is, 
the two wires leading from the electrical 
generator run parallel to each other, and 
the lamps are placed between them and are 
connected with each wire. 

Easily Handled. 

The entire lighting apparatus of any 
building consists in the lamps and a few 
wires. The lamp in its present form is as 
simple and as easily handled as a candle, 
and can be taken from its socket and re¬ 
placed even while the current is on. The 
construction of this socket is shown in 
Fig. 4. The lamp has, attached to its elec¬ 
trodes, slips of copper which are bent up 
against the sides of the glass, touching two 
springs at opposite sides of the socket. One 
of these springs is connected with one of the 
electrical conductors ; the other merely 
touches the copper strip, and does not form 
a part of the electrical conductor until it is 
touched by the thumb-screw, b , this latter 
being connected with the second electrical 
conducting wire. 

To start the light it is only necessary to 
turn the screw, b , till it touches the spring. 
To stop the light the screw is turned in the 
reverse direction. From this it is obvious 
that an electric lamp is more easily managed 








































































































































582 


ELECTRICITY 


than a gas burner, as it requires neither 
lighting nor regulating ; while it is equally 
plain that these lamps, having withstood the 
test of time, the inventor has solved a pro¬ 



edison’s marvelous 


found problem, and become one of the 
world’s great benefactors. 

Edison’s Mimeograph. 

The Mimeograph was designed and 
patented by Mr. Thomas A. Edison. In 


designing the mimeograph, Mr. Edison took 
as his fundamental principle the stylus or 
point, the writing implement of man since 
the art was first invented. It is the natural 



tool by which the hand can trace characters, 
and it is this stylus or point, peculiar to the 
mimeograph in the line of duplicating ma¬ 
chines, which created for it such a decided 
and permanent popularity. 

With the stylus as first principle, Mr. 





























































































LATEST DISCOVERIES. 


583 


Edison built the mimeograph, with reference 
to the stylus as the writing instrument, de¬ 
signing the other parts to meet its require¬ 
ments. 

The mimeograph belongs to the stencil 
class of duplicating machines, which, as is 
well known, is the best type of such devices. 
The stencil is made on a sheet of fine 
specially manufactured tissue paper, which is 
coated on one side with a film of sensitive 
material. 

Fine Steel Plate. 

The cutting agent of the mimeograph is a 
plate of fine tool steel, upon which are cut 
intersecting corrugations, numbering two 
hundred to the inch, thus making on the 
plate a surface of small sharp points, so fine 
and minute that a magnifying glass is re¬ 
quired to bring them distinctly to the eye ; 
upon this steel plate, which is imbedded in 
a table or plate of polished slate, the sheet 
of sensitive paper is placed, and the stencil is 
formed by writing on the paper over the 
steel plate with the stylus, which is made of 
tempered steel and nickel plated. 

As the steel point of the stylus (which is 
ground to a round or smooth point) passes 
over the sensitive paper, it presses the paper 
against and upon the steel plate, and the fine 
sharp points puncture it from the under 
side making a series of orifices or holes, each 
one a two-hundredth part of an inch from 
the next, in the lines of the writing. 

The point of the stylus, although tapered 
to the size of a nicely sharpened lead pencil, 
really rests on three of the cutting points of 
the writing plate (as the corrugated steel is 
termed) at one time. 

It thus glides easily and smoothly over 
the roughened surface without tearing the 
paper, but still with just enough friction to 
make the act of writing a pleasant operation, 


almost identical to that done by a medium 
hard lead pencil. 

After the stencil is made, the next opera¬ 
tion is to prepare the stencil sheet (as the 
sensitive paper is now called) for the purpose 
of printing copies of which it is the original. 

The ink is squeezed from its collapsible 
tube upon a slate used for that purpose, and 
a hand roller made of a peculiar composition 
is passed- over it, spreading the ink evenly 
over the slate, and at the same time charging 
the roller. 

The sheet of paper upon which the copy 
is to be printed, is placed upon a blotter 
resting on the baseboard beneath the stencil 
sheet, and the ink roller is passed over the 
stencil sheet, forcing the ink through the 
perforations and upon the impression paper, 
thus making a print. This last operation is 
repeated until the required number of copies 
are obtained. 

The modus operandi just described is for 
the purpose of reduplicating autographic 
matter. 

Edison’s Kinetoscope. 

Perhaps the simplest statement of the 
principle upon which this instrument is con¬ 
structed, would be to call it the reproduction 
of motion. The observer looks through a 
glass into a small cabinet and appears to see 
living figures. These may be men, or 
animals, and they are in action. Just as the 
phonograph makes a faithful record of 
sounds, so the kinetoscope gives us a repro¬ 
duction of the actions of living creatures. 

The following is what Mr. Edison himself 
says on the subject: “ In the year 1887 the 
idea occurred to me that it was possible to 
devise an instrument which should do for 
the eye what the phonograph does for the 
ear, and that by a combination of the two 
all motion and sound could be recorded and 



584 


ELECTRICITY. 


reproduced simultaneously. This idea, the 
germ of which came from the little toy called 
the zoetrope, and the work of Muybridge, 
Marie and others, has now been accom¬ 
plished, so that every change of facial 
expression can be recorded and reproduced 
life size. The kinetoscope is only a small 
model illustrating the present stage of 
progress, but with each succeeding month 
new possibilities are brought into view. 

“I believe that in coming years by my 
own work and that of others, who wil 1 
doubtless enter the field, grand opera can be 
given at the Metropolitan Opera House at 
New York, without any material change 
from the original, and with artists and musi¬ 
cians long since dead.” 

After the instrument was perfected the 
succession of pictures was found to be rapid, 
and those instruments exhibited in nearly all 
our towns are found to work most satis¬ 
factorily. 

Electric Rifles. 

The practice of firing big guns by elec¬ 
tricity is already well established, but hith¬ 
erto no practical attempt has been made to 
explode the shells of small arms electrically. 
An electric rifle has been designed in which 
it is sought to carry out this principle. 

The source of the current is a battery A, 
which is fitted into the stock either from the 
side or from the ends. The holes B B are 
connected to springs C C, from which the 
wires D D run respectively to a spring M, 
bolted at I to the lock plate, and to the 
insulated hammer H fixed on the upper part 
of the trigger G. Q is the shell containing 
an insulated pin, the head of which O pro¬ 
jects beyond the base of the shell. If neces¬ 
sary, two pins can be placed parallel with 
each other and insulated until their points 
nearly meet. Between the base of the car¬ 


tridge and the hammer is a pin K encircled 
by a spring and riveted into a cross plate J 
at one end, the other end being fitted into an 
insulated thimble L, the point of which 



nearly touches the shell pin head O. When 
the cartridge has been inserted and the gun 
closed, the spring M rests on the metal base 
of the cartridge. 

As the trigger is pulled, the hammer 
strikes the plate J forcing the point of the 
thimble L into contact with the projecting 
end O of the cartridge pin. An arc is estab¬ 
lished at P O, ’which explodes the contents 
of the cartridge. 

The point of the firing pin P can be placed 
anywhere within the explosive powder cf 
the cartridge, but by extending it near the 
bullet, as shown in the illustration, a more 
effective explosion of the powder is secured. 

To Get an Electric Shock. 

Suppose there are four persons (A, B, C 
and D) who are desirous of receiving the 
shock. A wire is wound round the outer 



coating of the Leyden jar; the jar is then 
charged and placed on the table. The four 
persons join hands, and while A holds the 


















LATEST DISCOVERIES. 


585 


end of the wire leading from the outer coat¬ 
ing of the jar, D has also hold of a wire 
which is in communication with one of the 
knobs of a discharger. You now seize the 
insulating handle of the discharger and bring 
one knob only in contact with the knob of 
the Leyden jar. A shock will be experi¬ 
enced by the four persons, and unless A be 
cautioned he may, by his sudden antics, pull 
the jar off the table. 

A Singular Effect. 

There are many effects, some of them odd 
and humorous, which can be produced by 
electricity. For example, place the figure 
of a human head, with flowing hair, on the 



AN ELECTRICAL FRIGHT. 

end of a rod stuck into the prime conductor. 
Immediately it becomes charged with elec¬ 
tricity its hair stands on end as if it had 
received a terrible fright. 

How Ocean Cables Are Made. 

The cable consists first of a core comprising 
the conductor made of a strand of copper 
wires, and the insulating covering of gutta 
percha or India rubber to prevent leakage of 
the electric current. Outside of this is a 
layer of tanned jute yarn. This protects the 
gutta percha or rubber from the sheathing of 
steel wires which is the next covering, and 
which varies according to the depth of water 
in which the cable is to be laid. Outside of 
this again is a combination of jute yarn and 
a bituminous mixture. This is applied in a 


melted condition from a spout as the cable 
is passed underneath. During the time the 
cable is being manufactured and laid, elec¬ 
trical tests are taken to insure perfection. 

The finished cable is then kept coiled in 
large circular iron tanks under water. Simi¬ 
lar tanks are in the cable ship, and when at 
sea the lengths are paid out over a large 
pulley at the stern. The speed is regulated 
by several retarding wheels and a brake 
wheel, over and under which the cable has 
to pass. The strain to which it is subjected 
at any given moment is indicated by a 
dynamometer. 

Method of Laying. 

When all the cable has been paid out, the 
end is carefully sealed up and attached to a 
stout rope. This is lowered to the bottom 
of the sea and the other end of the rope is 
attached to a buoy which is to mark the end 
of the cable, which is usually laid in three 
sections. One laid, for instance, was started 
from Waterville and laid out to a given point 
in deep water. The second section was laid 
from Canso, on the American side, also into 
deep water, after which the fifteen hundred 
intervening miles were laid and all three 
spliced together. 

But the laying of a cable is as nothing to 
the difficulty experienced in repairing it, 
especially if the work has to be done during 
rough weather, when the sea runs mountains 
high and the gales continually blow the ship 
away from the scene of operations. Some¬ 
times the cable is found buried in sand 
several thousand fathoms from the surface of 
the water. When it is only a flaw and the 
strands themselves are whole the task of 
repairing it is slight; but when the cable 
has actually parted and both ends have to 
be found and again spliced together, it is. 
sometimes a work of several months. 


















VJ CV ( j 

.Si Wonderful Photography 




BY THE 


Roentgen Rays 



ARLY in 1896 it was 
announced that Pro¬ 
fessor Roentgen, of 
Wurzburg Univer¬ 
sity, Germany, had 
discovered a method 
by which certain 
substances could be 
photographed, not merely 
showing the exterior surface, 
but also the interior sub¬ 
stances. As the composition 
of the rays of light was un¬ 
known, these rays were desig¬ 
nated by the algebraical term 
of X, meaning an unknown quantity. The 
discovery caused great interest throughout 
the world, and immediately experiments were 
begun in many places, especially by profes¬ 
sors in medical schools. 

It was soon ascertained that some parts of 
the human body, for example the hand, 
could be photographed and all solid sub¬ 
stances beneath the flesh could be distinctly 
seen. In this way the bones of the hand 
are reproduced, and if there should be such 
a solid substance as a bullet of lead, it can 
be located and extracted. The importance of 
this discovery, especially to medical science, 
cannot be overestimated. 

Experiments were carried on at Yale 
College with the following results : One of 
the professors laid a sensitive photographic 
plate horizontally in a wooden box, placed 


the object to be experimented with on top 
of the box, and suspended his Crookes tube 
above them both. He then turned on the 
electric current, which generated the newly 
discovered rays in the tube, which, in turn, 
threw them upon the objects below. 

Through Opaque Substances. 

In the first experiment Mr. Bumstead used 
a leather pocketbook containing several coins. 
He thus photographed the coins, the rays 
going completely through the leather, the 
resistance of which was trifling compared 
with what it would hitve offered to light. 
He also photographed in the same way 
a pair of eyeglasses in their case. The 
result showed that the glasses were photo¬ 
graphed, while the case was scarcely visible. 
A lead pencil was experimented on, and the 
result was an excellent picture of the lead, 
with the wooden portion dimly outlined. 

A couple of English walnuts which had 
never been opened were exposed, and a 
splendid view of the kernels was obtained. 
All these exposures lasted about an hour. 
The experiments were carried on in open 
daylight, the plates, of course, being kept 
from the sun in an ordinary holder. 

Probably the most interesting of Mr. 
Bumstead’s experiments were those with 
animals. For this purpose he used a fish, 
a mouse and a frog. After the usual expos¬ 
ure the backbone of the fish was easily dis¬ 
tinguishable. 


586 
























WONDERFUL PHOTOGRAPHY—ROENTGEN RAYS. 


The frog picture displayed a portion of the 
skeleton with more or less vividness, the 
plainest parts being the leg bones. The 



PHOTOGRAPH OF HUMAN HAND SHOWING THE 
ANATOMY IN DETAIL. 

most distinct part of the mouse’s skeleton 
was the skull, which could be traced with 
little difficulty. The little fleshy nose 
of the mouse did not give nearly as 
much resistance to the rays as the 
bone, and this fact was the most useful 
result of the experiments. 

One experimenter relates the result 
as follows : 

“ My last attempt has resulted in 
giving me a perfect photograph. I 
used as a subject the leg of a man 
which had been fractured in a railroad 
accident two years ago. The fracture 
was in the upper third of the tibia, or, 
in other words, in the large bone of the 
leg a few inches above the knee. I placed 
an ordinary camera on one side of the leg 
and directly opposite on the other side of 


587 

the member I placed the tube at a distance 
of three or four inches. 

“ The result was a clearly defined photo¬ 
graph. The bone appears rounded and not 
flat, as in the shadowgraphs heretofore pro¬ 
duced. The fracture is perfectly plain. It 
can be traced all around the bone. The 
surface of hardened lime salt, which forms 
after a fractured bone has been set, shows 
clearly. 

“ Then comes the most remarkable part 
of the photograph. Running down each 
side of the bone is a line showing the loca¬ 
tion of the marrow. The marrow is darker 
in the picture than the bone itself. Then, 
through the marrow a dark line can be seen, 
showing the mark of the fracture on the 
opposite side of the bone. In the centre of 
the bone are two spots, plainly discernible, 
showing the fibrous tissues of the nerves.” 

A standard medical journal comments as 
follows, upon the advantages of the dis¬ 
covery : 

“As far as our present knowledge goes 
the positive advantages to medicine seem to 
be limited to three conditions : fractures, 


dislocations, and tumors of bones, encysted 
bullets, needles or pieces of glass in the tis¬ 
sues and earthy calculi. 



PHOTOGRAPH OF SHOT INSIDE OF A RAT’S BODY. 







588 


WONDERFUL PHOTOGRAPHY—ROENTGEN RAYS. 


“As a means of ascertaining that the parts 
had been placed in proper position after 
adjustment, it would however, be most 
valuable, for of course all splints and dress¬ 
ings, except plaster or metallic splints, would 
be as ‘translucent’ as the soft tissues them¬ 
selves. Its principal value, however, would 
be in obscure cases with much swelling, 
‘green-stick’ fractures for instance, in partial 
luxations, and in medico-legal cases when 
the proper setting of a fracture or reduction 
of a dislocation was in question. 

“ In the locating of bullets, some brilliant 
results have been already recorded, in which 
the bullet beyond the reach of touch or 
probe has been found by the X ray and 
successfully removed.” 

One experiment at Berlin, Germany, 
located a needle in the stomach of a young 
woman which caused great irritation and 
incessant expectoration of blood. It was 
determined as a last resort to bring the 
patient to the Roentgen laboratory in the 
hope that the X ray would locate the needle, 
and that it might be extracted without en¬ 
dangering the young woman’s life. 

The plate plainly showed every bone of 
the upper part of the body and the needle 
was found lying point downward in the lower 
right angle of the stomach. 


Surgeons being present, it was resolved to 
remove the needle at once. The patient was 
placed under the influence of chloroform, and 
the cause of the excruciating sufferings whicn 
threatened her life, was taken from the 
stomach by skillful surgical manipulations. 

The statement has been made that if, at 
the time President Garfield was felled by an 
assassin’s pistol, this method of photography 
had been in use, the bullet could have been 
located and doubtless the life of the President 
could have been saved. The probes of the 
surgeons were of no avail; they were work¬ 
ing in the dark. No such fatal result could 
have happened if this new discovery had 
been known at that time. Its effects upon 
medical science are of the most marked and 
beneficial description. 

The announcement has already been made 
tha*- success has attended efforts to pho¬ 
tograph the brain, thus locating tumors in 
that organ. In fact, the whole human body 
is likely to be surveyed and examined in all 
the workings of its wondrous mechanism. 
A photograph will tell the surgeon just what 
internal parts are diseased and will save all 
exploration with the knife. This, apart from 
the curiosity attending such a discovery, has 
led the scientific world to hail the new pho¬ 
tography with delight. 






UBSTANCES which are 
not sources of light 
have the power to re¬ 
flect it from their sur¬ 
faces when it falls on 
them. Thus glass is 
a very good reflector; 
and the still surface of water 
is also exceedingly good in 
this respect, so that as you 
walk along the bank of a 
river its surface may appear 
like pearl by reflecting the 
white light of the clouds, 
margin greener than the 
emerald in mirroring the grassy 
slopes of the bank on the other side. 

We are now in a position to consider the 
formation of the image in a large looking- 
o-lass. The observer standing on the right 
receives borrowed light proceeding from the 
points i, 2 and 3 (see figure), which is again 
reflected from the surface of the glass into 
bis eye. As a result the observer perceives 
his very image at each of the three points 
I, 2 and 3, appearing behind the glass at 1', 
2' and 3', and the same with all the points 
between and around which make up the 
object and image. 


A Curious Effect of Reflection. 

If you take this book and turn any of its 
pages towards a looking-glass, you will find, 
upon attempting to read the reflected print, 
that you cannot do so at all. The word 
MAGIC, for example, appears as if it were 
reversed ; and so with any other word, for 


they look just as they would if we could 
take each word and turn it completely over 
around one end as centre. This phenomenon 
is known as lateral inversion , and you really 
see it when you look at your image in a 
looking-glass, for the left side of your face 
appears really as the right side in the look- 
ing-glass, and so on. 

You would have to travel now for many 
a day to find an educated person who believes 
in ghosts. Time was, however, when you 
would have to travel quite as long to find 
some one who did not believe in them. 



There could then be found people who had 
seen them, so' they thought, with their own 
eyes, and therefore were as much convinced 
of their reality as Hamlet was when he saw 
the ghost of his father at Elsinore. The 
belief still exists in unfrequented nooks— 
places where advanced ideas are a long time 
in reaching—and it exists alongside with a 
belief in witchcraft and such like nonsense. 
When a ghost appears nowadays, an inves¬ 
tigation—not always of the gentlest kind— 
has generally shown that the sheeted spectre 
has been made of solid flesh, much too solid 

589 
































590 


PHENOMENA OF LIGHT, 


to vanish or permit of a stout cudgel pass¬ 
ing through it. By universal consent, then, 
ghosts are now relegated to the stage. How 
real they appear there probably every lad is 
aware, for has he not seen them in white 
flowing robes, walking along and speaking, 
and exhibiting the ghostly attribute of per- 


Often, when you have stood gazing out ot 
the window in the evening, you have seen, 
as if outside, a lamp or gas-jet, but the exact 
picture of the light within the room. The 
ghost of the light, it is plain at once to see, 
results from the transparent pane of glass 
just opposite you acting as a reflector. Pep- 



THE FAMOUS PEPPER GHOST. 


mitting a performer to run his sword through 
them without their being in the least affected ? 
For many a day after he has doubtless won¬ 
dered how the thing was done, and has at 
last given it up in despair, while all the time 
the explanation was to be had without step¬ 
ping out of doors even, so very easy to 
understand are some of these things. 


per’s famous ghost is produced just in the 
same way. 

A large plate of transparent glass on the 
stage faces the audience, being inclined at an 
angle of 45 °. Below this the actor stands 
in a pit, with a strong light falling on him. 
The audience cannot see him, but his image 
as reflected from the glass is very ap- 































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































PHENOMENA OF LIGHT. 


591 


parent, and seems to be on the stage and 
somewhere behind the transparent reflector, 
so that in gazing steadfastly at the ghost 
you fail to perceive the glass which produces 
it. Ghosts produced in this way are often 
shown, but you will have no difficulty in 
detecting the large plate of glass on the 
stage now that your attention is directed 
to it. 

Long-Distance Signals. 

Often during the campaigns in Zululand, 
Afghanistan and Cuba a peculiar mode of 
transmitting news was adopted when the 
telegraph lines had been cut by the enemy, 
or where no telegraph lines had been erected. 
The plan is so exceedingly simple that you 
will understand it at once. You have often 
noticed that the window-panes of houses 
miles away have looked like burnished gold; 
it has happened at such times that they were 
so placed with reference to the sun and 
yourself that the light from the great lumi¬ 
nary has been reflected from them straight 
in your direction. A single bit of looking- 
glass placed in the same plane as these 
windows would have acted just in the same 
way. 

Now suppose you have a comrade on a 
distant hill, with a piece of looking-glass so 
placed that the light of the sun or moon is 
sent in your direction, you could see the 
flare a great many miles away, and each 
time he brought his cap before it the bright 
point would disappear. If, therefore, you 
have arranged with your friend that a cer¬ 
tain number of times of taking his cap away 
from the mirror—that is, of producing a 
given number of flashes—shall mean a cer¬ 
tain thing, he is able to communicate with 
you ; and if you have a mirror too, you may 
communicate with him, and so hold a con¬ 
versation. 


Often in this way has one camp flashed 
news to another over the heads of their 
common enemies, and the line of communi¬ 
cation could not be cut, as would have been 
the case had the two camps been connected 
by ordinary telegraph. Here, then, we see 
one of the most elementary principles in 
Physics employed for a very important 
purpose. 

Many a time in thoughtful mood you will 
have watched the dancing shadows formed 
by the flickering firelight, and perchance, as 
your own shadow has suddenly appeared on 
the wall behind you, you have given a start 
at its giant size and extraordinary form. 
You can readily perceive the cause of such 
a shadow, which is briefly this—that light 
from the fire travelling in straight lines can¬ 
not pass round corners to any marked ex¬ 
tent, so that when an object stands in its 
way all behind it is in darkness, and the 
form of this area of darkness will vary with 
each movement. Hence, from the same 
object employed as a light obstructor a 
wonderful variety of shadow-forms may be 
produced, and perhaps in nothing is this so 
remarkably shown as in hand-shadows. 

Singular Shadow-Pictures. 

In the accompanying cut you have a 
variety of hand-shadows with the particular 
disposition of the hands which is required 
to produce them. Other forms of hand- 
shadows you will doubtless find out as you 
are practicing these, and they will afford 
many a half-hour’s amusement as you lead 
out your shadow-animals, including the bear 
and the goat, the dog and the pig, and a 
host of others. 

We need scarely give any directions as to 
their production, for, if the gas-light be, say, 
in the middle of the room, and you want to 
cast the hand-shadows on a particular wall,. 



692 


PHENOMENA OF LIGHT. 


the hands are brought between the gas¬ 
light and the wall, and their distance from 
the former is regulated according to your 


the parts which give rise to the shadow of 
the mouth. Moreover, if you are able to 
imitate the sounds of any of the beasts 



HAND-SHADOWS OF ANIMALS. 


wish as to the size of shadow you want. 
We may add that you will be able easily to 
represent the jaws of your hand-shadows 
moving by bringing together and separating 


whose hand-shadows you can form—as, for 
example, the bark of the dog, the bray of 
the donkey, and the lowing of the cow— 
your entertainment becomes complete. 
























Famous Gems 



ROYAL gift is now in the hands 
of the Pope of Rome. It is a 
diamond, the size of which has 
never been equalled in the whole 
world, unless the story of the 
Braganza diamond was true. 
That diamond, it was said, weighed in the 
rough 1680 carats. The loss in cutting 
generally comes to one-half or a little less 
than two-thirds. This would make the 
gem weigh about 560 carats when cut. The 
stone was said to be worth ,£3,000,000 
sterling or $15,000,000. What became of 
the Braganza is not known. It is probably 
now famous after successive cuttings and 
various owners under a name which has no 
association with the original finder. 

Very little is yet known of the immense 
diamond now the property of the Pope. The 
meagre cable despatches from Rome said 
that it was found by an African chief in the 
mines at Jagersfontein, and is said to be the 
largest known, weighing in the rough 971 
carats. It came into the possession of the 
President of the Transvaal Republic, who sent 
it to the Pope. It is described as being of a 
bluish white cast and practically perfect, the 
only blemish being a tiny spot, invisible to 
the naked eye. 


What the value of this stone is can 
hardly be estimated. When cut the weight 
of the stone will be about 450 carats, and, 
if perfect, it should be worth the gigantic 
sum of $20,000,000. Large South African 
diamonds have not the same value that the 
Brazilian stones have. An eighty-carat gem 
is a common find in the African mines, but 
most of the large stones discovered there 
are yellow in color, which largely depreci¬ 
ates the value. Still, from its gigantic size, 
the Pope’s diamond has at once taken a fore¬ 
most place among the great gems of the 
world, and two thousand years from now it 
will probably be talked and written about 
just as the Koh-i-noor is to-day. 

The Queen of Jewels. 

The most valuable cut stone in the world 
is the King of Portugal’s Brazil diamond, 
which weighs 525 carats and is worth, if 
genuine, the magnificent sum of $28,- 
000,000. 

The Koh-i-noor or mountain of light, 
owned by Queen Victoria, is worth $3,500,- 
000. This brilliant is 2000 years old. The 
Hindoos trace it back to the time of the god 
Krischna. It was certainly in the treasury 
of Delhi, and was taken in the conquest of 

593 


38 
































































594 


FAMOUS GEMS. 


that city by Ala-ed-Din. From him it came 
into the possession of the Sultan Baber, of 
the Mogul dynasty, in 1526. This prince 
esteemed its worth at the sum which it 
would take to maintain the whole world for 
a single day. The jewel was seen by 
Tavernier among the jewels of Aurengzebe, 
but it had been reduced by the unskillful 
cutting of Hortensio Borgio from 793 carats 
to 186, the weight it possessed at the Paris 
Exhibition of 1851. 

The Emperor Indignant. 

The Emperor Aurengzebe not only re¬ 
fused to pay Borgio for the cutting, so in¬ 
censed was he at the great loss, but he con¬ 
fiscated all of his property, and was with 
great difficulty prevented from cutting off 
his head. 

Nadir Shah, the conqueror of India, pos¬ 
sessed himself of the stone by a trick ; then 
it passed from his descendants into the pos¬ 
session of Achmed Shah, whose son, Shah 
Sujah, was forced, in his turn, to give the 
prize to Runjeet Singh. After the capture 
of Lahore, at the time of the Sikh mutiny, 
it fell into the hands of the British troops, 
who presented it to Queen Victoria in 1850. 

The brilliant had an irregular form, with 
several hollows at the base and at the sides, 
and there were several fissures on the sur¬ 
face. After great discussion among scien¬ 
tists the stone was intrusted to Mr. Costen, 
of Amsterdam, for recutting, and the results 
were marvelous. Little was lost in size 
comparatively, and, instead of being a luster¬ 
less mass little better than a piece of rock 
crystal, it is now a matchless, fire-flashing 
brilliant weighing 10 1-16 carats, and forms 
a valuable part of the crown jewels of Eng¬ 
land. 

One of the diamond wonders of the world 
is the Orloff, which is set in the scepter of 


the Czars of Russia. It weighs 194^ 
carats. Like the Koh-i-noor it has the 
under side flat and is rose cut. The dia¬ 
mond is supposed to have formed one of 
the eyes of an idol in a Brahmin temple. 
It is also said to have been set in the famous 
peacock throne of Nadir Shah. 

Be its origin what it may, it is certain that 
it was stolen by a Frenchman, who sold it 
in Malabar for ^28,000. It was purchased 
by the Armenian Schaffras, who, in turn,, 
sold it in the year 1774 to the Empress 
Catharine II. of Russia for 450,000 roubles, 
a pension of 20,000 roubles and a patent of 
nobility. Another beautiful diamond belong¬ 
ing among the Russian crown jewels is the 
Shah, which weighs 86 carats and is abso¬ 
lutely perfect, a mass of fire and brilliancy. 
It was presented to the Emperor of Russia 
by Cosroes, the son of Abbas Mirza. 

Famous French Gem. 

Among the other famous diamonds is the 
Regent or Pitt diamond, which forms part of 
the French crown jewels. Its weight is 
136^ carats, and its estimated worth to-day 
is $1,000,000. It was bought by the Duke 
of Orleans, then Regent of France, of Pitt, 
the Governor of Fort George, in the year 
1 7 1 7, f° r ^ I 35> 000 > i n the rough stone 
weighing 410 carats, and the cutting cost 
A2000. Pitt published a pamphlet declar¬ 
ing that he purchased the stone in Golconda 
of Jamelchund, a Hindo merchant. This 
diamond was stolen from the Garde Meuble 
in 1792, but was mysteriously restored. Its 
final cutting occupied two years and cost 
^ 3500 . 

The Emperor Napoleon I. had it set in the 
hilt of his sword of state, and it was cap¬ 
tured by the Prussians at Waterloo. This 
wonderful stone was shown at the French 
Exhibition in 1855. 



FAMOUS GEMS. 


595 


The Empress Eugenie has a superb stone, 
absolutely perfect, which weighs 51 carats ; 
it is set as a pendant, and was purchased for 
her by Napoleon III. 

The Florentine belongs to the Emperor 
of Austria; it weighs 139^ carats, and it is 
worth $500,000. It is yellowish in color 
and is rather thickly covered with facets like 
a rose diamond. In shape it is pointed top 
and bottom. 

Disappeared and Returned. 

The noted Sancy diamond is almond- 
shaped ; it weighs 53 carats ; it was found 
on the body of the Duke of Burgundy in 
1479 an d was bought by the King of Portu¬ 
gal. After many changes it finally came to 
James II. of England, who sold it to Louis 
XIV. for ,£25,000. It disappeared, with 
many other valuable things, in the dark days 
of the Revolution, and some years later be¬ 
came by purchase the property of Prince 
Paul Demidoff. 

After the battle of Culloden the city of 
London purchased a magnificent diamond at 
a cost of $57,000 and presented it to the 
Duke of Cumberland. It was known there¬ 
after as the Cumberland diamond ; its weight 
is 32 carats. It was one of the the stones 
claimed by the crown of Holland. 

There are perhaps 8,000 dealers in dia¬ 
monds in the world who carry in their stock 
stones worth perhaps $350,000,000. The 
remainder are in the hands of private indi¬ 
viduals. There is always something fasci¬ 
nating about the subject of diamonds, and 
rich and poor like to read about precious 


stones. It is estimated that during the last 
twenty-five years the American people have 
paid duty on at least $ 180,000,000 worth of 
diamonds and other precious stones. In 
1893 alone they imported $15,203,563 
worth, but in 1894 there was a falling off, 
owing to the hard times, and the total was 
only $4,856,895. This does not include 
uncut diamonds, of which we imported 
more than 1,000,000 worth in 1892, $800,- 
OOO worth in 1893, and $566,267 worth in 
1894. 

Diamond- Cutting. 

In 1880 we imported only $ 129,000 worth 
of uncut diamonds, and in 1889 only $250- 
000 worth. The large increase of late has 
been due to the fact that a number of Ameri¬ 
can jewelers have opened diamond-cutting 
establishments. There are now fifteen estab¬ 
lishments in the United States, which employ 
from one to twenty men. There are 4,000 
manufacturers in Europe and about 200 in 
the United States, who employ between 
7,000 and 8,000 persons as cutters and 
polishers. 

Perhaps 28,000 people are employed in 
the diamond mines throughout the world. 
We read that in past centuries 60,000 people 
were working in some single Indian mines at 
one time, and perhaps that statement is not 
exaggerated, since by the aid of modern 
machinery one miner can now accomplish as 
much as twenty who use the primitive 
methods. The total value of all the dia¬ 
monds in the world undoubtedly exceeds 
$ 1,000,000,000. 





The Weather 


AND 


Weather Signals 




HE new system of weather sig¬ 
nals was introduced by the 
United States Signal Office 
of the War Department in 
1887, and has since been in 
use at all the stations of the 
service. The flags adopted 
for this purpose are four in number, and of 
the form and dimensions indicated below : 



No. 1. 

White Flag. 


Clear or fair weather. 


No. 2. 

Blue Flag. 



Rain or snow. 


No. 3. 

Black Triangular 
Flag. 



Temperature signal. 


No. 4. 

White Flag with Black 
Square in Center. 



Cold wave. 


Number 1, white flag, six feet square, indi¬ 
cates clear or fair weather. Number 2, blue 

596 - 


flag, six feet square, indicates rain or snow. 
Number 3, black triangular flag, four feet at 
the base and six feet in length, always refers 

r 

to temperature; when placed above numbers 
1 or 2 it indicates warmer weather ; when 
placed below numbers 1 or 2 it indicates 
colder weather; when not displayed, the in¬ 
dications are that the temperature will remain 
stationary, or that the change in temperature 
will not vary five degrees from the tempera¬ 
ture of the same hour of the preceding day. 

Number 4, white flag, six feet square, with 
black square in center, indicates the approach 
of a sudden and decided fall in temperature. 
T his signal is usually ordered at least twenty- 
four hours in advance of the cold wave. It 
is not displayed unless a temperature of 
forty-five degrees, or lower, is expected. 
When number 4 is displayed, number 3 is 
always omitted. 

When displayed on poles, the signals are 
arranged to read downwards ; when dis¬ 
played from horizontal supports, a small 
streamer is attached to indicate the point 
from which the signals are to be read. 

No. 1, alone, indicates fair weather, station¬ 
ary temperature. 

























































THE WEATHER AND WEATHER SIGNALS. 


597 


No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, 
stationary temperature. 

No. i, with No. 3 below it, indicates fair 
weather, colder. 

No. 2, with No. 3 above it, indicates 
warmer weather, rain or snow. 

No. i, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair 
weather, cold wave. 

* 

No. 3, with Nos. i and 2 below it, indi¬ 
cates warmer, fair weather, followed by rain 
or snow. 

No. 4, followed by Nos. 2, i and 3, in the 
order given, indicates the approach of a cold 
wave, to be succeeded by rain or snow— 
this, in turn to be followed by fair weather 
and colder temperature. 

Storm, Cautionary and Wind-Direction 

Signals. 

A red flag with a black center indicates that 
the storm is expected to be of marked violence. 
A yellow flag with a white center indicates 
that the winds expected will not be so severe, 
but brisk ; seaworthy vessels can meet them 
without danger. The red pennant indicates 
easterly winds, that is, from the northeast to 
south inclusive, and that generally the storm 
center is approaching. 

If above cautionary or storm-signal, winds 
from northeast quadrant are more probable ; 
below , winds from southeast quadrant. The 
white pennant indicates westerly winds ; that 
is, from north to southwest inclusive, and 
that generally the storm center has passed. 
If above cautionary or storm-signal, winds 
from northeast quadrant are more probable ; 
if below , winds from southwest quadrant. 

Winds and Storms. 

Constant Winds. —The Trade Winds are 
due to the inrush of cold air from the poles 
toward the equator in order to supply the 
place of the heated column of air which 


ascends from the latter ; owing to the east¬ 
ward rotation of the earth, the air proceed¬ 
ing from the N. becomes a N. E. wind, and 
that from the S. a S. E. wind. The heated 
air flows to the poles as an upper current, 
and, cooling, descends to the surface to form 
the westerly winds, or anti-trades, of the 
temperate zones. 

Variable Winds. —When in turn each of 
the northern and southern hemispheres is 
brought directly under the sun’s influence, a 
heated column ascends, and a consequent in¬ 
rush of the surrounding air takes place, giving 
rise to the periodical winds or Monsoons. 

Peculiar Winds. —The more important 
are the Mistral, Fohn and Sirocco, confined 
to the countries of the Mediterranean. A 
hot, dry wind blows from Central Africa, 
termed variously the Khamsin in Egypt, 
Sirocco in Algeria, Shume in Morocco, 
and the Harmattan in Upper Guinea. A 
hot wind occurs on the coasts of Australia, 
termed the Australian Harmattan. Cold, 
dry winds, the “ Northers,” occur in the 
Western Mississippi and Gulf of Mexico. 
The cold Puna winds of South America 
blow west from the ice-topped Cordillera. 
The Pamperos, strong, dry, sudden S. W. 
winds, occur in the S. E. of South America. 

Calms. —At the meeting line of the trade 
winds in the equatorial regions a belt of 
calms is observed, called the Equatorial 
Calms. Between the beginning of the west¬ 
erly winds and that of the trades, there is a 
second series termed the Calms of Cancer 
and Capricorn. 

Whirlwinds otcur in the desert regions 
of the tropics during the hot season, and are 
caused by the friction of two winds moving 
in opposite directions, the direction of rota¬ 
tion being taken from the wind which prevails. 

Hurricanes are vast whirlwinds of great 
velocity and destructive power, experienced 




598 


RAILROAD SIGNALLING. 


in certain areas of the tropical and adjoining 
temperate zones. 

The Tyfhoons of eastern seas are similar 
to hurricanes in effect, and are probably due 
to the meeting of the S. W. Monsoon with 
the N. E. Trade. 

Tornadoes are a species of hurricane met 
with on the west coast of Africa and in West 
Indian seas between io° S. and 20° N. lat. 

European Storms have a course from 
S. W. to N. E., and seldom extend over an 
area of less than 600 miles in breadth. 

Weather Signs. 

A rainbow in the morning gives the shep¬ 
herd warning ; that is, if the wind be east¬ 
erly, because it shows that the rain cloud is 
approaching the observer. 

A rainbow at night is the shepherd’s de¬ 
light. This is also a good sign, provided 


the wind be westerly, as it shows that the 
rain clouds are passing away. 

Evening red and next morning gray are 
certain signs of a beautiful day. 

When the glow worm lights her lamp, the 
air is always damp. 

If the cock goes crowing to bed, he’ll cer¬ 
tainly rise with a watery head. 

When you see gossamer flying, be ye sure 
the air is drying. 

When black snails cross your path, black 
clouds much moisture hath. 

When the peacock loudly bawls, soon 
we’ll have both rain and squalls. 

If the moon shows like a silver shield, be 
not afraid to reap your field. 

But if she rises haloed round, soon we’ll 
tread on deluged ground. 

When crows fly sporting high in the air, 
it shows that windy storms are near. 



*«§4 iffc ^ 4^ **j* 4^4 4^4 ^ 4^4 * j* 4^4 4^ 4^4 ^ 

4*4 ^ _ 44 - 

It Railroad Signalling its 

4 * 4 * 4* 4*4* 4* 4*4* 4* 4‘fc5fi§M4‘'4* 4* 4*4*444444* 4* 4^ 




T is doubtful whether the aggre¬ 
gate plant used in all manufac¬ 
turing industries can equal the 
value of railroads. The capital 
engaged in banking is but a 
trifle beside it. The world’s 
whole stock of money of every 
kind, gold, silver, and paper, would purchase 
only a third of its railroads. 

Some of the most colossal fortunes ever 
accumulated by single individuals have grown 
out of their moneyed interest in railroads. 
As a means of investment and making money 


on the rapid plan, railroad stocks are unsur¬ 
passed. While in some instances the bubble 
has burst and the result has been bankruptcy, 
in others, the effect has been opposite. 

Yet these facts by no means measure the 
whole importance of the railroad in the 
modern industrial system. The business 
methods of to-day are in one sense the 
direct results of improved means of trans¬ 
portation. The railroad enables the laree 
establishment to reach the markets of the 
world with its products; it enables the laree 

o 

cities to receive their food supplies, if neces- 




RAILROAD SIGNALLING. 


599 


sary, from a distance of hundreds or thous¬ 
ands of miles. And while it thus favors the 
concentration of capital, it is in itself an 
extreme type of this concentration. 

American Railway Signals. 

One pull of the bell cord signifies “stop.” 

Two pulls mean “go ahead.” 

Three pulls mean “back up.” 

One whistle signifies “down brakes.” 

Two whistles signify “ off 
brakes.” 

Three whistles mean “back 
up.” 

Continued whistles indicate 
“danger.” 

Short rapid whistles, “a cat¬ 
tle alarm.” 

A sweeping parting of the 
hands on a level with the eyes 
means “ go ahead.” 

A slowly sweeping meeting 
of the hands over the head 
signifies “back slowly.” 

A downward motion of the 
hands, with extended arms, sig¬ 
nifies “stop.” 

A beckoning motion with 
one hand indicates “back.” 

A red flag waved up the 
track indicates “danger.” 

A red flag by the roadside 
means “ danger ahead.” 

A red flag carried on a locomotive signi¬ 
fies “an engine following.” 

A red flag raised at a station means 
“ stop.” 

A lantern swung at right angles across 
the track means “stop.” 

A lantern raised and lowered vertically is 
a signal to “ start.”- 

A lantern swung in a circle signifies 
“back the train.” 


In traveling in a railway train, everyone 
must have observed the signal-boxes, which 
differ very much in size—from that of a 
small hut, with its three or four shafts or 
steel handles, to that of a considerable cot¬ 
tage at a junction, with thirty, forty, or even 
more. And in front of this glistening line 
stands the signalman, moving backwards and 
forwards, now closing this which had been 
open, now opening that which had been shut. 


But the mere opening and shutting of these 
bristling steel handles form but a small part 
of his work, though these shafts communi¬ 
cate with and open or close them. 

In every signal-box—at all events, in 
every box of great extent—there are two 
clocks of somewhat peculiar construction 
right in front of this row of handles—clocks 
which can be seen immediately on looking 
up. Then near at hand are telegraph dials 
and bells for receiving messages, as well as 



WAYSIDE SIGNAL-BOX. 






































RAILROAD SIGNALLING. 


600 


telegraph-despatching desks, and a writing- 
desk in the corner, on which books of 
record are carefully laid out. 

The main end of the block system is to 
prevent more than one train or engine mov¬ 
ing between two signal-boxes at the same 
time. Everyone knows the semaphore sig¬ 
nal up for danger, down for clear line; 


the main line is clear; and it is because of 
this that lapses of memory, leading to fatal 
issues, are most likely to arise. 

For it has to be remembered that the sig¬ 
nalman must give the same attention to a 
single engine, or to an engine with one bag¬ 
gage car, as to an express train ; he must 
signal to the next station what it is that he 



INTERIOR OF A SIGNAL-BOX. 


and this summarizes the signalman’s primary 
duty. 

Where this alone is the requirement, the 
work is much simplified and straightforward, 
but where traffic is great it is inevitable that 
there should be no end of goods trains, return 
engines, trucks, and cars, which, to make 
way for the specials and expresses, must be 
switched into sidings to wait for relief till 


has passed, and whether it bears a lamp 
behind it, and of what character, so that the 
next signalman may be certain, whether in 
dark or light, that he has passed all intact 
that his predecessor did, and that nothing 
has slipped or parted from the engine. 

It lequires a man of cool temper and clear 
head to be charged with such vast responsi- 
I bility,* involving property and human life. 









































































































































MORE popular description of 
these societies would be, so¬ 
cieties by which every man 
may become “ his own land¬ 
lord,” their main purpose being 
to collect together the small 
periodical subscriptions of a number of mem¬ 
bers, until each in his turn has been able to 
receive a sum sufficient to aid him materially 
in buying his dwelling house. 

The origin and early history of these 
societies is not very clearly traceable. A 
mention of “building clubs” in Birmingham, 
England, occurs in 1795 ; one is known to 
have been established by deed in the year of 
1809 at Greenwich; another is said to have 
been founded in 1825, under the auspices 
of the Earl of Selkirk, at Kirkculbright, in 
Scotland. 

We furnish below a sample Constitution 
of a prosperous Building Society, which can 
be used in the organization of one of these 
Associations. 


CONSTITUTION. 


ARTICLE I. 

TITLE AND OBJECT. 

This Association shall be known by the 
name, style and title of the 

American Building and Loan Association, 

the character and object of which is to accu¬ 
mulate a fund by the contribution of its mem¬ 
bers, which shall enable them to purchase a 


homestead or other real estate, or to borrow 
money for their use and investment in any 
lawful business, and for these purposes to- 
have, possess and enjoy all the rights, bene¬ 
fits and privileges of the Acts of Assembly 
in such cases made and provided. 

ARTICLE II. 

STOCKHOLDERS. 

The stockholders of this Association shall 
be Citizens of the United States. Women 
can hold stock in their own right, minors by 
guardians or trustees. 

ARTICLE III. 

ELECTIONS AND OFFICERS. 

The number, title, functions and compen¬ 
sation of the Officers of this Association, their 
terms of office, the time of their election, as 
well as qualifications of electors, the manner 
of voting and of holding the periodical meet¬ 
ings, shall be determined by the By-Laws. 

ARTICLE IV. 

SHARES. 

Section /. The stock of this Association 
shall be issued in Annual Series ; and the 
capital shall not consist of more than 5000 
shares. 

Sec. 2. Every stockholder shall pay a 
subscription fee of twenty-five cents per 
share upon joining the Association, and 
thereafter one dollar dues per share every 
month. These payments shall be made to 
the Board of Directors at the place to be 
designated by the stockholders. No stock¬ 
holder shall hold more than fifty shares in 
one series. 


601 












60- 


BUILDING SOCIETIES. 


Sec. J. Stockholders not having loans, in 
arrears in their monthly contributions for the 
term of six months, shall be regarded as 
having withdrawn from the Association, and 
shall receive in full payment of their claims 
against the same, the actual amount of 
monthly dues paid by them, without interest, 
first deducting all fines charged against their 
shares. Every share of stock shall be sub¬ 
ject to a lien for the payment of unpaid 
instalments and other charges incurred 
thereon. The By-Laws may prescribe the 
form and manner of enforcing such lien. 

Sec. /j .. Stockholders desiring to with¬ 
draw from the Association shall, after hav- 
ing given thirty days’ notice of their inten¬ 
tion so to do, receive, after the expiration of 
the first year, interest on their monthly dues 
at the rate of six per cent, per annum, less 
the losses and expenses incurred on each 
share. 

Sec. 5. Upon the death of a stockholder, 
his or her legal representatives shall be en¬ 
titled to receive the amount paid in on his 
or her stock, with interest at six per cent, 
per annum, less all fines and other charges. 
No fines shall be charged to a deceased, 
member’s account after his or her decease, 
unless the legal representatives of such dece¬ 
dent, by continuing the payments on such 
stock for three months after his or her 
decease, shall have thereby assumed the fur¬ 
ther payment on the stock. 

ARTICLE V. 

LOANS. 

Section 1. Every stockholder shall be 
entitled to a loan of two hundred dollars on 
each share of stock, and the preference shall 
be given to the stockholder bidding the 
highest premium, which premium, if any be 
bid, shall be paid once only. 

Sec. 2. Stockholders having taken loans 
from the Association, shall pay interest to 
the Board of Directors monthly, at the rate 
of six per cent, per annum for the amount 
of money actually received by them. The 
interest shall be reduced at the end of the 
fiscal year to the extent of the amount paid 
off annually on the principal during the 


year, and interest be charged only on the 
balance for the ensuing year. 

A loan may be paid off at any time, in one 
payment, in larger payments than regular 
dues, or by regular monthly payments, but 
it shall be expressly understood that said 
payments of monthly dues, or larger pay¬ 
ments, shall be payments on account of the 
loan or mortgage. 

When the whole amount of a loan has 
been paid off in payments of monthly dues, 
or by larger payments as aforesaid, such 
stockholder shall receive his securities and 
have them satisfied of record ; provided that 
all arrears and expenses be fully paid and 
discharged. 

Sec. j. In case a stockholder having a 
loan shall be in arrears in his monthly dues 
for the term of six months, the Board of 
Directors may proceed to collect the whole 
amount of the loan, with interest and ex¬ 
penses, according to law. This action must 
be ordered by at least a three-fourths vote 
of the Board. 

ARTICLE VI. 

CONTINUANCE OF CORPORATION. 

This corporation shall not expire or be 
dissolved from neglect on the part of the 
stockholders to elect officers at the time 
mentioned in the Charter or By-Laws, and 
all elected officers shall hold their offices 
until their successors have been duly elected. 

ARTICLE VII. 

CERTIFICATES OF STOCK. 

Every stockholder shall be entitled to a 
certificate for the stock held by him or her, 
to be issued in the name and under the seal 
of the Association, signed by the President 
and attested by the Secretary, which certifi¬ 
cates may be transferred or assigned, in 
person or by attorney, in the presence of the 
Sec.ietaiy; and such transferee, by comply¬ 
ing with the rules and regulations of the 
Association, may become a member thereof. 
Fifty cents shall be paid to the Secretary for 
such tiansfer of the stock, and for duplicates 
issued to replace lost certificates. 




BUILDING SOCIETIES. 


603 


ARTICLE VIII. 

WITHDRAWAL AND CANCELLATION. 

The By-Laws may provide for the invol¬ 
untary withdrawal and cancellation, at or 
before maturity, of shares of stock not bor¬ 
rowed on ; provided that such withdrawal 
and cancellation shall be pro rata among the 
shares of the same series of stock ; and pro¬ 
vided further, that not less than legal interest 
shall be credited and allowed to each share 
so withdrawn and cancelled. 

ARTICLE IX. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

Stockholders having loans from the Asso¬ 
ciation pay back the actual amount received. 

Stockholders having no loans may con¬ 
tinue to pay their monthly dues until the 
real assets of the Association are sufficient to 
pay the sum of $200 on each share. 

ARTICLE X. 

BY-LAWS. 

The Stockholders may make or alter By- 
Laws for the better management of the 
Association, which shall not be repugnant to 
this Constitution, to the Constitution of this 
Commonwealth, or of the United States of 
America. 

ARTICLE XI. 

ALTERATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

The Constitution or the By-Laws shall 
not be altered or amended, except at a 
regular monthly or special meeting of the 
stockholders, and then only by the vote of 
two-thirds of the members present. 

The table given below will answer many 
inquiries concerning earning powers. 

Table of Earning Powers. 

These powers are 1 , 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 , 36 , 49 , 
64 , 81 , 140 , 121 and 144 . While not exactly 
true, they are based on the view that when 
$12 have been paid in—$1 each month—the 
average time is six months for the total $12. 

In the partnership plan the total gain is 
divided anew every year, so as to give each 
dollar invested a like per cent, per annum. 


It is assumed that $12 invested for six 
months has an earning power of “one.” It 
follows then that $24 invested for an average 
of one year has the earning power of “ four,” 
because 24 is twice the amount of $ 12 , and 
because 12 months is twice the time of six 
months. One is twice the money and twice 
the time of the other. Two powers repre¬ 
sent money and two powers represent time ; 
therefore 2 x 2 = 4 . 

It will be seen that $120 is ten times as 
much as $12, and that the time of invest¬ 
ment is ten times as long; therefore, 10 X 
10 = 100 for the power of $ 120 . These 
powers are obtained by squaring the number 
of years that the series have run, namely, 
12 X 12 = 144 , for $144 paid in. 

The table referred to is as follows : 

$144 - 4 - 12 = 12 X 12 = 144 X 6 = $8 64 one per ct, 

132 -4- 12 = 11 X 11 = 121 X 6 = 7 26 one per ct. 

120 -4- 12 = 10 X 10 = 100 X 6 = 6 00 one per ct. 

108 - 4 - 12 = 9 X 0= 81X6= 4 86 one per ct. 

96 - 4 - 12 = 8 X 8= 64 X 8 = 3 84 one per ct. 

84 - 4 - 12 = 7 X 7 = 49 X 6 = 2 94 one per ct. 

72 - 4 - 12 - 6 X 6 = 36 X 6 — 2 16 one per ct. 

60 - 4 - 12 = 5 X 5 = 25 X 6 = 1 50 one per ct. 

48 - 4 - 12 = 4 X 4 = 16 X 6 = 96 one per ct. 

36-4-12= 3 X 3= 9X6= 54 one per ct. 

24-4-12= 2 X 2= 4X6= 24 one per ct. 

12-4-12= IX 1= 1X6= 06 one per ct 

The table also shows what one per cent, 
gain is at the end of one year and up to the 
end of 12 years. 

The rule to find one per cent, is as follows : 
Square the number of years in a series and 
multiply by 6. 

\ ears. One per cent. 

10 X 10 = 100 X 6 = $6 00 

The use of this one per cent, table is to 
ascertain the rate of gain per annum credited 
on building society reports to the various 
shares of stock when share values are given 
on the reports. After the profits are divided 
the accountant may make sure that each dol¬ 
lar invested has received a like per cent, per 
annum by making proper use of the “ one per 
cent.” column in the above table. We give as 
an example the following figures from a report: 


Paid in. 

Gains. 

Values. 

$60 

$12 00 

$72 00 

48 

7 68 

55 68 

36 

4 32 

40 32 

24 

1 92 

25 92 

12 

48 

12 48 






gll/, _ 

AKE home bright a*nd happy. 
Throw open the shutters 
and let in the sunlight. 
Some homes have a cold 
chill about them, for the 
reason that it is all work 
and no play, no amuse¬ 
ment. Food must be provided for the 
young; so must pastime. There are games 
that not only amuse, but also discipline the 
mind and teach one to think, to look ahead, 
to work out of tight places. One of these is 



CHESS. 

Chess—ancient as it is—still holds its own 
against all “ new-born gauds.” It is still 
the favorite game among the educated, and 
is considered an essential accomplishment in 
most family circles, where, beyond doubt, it 
is beneficial in assisting the mental develop¬ 
ment of the young. 

The game is played on a board divided 
into sixty-four squares, colored alternately 
black and white. It is the same as that 
used at Draughts. Eight pieces of different 
denominations and powers, and eight Pawns, 
are allotted to each compeitor. As a neces¬ 
sary distinction, each set is colored in a 
different way ; one commonly being White, 
the other Red, or Black. The pieces are 
named as follows : King, Queen, Bishops, 

Knights, Rooks, Pawns. 

Every player is provided with one King, 

one Queen, two Bishops, two Knights, and 
two Rooks, besides the eight Pawns. 

604 


In placing the board, care must be taken 
that a White comer square be at the right 
hand of each player. It should also be 
observed that the Queen must be olaced 
upon a square of her own color. 

The Pieces: Their Powers and Mode of 

Action. 

The King can move in any direction— 
forward, backward, sideways, or diagonally, 
provided always, of course, that he does not 
move into check. The King possesses one 
great prerogative—that of never being taken ; 
but by way of counterbalancing the advan¬ 
tage of this exemption, he is restrained from 
exposing himself to check. He can move 
only one square at a time, except when he 
castles , which he may do oi>ce during each 
game. He may then move two squares. 
He cannot castle when in check, nor after he 
has once moved, nor with a Rook that has 
been moved, nor if any of the squares over 
which be has to move be commanded by an 
adverse piece. 

The Queen can move either horizontally 
or diagonally. She combines the powers of 
the Bishop and the Rook. She can, at one 
move, pass along the whole length of the 
board, or, if moving diagonally, from corner 
to corner. Although she can move and take 
in the same manner as a Bishop, or as a 
Rook, she must make the whole of one 
move in one direction, and cannot combine 
in one move the powers of these two pieces ; 
she cannot move round a corner at one step. 















































INDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 


605 


The Rook, (sometimes called the Castle) 
may pass along the entire length of the 
board at one move. It may move back¬ 
wards, or forwards, or sideways—but always 
horizontally, never diagonally. 

The Bishop can move only in a diagonal 
direction, but can go any number of squares, 
from one to eight, or as far as the space be 
open. The Bishop can never change the 
color of his square. Thus, the White King’s 
Bishop being on a White square at the 
beginning, remains so throughout the game. 
This is a necessary consequence of his move 
being purely diagonal. 

The Knight has a power of moving which 
is quite peculiar and rather difficult to ex¬ 
plain. He moves two squares at once, in a 
direction partly diagonal and partly straight. 
He changes the color of his square at every 
move. The Knight is the only piece that 
possesses what is styled the “ vaulting 
motion.” He is not precluded from going 
to a square between which and his own 
other pieces intervene. 

Thus, instead of moving your King’s Pawn 
two, as your first move, you might, if good 
play permitted it, move out either of your 
Knights right over the row of Pawns in 

o o 

front. This power is possessed by the 
Knight alone, all the other pieces being 
obliged to wait until there is an opening in 
front of them before they can emerge. The 
Knight can move over the sixty-four squares 
of the board in as many moves. There are 
manv ways of doing this, but Euler s solu¬ 
tion, unlike most others, is based on math¬ 
ematical calculation, and is not a mere 
exceriment. 

X 

The Pawn moves in a straight line towards 
the adverse party. It cannot move out of 
its file except in capturing one of the opposing 
Pawns, or pieces, when it steps one square 
in a diagonal or slanting direction, and 


occupies the square of the captured piece. It 
can only be moved one square at a time, 
excepting in the first move, when the player 
has the option of advancing it two squares. 
The Pawn is the only piece which cannot 
retreat, and which does not take in the 
direction in which it moves. For full ex¬ 
planations relative to “ Queening the Pawn,” 
and taking a Pawn en passant , see instruc¬ 
tions on those points. 

Abbreviations. 

The abbreviations which are invariably 
used in Chess publications are the following: 

BI.ACK. 



WHITE. 

ORDER OF THE MEN ON THE BOARD. 


K. for King ; Q. for Queen ; B. for 
Bishop ; Kt. for Knight ; R. for Rook ; P. 
for Pawn; Sq. for Square ; and Ch. for 
Check. The pieces on one side of the board 
are distinguished from those on the other in 
the following manner : 

Those on the same side as the King are 
named after him, as K.’s B. (King’s Bishop); 
K.’s Kt. (King’s Knight) ; K.’s R. (King’s 
Rook) ; while those on the same side as the 





















600 


INDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 


Queen are named Q.’s B. (Queen’s Bishop); 
Q.’s Kt. (Queen’s Knight) ; Q.’s R. (Queen’s 
Rook). The Pawns are distinguished in like 
manner. The Pawn occupying the square 
in front of the King’s B. is called the K.’s 
B.’s P. ; that in front of the K.’s Kt. is 
called the K.’s Kt.’s P. ; that in front of the 
Q.’s R. is called the Q.’s R.’s P., etc. 

Technical Terms Used in the Game. 

The Move.— Whichever player opens the 
game by making the first move, is said to 
have “ the move.” 

Check.— When your King is attacked by 
any piece, he is said to be in check ; and it is 
your opponent’s duty to give you warning 
of such an event by crying “ check,” when 
he makes the move. You must then put 
your King out of check by moving him, by 
taking the checking piece, or by interposing 
one of your own men between the checking 
piece and your King, thus “ covering ” 
check, as it is termed. 

Checkmate is the term used when the 
King is in inextricable check— i. e., when 
none of the above means avail to place him 
beyond the range of the attacking pieces. 
When a checkmate is obtained, the game is 
at an end, that being the sole object. 

Discovered Check is when the player 
moves a Pawn or piece from before another 
piece, thereby opening or “ discovering ” 
check— e. g., the Black Rook may be on a 
line with the opposing King, the only inter¬ 
vening piece being a Black Pawn. The re¬ 
moval of this Pawn “ discovers check.” 

Double Check is when check is discov¬ 
ered as above, the King being also attacked 
by the piece moved. 

Perpetual Check is when the King of 
one of the players can be checked almost at 
every move, and when he has little else to 
do but move out of check. When the 


game has reached this stage, the weaker 
player may demand that checkmate shall be 
given in a certain number of moves, in de¬ 
fault of which it may be declared a drawn 
game. (See Rule VIII.) 

Drawn Game.—A drawn game may arise 
from several causes : I. As above. 2. Stale¬ 
mate. (See “Stalemate.”) 3. Equai play : 
“ Between very good players ” (remarks 
Philidor), “ it sometimes happens that the 
equipoise in force and position is constantly 
sustained in the opening, in the intermediate 
stages, and in the last result; when either 
all the exchangeable pieces have been 
mutually taken, or the remaining forces are 
equal—as a Queen against a Queen, a. 
Rook against a Rook, with no advantage in 
position, or the Pawns are mutually blocked 
up.” 4. Absence of mating power — i. e. y 
when neither player possesses the force re¬ 
quisite to obtain a checkmate. (See “ Mat¬ 
ing Power.”) 5. Unskilful use of a suffi- 
cently strong force: If one player is superior 
in force to his adversary, and possesses the 
requisite mating power, the game may still 
be drawn by the unskilful use of that superi¬ 
ority. If he cannot effect a checkmate in 
fifty moves it may be declared a drawn game. 

Stalemate describes that state of the 
game when one of the players has nothing 
left but his King, which is so placed that, 
although not in check, he cannot move with¬ 
out going into check. 

Castling is a double operation, accom¬ 
plished by moving the King and one of the 
Rooks at the same time. When the removal 
of the Bishop and the Knight on the one side, 
or of the Bishop, Knight and Queen on the 
other, has cleared the intervening squares, 
the King may castle with either of his Rooks. 

If it should be done on the King’s side of 
the boaid, the King is to be placed on the 
Knight’s square, and the Rook on the 






INDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 


Bishop’s ; if in the Queen’s section, the King 
must be moved to the Bishop’s square, and 
the Rook to the Queen’s. 

In other words, the King, in either case, 
must move two squares, and the Rook be 
placed on the opposite side of him to that on 
which he stood before. It is universally laid 
down that the King shall not castle when in 
check, nor when he has previously moved, 
nor with a Rook that has moved, nor if a 
square over which he has to pass be com¬ 
manded by an adverse piece. 

En Prise. —A piece is said to be en prise 
when under attack. 

En Passant (in passing ).—If your adver¬ 
sary has advanced one of his Pawns to the 
fifth square, and you move one of your 
Pawns in either of the adjoining files two 
squares, he is entitled to take your Pawn, 
en passant , as though you had only moved 
it one square. This peculiar mode of cap¬ 
ture can only be effected by Pawns. 

Ranks and Files. —The lines of squares 
running from left to right are known as 
Ranks , and those perpendicular to them, 
running from one player to the other, are 
called Files. 

Passed and Isolated Pawns. —A Pawn 
is said to be “passed” when it is so far 
advanced that no Pawn of the adversary’s 
can oppose it. An Isolated Pawn is one that 
stands alone and unsupported. 

Double Pawn.—T wo Pawns on the same 
file. 

“J’adoube” (signifying I adjust, or I 
arrange') is the expression generally used 
when a player touches a piece to arrange it 
without the intention of making a move. 
Perhaps it is not absolutely necessary that he 
should say “ J'adoube'j but he must at any 
rate use an equivalent expression. 

To Interpose. —This term explains itself. 
If your King or one of your pieces is at¬ 


607 

tacked, and you move another of your 
pieces between the attacking piece and the 
piece attacked, either for the purpose of 
covering check, or as a means of protection, 
or with any other object, you are said to 
“ interpose.” 

Winning the Exchange.— You are said 
to “win the exchange” when you gain a 
Rook for a Bishop, a Bishop for a Knight, 
or, in short, whenever you gain a superior 
piece by giving an inferior. 

Queening a Pawn. — You are said to 
“Queen a Pawn” when you advance it to- 
the eighth square on the file. You may 
then claim a Queen, or any other piece, in 
exchange for it. Formerly the rule was 
that you might substitute for it any piece 
you had previously lost, but, according to 
the modern game, three or more Rooks, or 
Bishops, or Knights, may be obtained in 
this w r ay. 

Gambit. —This term, which is derived 
from the Italian, describes an opening in 
which a Pawn is purposely sacrificed at an 
early stage of the game, in order subse¬ 
quently to gain an advantage. Several 
Gambits are distinguished by the names of 
their inventors, such as the Cochrane Gambit, 
the Muzio Gambit, the Salvio Gambit, etc. 
There are also the Bishop’s Gambit, the 
Queen’s Gambit, etc., etc. 

Mating Power. —The force requisite to 
bring about a checkmate: a King and Queen 
against King and two Bishops, King and two 
Knights, King and Bishop and Knight, or 
against King and Rook, can effect check¬ 
mate. King and two Bishops can mate 
against King and Bishop, or King and Knight. 
King, with two Bishops and Knight, can mate 
against King and Rook. King, with Rook 
and Bishop, can mate against Rook and 
King. King can always draw against King 
and Bishop, or King and Knight. King and 



■608 


INDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 


Rook against either a King and Bishop, or 
King and Knight, makes a drawn game, etc. 

Laws of the Game. 

The following “ laws ” are in force in all 
the principal clubs in this country : 

I. —If a player touch one of his men, 
unless for the purpose of adjusting it, when 
he must say “J’adoabe ” (see Law IV.), or it 
being his turn to move, he must move the 
piece he has so touched. 

[Walker gives the following remarks on 
this law—“When you touch a piece with 
the bona fide intention of playing it, the say- 
ing ‘ J'adonbe' will not exonerate you from 
completing the move. A Chessplayer’s 
meaning cannot be misunderstood on the 
point; and were it otherwise, you might hold 
a man in your hand for five minutes, and 
then saying ‘ J'adoube' replace it, and move 
elsewhere ! ”] 

II. —If the men are not placed properly at 
the beginning of the game, and this is dis¬ 
covered before four moves have been made 
on each side, the game must be recom¬ 
menced. If the mistake should not be found 
out till after four moves have been made, the 
game must be proceeded with. 

III. —Where the players are even, they 
must draw lots for the first move, after which 
they take the first move alternately. When 
a player gives odds, he has the option of 
making the first move, and the choice of men 
in every game. 

[In giving odds, should it be agreed upon 
to give a Pawn, it is customary to take the 
K. B. P. If a piece is to be given, it may 
be taken from either the King’s or Queen’s 
•side.] 

IV. —If a player should accidently or 
otherwise move or touch one of his men 
without saying “ J'adoidicf his adversary 
may compel him to move either the man he 


has touched or his King, provided the latter 
is not in check. 

V. —When a player gives check, and fails 
to give notice by crying “ Check,” his adver¬ 
sary need not, unless he think proper, place 
his King out of check, nor cover. 

[If it is discovered that the King is in 
check, and has been so for several moves 
past, the players must move the men back to 
the point at which they stood when check 
was given. If they cannot agree as to when 
check was first given, the player who is in 
check must retract his last move, and defend 
his King.] 

VI. —The player who effects checkmate 
wins the game. 

VII. —Stalemate constitutes a drawn game. 

VIII. —If, towards the end of the game, 
one of the players has what is called the 
“ mating power,” his adversary may demand 
that checkmate shall be given in fifty moves. 
If this is not accomplished, it shall be de¬ 
clared a drawn game. 

IX. —The operation of “Castling” can¬ 
not be effected when the King is in check, 
nor when the King or Rook has been pre¬ 
viously moved, nor when the space be not 
clear between the King and Rook, nor when 
any of the squares over which the King has 
to pass are commanded by the adversary. 

X. —So long as you retain your hold of a 
piece you may move it where you will. 

[Great dissatisfaction is sometimes caused 
by the latitude which this law allows. It 
has often been said that this law would be 
improved if it were made compulsory to 
move the piece in the direction in which it 
had been inclined, and that when it has been 
rested on a particular square it should re¬ 
main there, and the move considered com¬ 
plete. “To finger the squares of the board 
whilst planning your move is strictly legal, 
but a most villanous habit.”] 




INDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 


609 


XI. —No limit is fixed to the time allowed 
for the consideration of each move. Where 
great delay occurs, a third party may be 
appealed to ; and if he should pronounce 
the delay vexatious, the player refusing to 
move loses the game. 

[This is a necessary law, but it would 
often be desirable to come to a mutual agree¬ 
ment as to the time beforehand. No greater 
bore can be imagined than an excessively 
cautious player. In matches of conse¬ 
quence the time is generally stipulated.] 

XII. —Should you move one of your ad¬ 
versary’s men instead of your own, he may 
compel you to take the piece you have 
touched, should it be en prise, or to replace 
it and move your King ; provided, of course, 
that you can do so without placing him in 
check. 

XIII. —Should you capture a man with 
one that cannot legally take it, your adver¬ 
sary may compel you either to take such 
piece (should it be en prise') with one that 
can legally take it, or to move the piece 
touched ; provided that by so doing you do 
not discover check, in which case you may 
be directed to move your King. 

XIV. -—Should you move out of your 
turn, your adversaiy may compel you either 
to retract the move, or leave the piece where 
you placed it, as he may think most advan¬ 
tageous. 

XV. —If you touch the King and Rook, 
intending to Castle, and have quitted hold of 
the one piece, you must complete the act of 
Castling. If you retain your hold of both, 
your adversary may compel you to move 
either of them. 

XVI. —The game must be declared to be 
drawn should you fail to give checkmate in 
fifty moves, when you have 

King and Queen against King 
King and Rook “ 


King and 2 Bishops against King. 
King, Bishop, and Kt. fs 

King and Pawn “ 

King and 2 Pawns “ 

King and minor piece “ 

XVII.—Drawn games ot every description 
count for nothing. 

XVIII.—Neither player may leave a game 
unfinished, nor leave the room without the 
permission of his adversary. 

XIX. —Lookers-on are not permitted to 
speak, nor in any way express their appro¬ 
bation or disapprobation while a game is 
pending. 

XX. —In case a dispute should arise on 
any point not provided for by the laws, a 
third party must be appealed to, and his 
decision shall be final. 

Comparative Value of the Pieces. 

The Pawn is always accounted the lowest 
in value. Its importance, however, like that 
of all the other pieces, changes as the game 
progresses. Towards the end of a game its 
value is considerable. 

The Knight is of more value in the first 
attack than in the final struggle. It loses 
force as the game proceeds. In certain 
situations the Knight is of incomparable 
value. Its peculiar vaulting power gives it 
considerable importance in complicated posi¬ 
tions. Walker considers it of equal value 
with the Bishop. 

The Bishop. —Mr. Walker gives a list of 
the advantages which the Bishop and Knight 
possess over each other, and sums up by 
expressing it as his opinion, “ founded on 
practical experience, that the Bishop is 
superior to the Knight only in imagination ; 
and that the two pieces should be indiscrim¬ 
inately exchanged by the learner, as being of 
strictly equal value in cases of average 
position.” Most other authorities, however, 


39 



610 


INDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 


maintain that the Bishop is, upon the whole, 
slightly superior to the Knight. 

The Rook is reckoned to be about equiv¬ 
alent to a Bishop and two Pawns, or a Knight 
and two Pawns. It is seldom called into active 
play at the commencement of a game, but 
it gradually rises in importance, till towards 
the close it may almost be said to command 
the game. In actual play, it is probably 
oftener instrumental in giving checkmate 
than any other piece. With the King, a 
Rook can mate against a King—a power 
possessed by no piece besides the Queen. 

The Queen decreases in power as the 
game proceeds. Throughout, however, she 
holds by far the first position in value. 

The King, though seldom of much use 
for purposes of attack at the beginning, 
acquires considerable force as the game 
becomes narrowed. His power of moving 
in any direction, and attacking any piece 
besides the Queen, is often of great value. 

The plan of comparing, by means of fig¬ 
ures, pieces of which the value varies so 
considerably, is obviously somewhat imprac¬ 
ticable, and the estimate cannot in all cases 
be relied on. To the learner, however, it 
may be of some service in conveying to him 
a vague idea of their relative value. Sup¬ 
pose the Pawn to stand as I ; the value of 
the Knight may be estimated at rather more 
than 3 ; that of the Bishop rather less than 
4 ; that of the Rook at about 5 ; and that of 
the Queen at about jyi. 

BACKGAMMON. 

The game of Backgammon is allowed on all 
hands to be the most ingenious and elegant 
game next to chess. The word is Welch, and 
signifies littlebattle . The origin and antiquity 
of the game has been accordingly ascribed to 
the Cambro Britons, although it is claimed 
also by the French and Spaniards. 


This game is played with dice by two 
persons, on a table divided into two parts, 
upon which there are twenty-four black and 
white spaces, called points. 

Each player has fifteen men, black and 
white to distinguish them. If you play into 
the left-hand table, two of your men are 
placed upon the ace point in your adversary’s 
inner table ; five upon the sixth point in his 
outer table ; three upon the cinque point in 
your own outer table ; and five upon the 
sixth point in your own inner table, and the 
adversary’s men are to be placed so as to 
correspond with yours in a directly opposite 
position. 



The object of the game is to bring the 
men round to your own “ home,” or inner 
table; consequently, all throws of the dice 
that tend to this, and impede your adversary 
in executing the same design on his part, are 
in your favor. The first most advantageous 
throw is aces, as it blocks the sixth point in 
your outer table, and secures the cinque 
point in your inner table, so that your adver¬ 
sary s two men upon your ace point cannot 
escape with his throwing either quatre, 
cinque or six. Accordingly, this throw is 
often asked and given between players of 
unequal skill by way of odds, and is con¬ 
sidered only fair. 








































INDOOR AMUSEMENTS. 


611 


Hoyle’s Instructions. 

1. If you play three up, your principal ob¬ 
ject in the first place is either to secure your 
own or your adversary’s cinque point. When 
that is effected you may play a pushing game, 
and endeavor to gammon your opponent. 

2. The next best point (after you have 
gained your cinque point) is to make your 
bar-point, thereby preventing your adversary 
running away with two sixes. 

3. After you have proceeded thus far, 
prefer making the quatre point in your own 
table, rather than the quatre point out of it. 

4. Having gained these points, you have 
a fair chance to gammon your adversary if 
he be very forward. For suppose his table 
to be broken at home, it will be then your 
interest to open your bar-point, to oblige 
him to come out of your table with a six, 
and having your men spread, you not only 
may catch that man which your adversary 
brings out of your fable, but will also have 
a probability of taking up the man left in your 
table, upon the supposition that he had two 
men there. And if he should have a blot 
at home, it will be then your interest not to 
make up your table, because if he should 
enter upon a blot which you are to make for 
the purpose, you will have a probability of 
getting a third man, which, if accomplished, 
will give you at least four to one of the 
gammon ; whereas, if you have only two of 
his men up, the odds are that you do not 
gammon him. 

5. If you play for a hit only, one or two 
men taken up of your adversary’s makes it 
surer than a greater number, provided your 
table be made up. 

Techanical Terms. 

Backgammon. —The entire game won. 

Bar. —The division between the two sec¬ 
tions of the board. 


Bar-point.— The point adjoining the bar. 

Bearing your Men. —Removing them 
from the table after bringing them home. 

Blot. —A single man upon a point. 

Doublets. —Two dice bearing the same 
number of pits. 

Gammon.— To win a gammon is to win 
two out of the three points constituting the 
game. 

Hit.— To remove all your men before 
your adversary has done so. 

Home.— The inner table. 

Making Points. —Winning hits. 

To Enter.— To enter is to place a man 
again on the board after he has been ex¬ 
cluded on account of a point being already 
full. 

Laws of the Game. 

Hoyle appends the following laws of the 
game to his treatise : 

1. If you take a man or men from any 
point, that man or men must be played. 

2. You are not understood to have played 
any till it is placed upon a point and quitted. 

3. If you play with fourteen men only, 
there is no penalty attending it, because with 
a lesser number you play to disadvantage, 
by not having the additional man to make up 
your tables. 

4. If you bear any number of men before 
you have entered a man taken up, and which 
consequently you were obliged to enter, 
such men, so borne, must be entered again 
in your adversary’s tables, as well as the 
man taken up. 

5. If you have mistaken your throw, and 
played it, and your adversary have thrown, 
it is not in your or his choice to alter it, 
unless both parties agree. 

These laws of the game are simple and 
easily learned, and, moreover, Backgammon is 
one of the most diverting games for the home 
circle or an evening’s pleasant amusement 









I Comparative 

^ Face Reading . Physiognomy 



HE study of character and its 
indications is as old as human 
inquiry, and therefore the ten¬ 
dency of mind in this direction 
must arise from a special men¬ 
tal trait. The changing ex¬ 
pression of the face is every- 
wheie regarded as a mirror in which the pass¬ 
ing thought or present emotion can be seen. 

If one be long afflicted by grief or blessed 
by joy, wearied by trouble or vexed with 
care, shadowed with melancholy or excited 
by wit, inspired by faith or led by conscience, 
inflated by pride or subjected to its domina¬ 
tion, the emotions awakened by these different 
states and revealed in the face, may become 
so far fixed as to defy concealment. But 
let one’s circumstances be suddenly changed ; 
let grief be turned to joy, and trouble, care, 
and vexation will fade from the countenance > 
and leave scarcely a trace. 

Then there are expressions of face inherited 
from joyous or sorrowing parentage. In the 
same family one child absorbs the sunshine 
of its mother’s joy, and it glows from its face 
for a lifetime ; another, if circumstances have 
changed, will wear the tear marks, or the 
expression of bitterness that darkened the 
mother’s life; and no doubt the brain as 
well as the face will bear a similar and even 
more permanent record. 

The very attitudes and motions assume, 
by long habit, an expression of the inner 
life. One accustomed to the exercise of 
312 


authority gets a stiffer spine, a more ex¬ 
alted head, and firmer lines of the face, and 
th& brain confoi xiis in development and ac¬ 
tivity to the conditions that have become 
habitual. 

For centuries the face has been studied, 
and attempts have been made to reduce the 
face to a science with greater or less ap¬ 
proaches to success. People will study the 
face and its expression and be influenced by 
it without having any science or rules for it, 
or any means of explaining it. Yet their 
impressions will be correct. 

Likeness Between Men and Animals. 

It is interesting to note the very striking 
facial resemblance between men and some of 
the animals, as shown in the accompanying 
engravings. The animal world appears to 
have been created on one general plan, and 
types of face and features among the lower 
orders are constantly reproduced among the 
higher. 

Near the close of the last century the 
physiology of the brain became the subject 
of special investigation by an eminent phy¬ 
sician of Germany, Dr. Gall, and he claimed 
that he had discovered signs of character in 
the brain, that it can be safely studied as the 
basis of character, and that whatever the 
face 01 attitudes or motions may reveal, the 
impulse comes from the brain. His mode 
of investigation has acquired the name of 
Phrenology. 















COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY. 


613 





For nearly a hundred years the 
term Phrenology has been before the 
world, and has been understood to 
relate to the laws and activities of 
the human mind, and that in some 
way it is related to the brain as its 
organ. A few have studied Phre¬ 
nology and accepted it heartily ; 
others have made it a topic for con¬ 
tempt or ridicule, and, though thou¬ 
sands of the general public have little 
or no knowledge on the subject, other 
thousands have more or less informa¬ 
tion respecting it, and, so for as they under¬ 
stand it, they believe and accept it. 

A brief outline of the doctrines of Phre¬ 
nology may here be made : 


APE. APISH. 

First. The brain is the organ or instru¬ 
ment of the mind, just as the eye is the in¬ 
strument of sight. Every trait of character, 
every talent, propensity, or senti¬ 
ment has its organ. 

There is a general belief that 
somehow the intellect stands related 
to the brain, and when an injury to 
any part of that viscus occurs, the 
newspapers will say that the intel¬ 
lect was, or was not, affected by 
the injury. But a doubt exists 
whether the brain is also the seat 
of the feelings and the propensities. 


A STRIKING PAIR. 

To say that some injury of the brain 
did not affect the intellect, is about as defi¬ 
nite as it would be to say that a man was 
injured in the head, but that his eye-sight, 
or his smelling power, or his hearing 
was not affected, and therefore eye¬ 
sight and hearing do not necessarily 
belong to the head; but Phrenology 
teaches that every sentiment, every 
element of taste and aversion, of hope 
and fear, of love and hatred, as well 
as the intellectual faculties and mem¬ 
ory, have their special seats in some 
part of the brain. 

Second. The mind is not a single 
power, but has many faculties, some 
of which may be stronger or weaker than 
the others in the same person ; from which 
arises the great variety of character. 


PUSS, YOU REMIND ME OF 
































614 


COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY. 


Third. Each faculty or propensity of the 
mind has its special organ in the brain. 

Fourth. Size of brain, the quality being 
good, is the true measure of its power. The 



OWL. owlish. 

brain, when deficient in size or low in qual¬ 
ity or health, is always connected with a low 
degree of mental power. Even among the 
lower animals the brain is found to be large 
and complicated in proportion to the variety 
and strength of their faculties. 

Fifth. There are several groups of facul¬ 
ties, and each of these groups is represented 
by organs located together in the brain. 
The organs of the intellect are situated 
in the forehead in what are called the 
anterior lobes of the brain ; those of the 
social nature in the back head, or pos¬ 
terior lobes of the brain ; those of pas¬ 
sion, appetite, and self-preservation, in 
the side head, or middle lobes of the 
brain ; while those organs which mani¬ 
fest aspiration, pride, ambition, are in 
the crown of the head, and those of 
sentiment, sympathy, morality and re¬ 
ligion in the top head. 

Sixth. Each faculty of the mind, 
each sentiment and propensity, has its own 
organs, as each function of the body has its 
specific organ. If this were not so, each 
person would manifest the same amount of 


talent or power on all subjects, ouch as 
arithmetic, language, music, mechanism, the 
power of reasoning, love of property, cour¬ 
age, prudence or pride. Everybody knows 
that persons rarely ever show equal 
talent on all topics, and that a man 
may be a genius at one thing and find 
it impossible, by long training, to 
become even tolerably successful in 
other things. If the mind were a 
single power and the brain a single 
organ this would not be the case. 

The senses of seeing, hearing, tast¬ 
ing, smelling, are not always possessed 
by each person in an equal degree of 
perfection, these several powers being 
dependent on different organs, and 
each related to a special part of the brain ; 
so the mental faculties and dispositions are 
alike unequal in a given person, owing to 
the greater strength or weakness of their 
respective organs in the brain ; hence some 
people represent partial genius, others partial 
idiocy or partial insanity, and these facts are 
explained and sustained only by the phreno¬ 
logical theory of the mind. 



MARKED RESEMBLANCE. 

Seventh. The Quality and Temperament 
of the organization determine of the degree 
of vigor, activity and - Trance of the men¬ 
tal powers. 


































COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY, 


610 


Temperament is indicated by external 
•signs, including the build, complexion and 
texture. Men recognize different qualities 
in their judgment of horses, cattle and other 
stock, although they do not use the terms 
we apply to mankind. Men who deal in 
timber know that the quality of different 


mist as wide a range of quality may be 
found in the human race. Speed, activity, 
strength, endurance in birds and horses 
are recognized and understood. The trim, 
compact game-chicken that weighs five 
pounds finds little difficulty in vanquishing 
the clumsy, coarse and tall Shanghai or 



LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ORGANS AS FIXED BY PHRENOLOGISTS. 


kinds of wood has infinite variety; the 
spongy palmetto of the South, the soft tex¬ 
ture of the willow, or the coarse character 
of the hemlock in contrast with oak, hick¬ 
ory, ebony, lignum vitae, showing that con¬ 
trasts of temperament or quality in wood are 
various. 

To a critical phrenologist and physiogno- 


Chittagong that may turn the scales at four¬ 
teen pounds; and temperament is a term 
which, rightly understood, explains the rea¬ 
son of these peculiarities. 

A practical knowledge of Phrenology is 
considered by many persons of great assist¬ 
ance in deciding what occupation a young 
man or woman should follow.. 
































CURIOUS FACTS 


Things Not Generally Known 




■ o o • 

• ° • O • 

•O^'o. 
■ • • 


O 

■ O-*. O^. o 

• O -5^- O ^ O 


o ■ 
O ' 

O O • 



» 


LPS, THE.—These mountains comprise about 
iSo peaks, from 4,000 to 15,732 feet high, the 
latter being the height of Mont Blanc, the 
highest spot in Europe. The summit is a sharp 
ridge, like the roof of a house, consisting of nearly 
vertical granite rocks. The ascent of these awful 
solitudes is most perilous, owing to the narrow paths, 
tremendous ravines, icy barriers, precipices, etc. 

In many places every step has to be cut in the 
ice, the party being tied to each other by ropes, so 
that if one slips he may be held up by the rest, and 
silence is enforced, lest the noise of talking should 
dislodge the avalanches of the Aiguille du Midi. 
The view from the mountain is inexpressibly grand. 

On the Alps, the limit of the vine is an elevation 
of 1,600 feet; below 1,000 feet, figs, oranges and 
olives are produced. The limit of the oak is 3,800 
feet, of the chestnut 2,800 feet, of the pine 6,500 feet, 
of heaths and furze to 8,700 and 9,700 feet, and per¬ 
petual snow exists at an elevation of 8,20c feet. 

Aucohou—Who Drinks It?—I t has been the 
endeavor of the census-takers, in 1890, to obtain, as 
far as possible, such facts as relate to the use of 
alcohol as a beverage . It appears that alcohol, 
as such (in some cases diluted with water, but with¬ 
out any coloring or extraneous flavoring), is used by 
a certain foreign element of our population. It is 
drunk to a great extent by Poles, Norwegians, 
Swedes, Finns, Hungarians and Fussians. The 
quantity thus consumed is larger than is generally 
supposed. 

Inquiry of some of the large houses in the North¬ 
west, familiar with this particular trade, elicits the 
information that fully one-half of the alcohol sold in 
that section is drunk, it being the favorite beverage 
of these foreign races. It is estimated, by competent 
authority, that about fifteen barrels of alcohol are 
daily consumed for that purpose in New York city 
alone. A considerable amount is consumed by the 
same element in the coal regions of Pennsylvania, 
and undoubtedly in other localities. 

Body, Th£ Human. —The average height of a 
newly-born infant is 18 inches ; average weight, 6.77 

616 


lbs. The average weight of the newly-born male- 
child is 7I lbs., of the female child 6} lbs. It takes. 
3 years for the child to grow the second 18 inches, 
so as to be 3 feet high. 

Average weight of adult male, 145 lbs. ; height, 5. 
ft. 7 inches ; chest measurement of male, 36 inches ; 
drawing strength between hands, 75 lbs. 

The skeleton is one inch shorter than the measure¬ 
ment of the living person—skeleton weighs about 14 
ibs.—there are 240 bones. The body contains about 
12 lbs. of blood ; about 6^3 ozs. pass through the 
heart in each beat, and in adults from 65 to 75 beats 
occur per minute. All this passes through the lungs 
and is revivified by the oxygen of the air—as bright 
red blood goes by the subdivision of the arteries to 
every minutest portion of the body, and returns laden 
with impurities as dark venous blood through the 
veins to the heart again. 

The heart is a little larger than the fist, and weighs 
about 9 to 11 ozs. 

The adult male brain weighs 49 to 50 ozs., female 
44 to 45 ozs. ; the nerves of motion and sensation 
from every portion of the body end in the brain and 
spinal cord. 

The lungs consist of about 174 million sacs or cells 
at the end of minute tubes that unite to form larger 
tubes, and these form the two bronchial tubes, and 
these unite in the windpipe, opening into the mouth 
and nose. At each breath the lungs are filled with 
air, the purpose of which is to oxygenate the blood. 
The blood absorbs about 30 ozs. of oxygen per day 
sufficient to consume in the tissues of the body the 
carbon from about 3 lbs. of bread. The utmost 
amount of air expirable at one breath is calculated 
at 200 to 250 cubic inches. 

The stomach lies beneath the lungs, near the 
centre of the body, and is a sac of a capacity of about 
a pint (without distension), in which the food is 
changed by the digestive juices and ferments. 

The liver, to the right, and beneath the stomach, 
weighs 50 to 60 ozs. ; it changes the starch of foods 
to sugar, secretes bile, and otherwise aids in digestion. 

Spleen, to left of stomach, about the size of fist* 
weighs 5 to 7 ozs.; functions undetermined. 




CURIOUS FACTS 


617 


The intestines, about 34 feet in length ; the diges¬ 
tion of the food and the absorption of its nutrient 
qualities into the lacteals and the blood is completed 
in the intestines. 

The two kidneys weigh each about 4^ ozs.; about 
1,000 ozs. of blood passes through them in an hour, 
and by them the waste fluid portions of the food 
not useful to the blood are strained out. The waste 
fluids of the body are also exuded through the pores 
of the skin. The area of the surface of the body is 
about 2,500 square inches, it contains about 7,000,000 
pores, each about } of an inch long, or a total length 
of nearly 28 miles of pores. 

The secretions of the bod^, saliva, gastric juice, 
chyle, bile etc., which are absorbed from the blood 
and reabsorbed by it in twenty-four hours, amount 
to 25 lbs. Adults require eight or nine hours’ 
sleep. 

Caused over the Coaes. —Originally “hauled 
over the coals,” derived from the ordeal by fire in 
early days, one form of which consisted in making 
the accused walk over burning coals. This method 
of persuasion was often employed to get money from 
Jews by the kings and barons of early centuries. 

Cities, Fictitious Names oe. —Aberdeen, Scot¬ 
land, Granite City. 

Alexandria, Bgypt, Delta City. 

Alton, Ill., Tusselburgh. 

Akron, O., Summit City. 

Baltimore, Md., Monumental City. 

Birmingham, O., Bran Town. 

Boston, Mass., Puritan City; Modern Athens; 
Hub of the Universe ; City of Notions ; Athens of 
America ; The Hub. 

Brooklyn, N. Y., City of Churches. 

Buffalo, N. Y., Queen City of the Takes. 

Cairo, City of Victory. 

Cincinnati, O., Queen City; Porkopolis; Queen 
of the West ; Paris of America. 

Chicago, Ill., Garden City. 

Cleveland, Forest City. 

Dayton, O., Gem City of Ohio. 

Detroit, Mich., City of the Straits. 

Duluth, Minn., Zenith City. 

Edinburgh, Scotland, Maiden Town ; Northern 
Athens ; Modern Athens ; Athens of the North. 
Gibraltar, Key to the Mediterranean. 

Hannibal, Mo., Bluff City. 

Havana, Cuba, Pearl of the Antilles. 

Holyoke, Mass., Paper City. 

Indianapolis, Ind., Railroad City. 

Jerusalem, Palestine, City of Peace ; City of the 
Great King. 

Kansas City, Mo., Mushroomopolis. 

' Keokuk, la., Gate City. 


Uafayette, Ind., Star City. 

Limerick, Ireland, City of the Violated Treaty. 

Lowell, Mass., City of Spindles ; Manchester of 
America. 

London, England, City of Masts; Modern Babylon. 

Louisville, Ky., Falls City. 

Madison, Wis., Lake City. 

Milan, Italy, Little Paris. 

Milwaukee, Wis., Cream City. 

Minneapolis, Minn., City of Flour. 

Nashville, Tenn., City of Rocks. 

New Haven, Conn., City of Elms. 

New Orleans, La., Crescent City. 

New York, Gotham ; Empire City ; Metropolitan 
City. 

Pekin, Ill., Celestial City. 

Philadelphia, Pa., Quaker City ; City of Brotherly 
Love; City of Homes. 

Pittsburg, Pa., Iron City ; Smoky City ; Birming¬ 
ham of America. 

Portland, Me., Forest City. 

Paterson, N. Y., Lyons of America. 

Peoria, Ill., Whisky Town. 

Quebec, Canada, Gibraltar of America. 

Quincy, Ill., Gem City. 

Racine, Wis., Belle City. 

Rome, Italy, Eternal City ; Nameless City ; Queen 
of Cities ; Seven-Hilled City ; Mistress of the World. 

Rochester, N. Y., Flour City. 

St. Louis, Mo., Mound City. 

St. Paul, Minn., Gem City. 

San Francisco, Cal., Golden City. 

Salem, Mass., City of Peace. 

Salt Lake City, City of the Saints. 

Springfield, Ill., Flower City. 

Streator, Ill., City of the Woods. 

Toledo, O., Corn City. 

Venice, Italy, Bride of the Sea. 

Washington, D. C., City of Magnificent Distances. 

Winnipeg, Manitoba, Gate City of the Northwest. 

Dixie. —An imaginary place, somewheie i.i the 
Southern States of America, celebrated in a popular 
negro melody as a perfect paradise of luxurious ease 
and enjoyment. The term is often used as a collec¬ 
tive designation of the Southern States. 

Earth’s Centre.— All bodies weigh less the fur¬ 
ther removed they are from the centre of the earth. 

A block of stone weighing 700 pounds upon the sea¬ 
shore, will weigh only 699 pounds if carried up a 
mountain three miles high. A pendulum oscillates 
more quickly at the poles than at the equator, 
because the earth is flatter by twenty-six miles at the 
poles—that is, the “ bob ” of the pendulum is that 
much nearer the earth’s center, and therefore heavier* 
and so swings more quickly. 





618 


CURIOUS FACTS. 


Ely Dorado ( Spanish , the golden land .)—A name 
given by the Spaniards to an imaginary country, 
supposed, in the sixteenth century, to be situated in 
the interior of South America, between the rivers 
Orinoco and Amazon, and to abound in gold and all 
manner of precious stones. Expeditions were fitted 
out for the purpose of discovering this fabulous 
region ; and, though all such attempts proved abor¬ 
tive, the rumors of its existence continued to be 
believed down to the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. 

“Flying Dutchman.” —The name given by 
sailors to a spectral ship, which is supposed to 
cruise in storms off the Cape of Good Hope, and the 
sight of which is considered the worst of all possible 
omens. She is distinguished from earthly vessels 
by bearing a press of sail when all others are unable, 
from stress of weather, to show an inch of canvas. 
The cause of her wanderings is variously explained. 
According to one account, a Dutch captain, bound 
home from the Indies, met with long continued 
head-winds and heavy weather off the Cape of Good 
Hope, and refused to put back, as he was advised to 
do, swearing a very profane oath that he would 
beat round the cape if he had to beat there until the 
day of Judgment. He was taken at his word, and 
doomed to beat against head-winds all his days. His 
sails are believed to have become thin and sere, his 
ship-sides white with age, and himself and crew 
reduced almost to shadows. He cannot heave to or 
lower a boat, but sometimes hails vessels through 
his trumpet, and requests them to take letters home 
for him. The superstitution has its origin, probably, 
in the looming, or apparent suspension in the air, 
of some ship out of sight—a phenomenon sometimes 
witnessed at sea, and caused by unequal refraction in 
the lower strata of the atmosphere. 

“ Golden AGE ” and “ Iron Age.”—T he Eliza¬ 
bethan was the Golden Age of England, the Vic¬ 
torian is the Iron Age , the Silver Age was the reign 
of Queen Anne. The first named period was noted 
for giants of literature, simplicity of manners, integ¬ 
rity of conduct, honesty of intention, and domestic 
virtues. The second is an age of commerce and 
hard matter-of-fact. The third was noted for elegant 
refinement, delicacy of speech, luxurious living, 
politeness, and artificial manners. 

‘‘Go TO Haeifax.” —Halifax law was, that the 
criminal should be “condemned first, and inquired 
upon after. ’ ’ Halifax also has the credit of inventing 
the rude guillotine of Maunaye, and easily became 
a place of terror to rogues. In the United States it 
is now used as a coarse expletive, Halifax, i. e., Hell. 

Hobson’s Choice. —Tobias Hobson was the first 
in England who let out hackney horses. To each 


who applied, Hobson obliged him to take the horse 
which stood nearest the stable-door, hence the 
modern “Hobson’s choice,” meaning practically 
none. “Neck or nothing” commonly added was 
probably “ Next or nothing.” 

John Buee. —This nickname is derived from the 
satire of Dr. Arbuthnot, representing the English¬ 
man under that name as a bluff, kind-hearted and 
bull-headed farmer. In the minds of some it is asso¬ 
ciated with Dr. John Bull, organist to Queen Eliza¬ 
beth, and a celebrated musician. 

“Kick The Bucket.” —This term, meaning to 
die, alludes to the way in which a slaughtered pig is 
held up. The ends of a bent piece of wood, tech¬ 
nically called a “bucket,” are fastened behind the 
tendons of the hind legs in order to suspend the car¬ 
cass. It has sometimes been said to have originated 
from a method of committing suicide by standing on 
a bucket, adjusting the noose and then kicking the 
bucket away. 

Liberty Beee. —The order for the bell was given 
in 1751. The State House of Pennsylvania, in 
Philadelphia, work on which had been suspended 
for a number of years, was then approaching com- 



THE OLD LIBERTY BELL. 


pletion. J he lower floors were already occupied by 
the Supreme Court in the chamber, while in the 
other assembled the Freemen of the Province of 
Pennsylvania, then consisting of one body. A com¬ 
mittee was appointed by the Freemen, with Peter 
Norris as chairman, and empowered to have a new 
bed cast for the building. The commission for the 
































CURIOUS FACTS. 


619 


bell wrs in the same year awarded to Robert Charles, 
of London, the specification being that the bell should 
weigh about 2000 pounds and cost £ 100 sterling. 

It was to be made by the best workmen, to be 
examined carefully before being shipped, and to 
contain, in well-shaped letters around it, the inscrip¬ 
tion : “ By order of the Province of Pennsylvania, 
for the State House in the City of Philadelphia, 
1752.” An order was given to place underneath this 
the fatal and prophetic words from Leviticus xxv. 
to : “ Proclaim liberty throughout all the land, unto 
all the inhabitants thereof.” 


undertook to recast the bell, which, on being 
opened, revealed a bell which pleased very much. 
But it was also found to be defective. The original 
bell was considered too high, and a quantity of 
copper was added to the composition, but too much 
copper was added. There were a great many witti¬ 
cisms on account of the second failure, and the 
ingenious workmen undertook to recast the bell, 
which they successfully did, and it was placed in 
position in June, 1753. 

On Monday, the 8th of July (not the 4th), at 
noon, true to its motto, it rang out the memorable 



THE LAYMAN BOAT USED IN DUCK SHOOTING. 


The reason for the selection of this text has been a 
subject of much conjecture, but the true reason is 
apparent when the full text is read. It is as follows : 
“ And ye shall hallow the fiftieth year and proclaim 
liberty throughout the land and to all the inhabitants 
thereof.” In selecting the text the good Quakers 
had in memory the arrival of William Penn and their 
forefathers more than half a century before. 

In August, 1752, the bell arrived, but though in 
apparent good order, it was cracked by a stroke of 
the clapper while being tested. It could not be sent 
back, as the captain of the vessel who had brought 
it over could not take it on board. Two skillful men 


message of ‘‘Liberty throughout the land and to all 
the inhabitants thereof.” 

For fifty years the bell continued to be rung on 
every festival and anniversary until it eventually 
cracked. This happened in July, 1S35, when it was 
tolling for the death of Chief Justice John Marshall. 

An ineffectual attempt was made to cause it to con¬ 
tinue serviceable by enlarging the cause of its dis 
sonance and chipping the edges. It was remove 
from its position in the tower to a lower story, an 
only used on occasions of public sorrow, such as tlu 
death of ex-Presider.ts and statesmen. Subsequently 
it was placed on the original timbers in the vestibule 





















































620 


CURIOUS FACTS. 


of the State House, and in 1873 it was suspended in 
a prominent position immediately beneath where a 
larger bell presented to the city in 1866 now pro¬ 
claims the passing hours. 

Man in The Moon.—A name popularly given to 
the dark lines and spots upon the surface of the 
moon, which are visible to the naked eye, and -which, 
when examined with a good telescope, are discov¬ 
ered to be the shadows of lunar mountains. It is 
one of the most popular, and perhaps one of the 
most ancient superstitions in the world, that these 
lines and spots are the figure of a man leaning on a 
fork, on which he carries a bundle of thorns or 
brushwood, for stealing while on a Sunday he was 
confined in the moon. The account given in Num¬ 
bers xv. 32 of a man who was stoned to death for 


gathering sticks upon the Sabbath-day, is undoubt¬ 
edly the origin of this belief. 

Monroe Doctrine.— In 1822, during the Presi¬ 
dency of Janies Monroe, the Spanish-American 
colonies having fought their w’ay to independence as 
against Spain, they were recognized as an indepen¬ 
dent power by the United States. In his annual 
message to Congress in 1823, the President pro¬ 
claimed the celebrated doctrine of non-interference, 
as follows : “That as a principle the American con¬ 
tinents, by the free and independent position which 
they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth 
not to be considered as subjects of future coloniza¬ 
tion by any European power.” This doctrine is 
attributed to Adams, who was Secretary of State 
under Monroe. 



Pi}eim)atic Sporting goat 


fix* out on page 619 will give you a very good 
idea of its general construction. The upper or 
floating surface is divided into four compart¬ 
ments, separately inflated, any one of which will sus¬ 
tain one in the water, and so constructed that it can 
be neither capsized nor sunk under any reasonable 


conditions. It combines all the essential features of 
a perfect boat, being light, weighing but 18 pounds, 
conveniently carried, comfortable, impervious to air 
and water, and not liable to puncture. 

flie boat is provided with loops, carrying straps 
and rings inside and outside for all conveniences and. 



































































CURIOUS FACTS. 


621 


■emergencies. In the loops around the outer edges 
wild rice or any other marine grain or plant may be 
placed so as to form a complete blind which will 
enable the sportsman to float down to a flock of 
ducks without his presence even being suspected. 
For this purpose there is a blind, mounted on net¬ 
ting, with supports so arranged as to fit perfectly in 
the loops of boat, made in two sections which com¬ 
pletely envelop the boat, and these roll, when not in 
use, into a very small compass. 

The air compartments are quickly and easily 
inflated, either by the lungs or, better and quicker, 
with any of the pumps listed. The total weight of 
boat is from 18 to 20 pounds, and when inflated 
occupies a space of 45 inches long by 32 inches in 
width. When deflated it folds into a very small 
space, about 16 x 20 inches, and can be conve¬ 
niently carried under the seat of a buggy or wagon, 
in a boat, or carried safely packed in a trunk with 
other traps. 


These pneumatic boats are more comfortable to 
sit in than any small boat in use ; the position is 
that of sitting, the legs going into the boots from the 
knee down ; this brings the entire weight on the 
under side and below the floating compartments, 
greatly increasing their stability and rendering them 
absolutely non-capsizable. 

In the use of this boat you have no oars to contend 
with ; there is no splash of the waters, leaves no 
wake, is entirely noiseless in its movements and 
gives perfect freedom to arms and body. The boots 
are sufficiently large to go over any shoe. 

The boats have been practically tested under all 
possible conditions, in lakes, rivers and the open 
sea, and have been found safe in all waters and in 
all sorts of weather. They have proved themselves 
equal to all emergencies. Under ordinary conditions, 
two or three miles per hour can be comfortably 
covered. It is available for every purpose for which 
one goes into the water. 


HoW 0^ r Presidents Died 


FORGE WASHINGTON died from a cold, 
which brought on laryngitis ; buried on his 
estate at Mount Vernon, Va. 

2. John Adams died from senile debility; buried 
at Quincy, Mass. 

3. Thomas Jefferson died of chronic diarrhoea ; 
buried on his estate at Monticello, Va. 

4. James Madison died of old age ; buried on his 
estate at Montpelier, Vt. 

5. James Monroe died of general debility ; buried 
in Marble Cemetery, New York city. 

6. John Quincy Adams died of paralysis, the fatal 
attack overtaking him in the House of Representa¬ 
tives ; buried at Quincy, Mass. 

7. Andrew Jackson died of consumption and 
dropsy ; buried on his estate, the Hermitage, near 
Nashville, Tenn. 

8. Martin Van Buren died of catarrh of the throat 
and lungs ; buried at Kinderhook, N. Y. 

9. William Henry Harrison died of pleurisy, 
induced by a cold taken on the day of his inaugura¬ 
tion ; buried near North Bend, Ohio. 

10. John Tyler died of a mysterious disorder like 
a bilious attack ; buried at Richmond, Va. 


11. James K. Polk died from weakness, caused by 
cholera ; buried on his estate at Nashville, Tenn. 

12. Zachary Taylor died from cholera morbus, in¬ 
duced by improper diet ; buried on his estate near 
Louisville, Ky. 

13. Millard Filmore died from paralysis ; buried in 
Forest Hill Cemetery, Buffalo, N. Y. 

14. Franklin Pierce died from inflammation of the 
stomach ; buried at Concord, N. H. 

15. James Buchanan died of rheumatism and gout; 
buried near Lancaster, Pa. 

16. Abraham Lincoln, assassinated by J. Wilkes 
Booth ; buried at Springfield, Ill. 

17. Andrew Johnson died from paralysis ; buried 
at Greenville, Tenn. 

iS. Ulysses S. Grant died from cancer of the 
throat ; buried at Riverside Park, New York city. 

19. Rutherford B. Hayes died from paralysis of the 
heart ; buried at Fremont, O. 

20. Janies A. Garfield died from the bullet of an 
assassin, Charles Guiteau ; buried at Mentor, O. 

21. Chester A. Arthur died from Bright’s disease 5 
buried at Rural Cemetery, Albany. X L Y. 



T'I?e Silver Qtiestioi] 


f N all civilized countries either gold or silver has 
been adopted as the standard of monetary value. 
The following is a list of the most important 
countries in the world, divided into three groups, 
those using (1) a gold standard, (2) a silver stand¬ 


ard, (3) a double or variable standard. Of these 
last it may be said that the term “variable ” is pre¬ 
ferable to that of “double,” inasmuch as the double 
standard never exists at one and the same time, gold 
or silver becoming alternately the standard, as the 







622 


CURIOUS FACTS. 


state of the exchanges makes the one or the other 
the more desirable as the practical medium of 
exchange. Its weight is a chief objection to the use 
of silver in business transactions. Silver has long 
been a matter of discussion, both in Congress and 
out, and party lines are to some extent drawn, 
according to views on this subject. 


Gold Standard. 


Australia. 

Brazil. 

British Colonies in Africa 
British N. America. 
Denmark. 

Egypt. 

German Empire. 


Great Britain and Ireland. 
Liberia. 

New Zealand. 

Norway. 

Portugal. 

Sweden. 

Turkey. 


Silver Standard. 


Australia. 

Hungary. 

Bolivia. 

India. 

China. 

Japan. 

Cochin China. 

Mexico. 

Colombia. 

Peru. 

Ecuador. 

Russia. 

E. Indian Isles. 

Tripoli. 

Double or Variable 

Standard. 

Argentine Republic. 

Italy. 

Belgium. 

Netherlands. 

Chili. 

Roumania. 

Cuba. 

Spain. 

France. 

Switzerland. 

Greece. 

Venezuela. 

Hayti. 

United States. 


States ai]d territories—Sljeir Fictitious farcies 


Alabama (Ala.).—The name is of Indian origin, 
signifying “ Here we rest.” 

Arizona Ter. (Ariz.)—An Indian word, meaning 
“sand hills.” 

Arkansas (Ark.).—French and Indian words, 
signifying “ Bow of Smoky Waters.” The fictitious 
name of the State is “ Bear State,” from the number 
of these animals formerly found there. 

California (Cal.).—From Spanish words, mean¬ 
ing “hot furnace.” The fictitious name is “The 
Golden State.” 

Colorado (Colo.).—Spanish word, meaning “col¬ 
ored.” 

Connecticut (Conn.).—An Indian name, signify¬ 
ing “ The Long River.” The nicknames are “ Free¬ 
stone State,” “ Nutmeg State,” and “ Land of Steady 
Habits.” 

Dakota (Dak.).—Indian word, meaning “allied.” 

Delaware (Del.).—Named in honor of Lord De 
La War. It is called “The Diamond State,” from 
its small size and its intrinsic worth ; also “ Blue Hen 
State.” 

Florida (Fla.).—From the Spanish, meaning 
“ flowery ; ” so called from the abundance of flowers, 
and the day (Easter Sunday) upon which it was dis¬ 
covered. From its shape it is sometimes called 
“ The Peninsular State.” 

Georgia (Ga.).—Named in honor of King George 
II. of England. The nickname is the “Empire 
State of the South.” 

Illinois (Ill.).—An Indian word, signifying 
“ Tribe of Men.” The sobriquet is “ Prairie State ; ” 
also, “Sucker State.” 


Indiana (Ind.).—So called from the Indians. 
The original meaning of the word India is “ river.” 
The nickname is “The Hoosier State.” 

Iowa (la.).—An Indian word, meaning “The 
Sleepy Ones.” The fictitious name is “ The Hawk- 
eye State.” 

Kansas (Kan.).—Indian word, signifying “ Smoky 
Water.” The sobriquet is “ Garden of the West.” 

Kentucky (Ky.).—Indian name signifying “The 
Dark and Bloody Ground.” The nickname is “ The 
Corn-Cracker State.” 

Louisiana (La.).—Named in honor of King Louis 
XIV. of France. The sobriquet is “The Creole 
State.” 

Maine (Me.).—So called from Maine in France. 
The fictitious name is “The Pine Tree State.” 

Maryland (Md.).—Named in honor of Queen 
Henrietta Maria, of England. 

Massachusetts (Mass.).— An Indian name, sig¬ 
nifying “ Blue Hills.” The fanciful name is “ The 
Bay State.” 

Michigan (Mich.).—Indian word, meaning “The 
Lake Country. ” It is nicknamed ‘ ‘ The Lake State; ’ ’ 
also, “ The Wolverine State.” 

Minnesota (Minn.).—From Indian words mean¬ 
ing “Cloudy Water.” It is called “The Gopher 
State.” 

Mississippi (Miss.).—Indian word for “Father of 
Waters.” It is nicknamed “The Bayou State.” 

Missouri (Mo.). —Indian word, meaning “ Muddy 
Water.” The Missourians are called “ Pukes.” 

Nebraska (Neb,).—An Indian word, meaning 
“ Shallow River.” 







CURIOUS FACTS. 


623 


Nevada (Nev.).—A Spanish word, signifying 
“Snow-clad.” The fictitious name is “The Sage 
Hen State.” 

New Hampshire (N. H.).—Named from Hamp¬ 
shire county, Eng. The sobriquet is “The Granite 
State.” 

New Jersey (N. J.).—Named for the Isle of Jer¬ 
sey. The sobriquet is “ The Jersey Blue.” 

New Mexico Ter. (N. M.).—Spanish. Named 
from the country of Mexico, meaning “ The Place of 
Aztec, God of War.” 

New York (N. Y.).—Named in honor of the 
Duke of York and Albany. It is called “ The Excel¬ 
sior State ” and “The Empire State.” 

North Carolina (N. C.).— Named, with South 
Carolina, in honor of Charles II. of England. The 
fictitious names are “ The Old North State,” “ The 
Tar State” and “The Turpentine State.” 

Ohio. —An Indian word, signifying “ Beautiful.” 
It is nicknamed “ The Buckeye State.” 

Oregon (Ore.).—Signifies “River of the West.” 

Pennsylvania (Pa.).—“Penn’s woodland” is 
the signification. The sobriquet is “ The Keystone 
State.” 

Rhode Island (R. I.).—Named from the Isle of 
Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. Rhodes signifies a 
“ rose.” It is nicknamed “ Little Rhody.” 


South Carolina (S. C.). —Named in the same 
manner as North Carolina, which see. The sobri¬ 
quet is “ The Palmetto State.” 

Tennessee (Tenn.).—Derived from Indian words 
signifying “River of the Eig Bend.” It is nick¬ 
named “The Big Bend State.” 

Texas (Tex.).—Spanish; it is said to signify 
“Friends.” It is nicknamed “The Lone Star 
State.” 

Utah (Utah).—Named from the Utes, or Utah 
Indians. 

Vermont (Vt.).—From the French, signifying 
“Green Mountain.” It is called “The Green 
Mountain State.” 

Virginia (Va.).—Named for Elizabeth, Queen of 
England—the “Virgin Queen.” It is nicknamed 
“ The Mother of States,” also “The Old Dominion.” 

Washington (W.).—Named for President Wash¬ 
ington. 

West Virginia (W. Va.).—It is nicknamed the 
“ Panhandle State.” 

Wisconsin (Wis.).—Named from its principal 
river, and that from the French, meaning “ flowing 
westward.’' The fictitious name is “The Badger 
State.” 

Wyoming (Wyo.).—An Indian term, meaning 
“ large plains.” 


Stock grokers’ ^ecljuicalities 


A Bull is one who operates to depress the value 
of stocks, that he may buy for a rise. 

A Bear is one who sells stocks for future delivery, 
which he does not own at the time of sale. 

A Corner is when the Bears cannot buy or bor¬ 
row the stock to deliver in fulfillment of their con¬ 
tracts. 

Overloaded is when the Bulls cannot take and 
pay for the stock they have purchased. 

Short is when a person or party sells stocks when 
they have none, and expect to buy or borrow in time 
to deliver. 


Long is when a person or party has a plentiful 
! supply of stocks. 

A Pool or Ring is a combination formed to con¬ 
trol prices. 

A broker is said to carry stocks for his customer 
when he has bought and is holding it for his account. 

A Wash is a pretended sale by special agreement 
between buyer and seller, for the purpose of getting 
a quotation reported. 

A PUT and Call is when a person gives so much 
per cent, for the option of buying or selling so much 
stock on a certain day, at a price fixed the day the 
I option is given. 


Uflele San) 


^^HIS is the popular title for the provisions for 
\£) the United States. In the year 1812, a large 
quantity of provisions for the army was pur¬ 
chased at Troy, N. Y., by Elbert Anderson, a gov¬ 
ernment contractor. The goods were inspected by 
two brothers, Ebenezer and Samuel Wilson. The 
last-named was invariably known among the work¬ 


men as “Uncle Sam.” The packages were marked 
L. a.—U. S. On being asked the meaning of these 
initials, a workman jokingly replied that he did not 
know unless they meant Elbert Anderson and 
Uncle Sam. So the title became current among 
workmen, soldiers and people, and the United States. 
Government is known as Uncle Sam. 







mpi 



m 


Ha 

1 



a 


m 


BUSINESS 
TERMS AND RULES 






Abandonment. —Relinquishing to underwriters prop¬ 
erty saved from shipwrecks. 

Abatement. —Discount; sum allowed on payment of 
money before due. 

Acceptance. —A receiving so as to bind the agreement 
to pay a bill or draft. 

Accommodation Paper. —The loan of commercial 
paper or credit. 

Accrued. —Interest or increase due and unpaid. 

Account. —A statement ; an arrangement of debits 
and credits in relation to any person or thing ; a 
record of business transactions. 

Account Sales. —A statement of the product arising 
from the sale of goods received bv a. merchant 
from another party, and sold for his benefit, 
together with the costs and charges incurred in 
making such sale. 

Accountant. —One who is skilled in accounts. 

Actuary. —A clerk of certain courts and insurance 
offices ; one skilled in annuities ; an acting 
officer. 

Administrator. —One who manages an intestate 
estate. 

Adjustment. —Settlement of a difference between two 
parties. 

Ad valorem. —According to value. 

Advance. —Additional price, stock above par. 

Advances. —Sums of money paid by a merchant upon 
goods lodged in his hands for sale at future time. 
This term also covers money loaned by bankers 
on bills of lading. 

Affidavit. —A declaration under oath made in 
writing. 

Agent. —A person who acts for another ; a deputy. 

Adulteration. —Mixing a spurious with a genuine 
article. 

Allowance. —Abatement, a deduction made for 
various reasons. 

Ambassador. —An envoy of the highest rank sent to 
a foreign government. 

Appraise. —To estimate the value of goods or 
property. 

Appurtenance .—That which appertains or belongs to 
something else. 

Arbitration .—The referring of a controversy to 
persons chosen by the parties to decide it. 

624 


Arrear. —That which is behind in payment. 

Assay. —To determine the amount of a particular 
metal in an ore or metalic compound. 

Assess. —To tax, or value for the purpose of taxing. 

Assets. —Resources, property in possession or money 
due. 

Assignee. —One to whom something is assigned, one 
who receives property to dispose of for the 
benefit of creditors. 

Assignor. —One who makes a transfer to another. 

Assignment. —The transfer of property to assignees. 

Assume. —To take on one’s self or become liable for 
the debts of another. 

Attachment. —A writ or warrant for the purpose. 

Attest. —To call to witness or give official testimony 
required in solemn instruments. 

Attorney ( Power of). —A document by which a 
person authorizes another to act in his stead. 

Auditor. —A person authorized to examine and 
adjust accounts. 

Award. —The decision of arbitrators in a disputed 
transaction. 

Bail. —Surety for another; giving security foi 
appearance on trial. 

Bailee. —One to whom goods are delivered in trust 

Bankrupt. —A person who, by reason of inability to 
meet his obligations, surrenders his property to 
his creditors and seeks the relief allowed him by 
law. At present there is no general law upon 
this subject, the laws of the several States regu¬ 
lating it. 

Bill of Exchange. —An order drawn by a creditor 
upon his debtor demanding of him payment of a 
specified sum of money at a designated time. 
The acceptance of such a bill renders it a bind¬ 
ing obligation upon the person upon whom it 
is drawn. 

Bill of Lading. —A printed receipt given by the mas¬ 
ter of a vessel, or the agent of a transportation com- 
pany, for freight shipped by sucli vessel or com¬ 
pany. Upon the presentation of a bill of lading 
at the point of destination, the carrier must de¬ 
in er the freight to the person presenting the bill. 

Bills Discounted. —Promissory notes, acceptances, 
or bills of exchange discounted for the accom¬ 
modation of an indorser by bankers. 




































































































































































































































































































































































BUSINESS TERMS AND RULES. 


625 


Bills Payaoie. —Promissory notes or drafts held by a 
merchant against others for future payment. 

Bills Receivable. —Promissory notes or drafts due to 
a merchant by others. 

Bill of Rights. —A bill permitting an importer to 
examine his goods at the custom-house. 

Bullion. —Uncoined gold or silver, including gold 
dust, ingots or bars. 

Call Loan. —Money loaned by a banker or other 
person, secured by the deposit of stocks, bonds, 
or other marketable securities, to be repaid when 
called for. 

Capital. —Money or property invested in business. 

Carat. —Weight showing the degree of fineness of 
gold. 

Carte blanche. —Signature of an individual or indi¬ 
viduals on blank paper with space above to write 
a note ; full power. 

Chancellor. —A judge of a court of chancery or 
equity. 

Charter. —A formal writing conferring title, right or 
privileges. 

Charter-party. —A contract by which the whole or 
part of a vessel is let ' a merchant or other 
person for the conveyance of goods on a par¬ 
ticular voyage. 

Check. —An order upon a bank, or banker, to pay on 
demand to the person named in the check, or to 
his order, the sum of money specified in the 
body of the check in writing. 

Choses in action. —Things of which the owner has 
not the possession, but merely the right of 
action for the possession, as notes, accounts, etc. 

Choses in possession. —Things of which one has pos¬ 
session. 

Clearance. —Certificate from the custom authorities 
permitting a vessel to leave port. 

Clearing. —Act of leaving. 

Clearing-house. —Place where banks exchange checks 
or drafts and settle their differences. 

Closed Policy. —A policy in which the amount 
insured is definitely stated. 

C. O. D. —Collect on Delivery. Goods sent by 
express marked in this way must be accom¬ 
panied by the bill for them. This bill is col¬ 
lected and receipted by the messenger of the 
express company before delivering the goods. 

Codicil. —A supplement to a will. 

Collaterals. —A term used to designate stocks, bonds, 
or other securities deposited to secure the pay¬ 
ment of loans. 

Commission. —The percentage for buying or selling 
goods or stocks. 

Common law. —In Great Britain and the United 
States the unwritten law that receives its binding 

40 


force from immemorial usage; in distinction 
from written or statute law. 

Compact. —An agreement by which the parties are 
firmly bound together. 

Compound. —To settle on terms different from the 
original agreement. 

Compromise. —An amicable adjustment by mutual 
concession. 

Common Carrier. —One who makes it a business to 
transport goods; railroad companies are com¬ 
mon carriers. 

Consignee. —The person to whom goods are sent or 
consigned. 

Consignment. —Goods consigned or trusted to an 
agent to be sold. 

Consignor. —One who commits or consigns goods to 
another. 

Consols. —The three per cent, funded debts of Eng 
land. 

Contraband. —Prohibited ; illegal. 

Contract. —An agreement based upon sufficient con¬ 
sideration to do or not to do some particular 
thing. 

Condition precedent. —A condition which must be 
carried out before the obligation is performed. 

Countersign. —To sign, as secretary or subordinate 
officer, a writing which has been signed by the 
superior. * 

Coupon. —An interest certificate attached to a bond ; 
when paid, it is cut off. 

Coverture. —The state of a married woman. 

Currency. —Money in current use. 

Customs. —Duties on goods imported or exported. 

Custom House. —The place where duties are paid, 
and vessels enter and clear. 

Days of grace. —Usually three days allowed for the 
payment of a note after maturity. 

Debenture. —A certificate for bounty or rebate to be 
paid to the exporter of goods. 

Deed. —A sealed instrument used in the conveyance 
of real estate 

Defalcation. —A deduction ; abatement or diminu¬ 
tion, as in a promissory note. 

Defaulter. —One who fails to pay or account for 
money intrusted to him. 

Demand. —An asking by authority ; a claim by 
right. 

Demise. —To convey ; to bequeath by will. 

Demurrage. —Allowance for detention of a ship 
beyond a specified time. 

Demurrer. —An assent to facts for an issue on law. 

Demurer. —An exception to evidence produced ; to 
rest or stay. 

Deputy. —One appointed to act for another ; a repre¬ 
sentative. 



BUSINESS TERMS AND RULES. 


*26 

Discount. —In mercantile transactions, a discount 
means a deduction of a certain amount from the 
face of a bill for cash. In banking, a discount 
means the deduction of a certain amount from 
the face value of a note or bill, as a payment for 
allowing the holder of the note the immediate 
use of the money ; the rate of discount varies. 

Dividend. —A portion allotted to stockholders in 
dividing the profits. 

Donee. — One to whom a gift is made or a bequest is 
given. 

Donor. —One who gives or bestows. 

Draft. —A bill of exchange used for domestic pur¬ 
poses. 

Drawback. —Duty refunded on exported goods. 

Drawee. —One on whom a draft is drawn ; the 
payor. 

Drawer. —One who draws a bill or draft. 

Duplicate. —A copy or transcript of anything. 

Duress. —Personal restraint, or fear of personal in¬ 
jury or imprisonment. It nullifies all contracts 
into which it enters. 

Earnest. —A pledge, like money deposited, affords 
good grounds for reliance. 

Effects. —Goods or property of any kind. 

Embargo. —Prohibition of vessels from sailing. 

Embarassment —Financial distress ; on the verge 
of bankruptcy. 

Embassy. —-A public message or commission ; the 
person by whom it is sent. 

Embezzlement. —Unlawful appropriation of what is 
intrusted to one’s care. 

Endorse. —To write one’s name on the back of a 

% 

check, note, or draft. 

Engross. —To copy a manuscript. 

Equity. —In law, qualifying or correcting the law in 
extreme cases. 

Estate. —The degree, quantity, nature and extent of 
interest which a person has in real property. 

Estoppel. —In law, some previous act which estops 
or precludes a man from making a given plea or 
pretence. 

Exchange. —Act of bartering; a bill drawn for 
money ; a place where merchants meet; a dif¬ 
ference between the value of money in two 
places, or the premium and discount arising 
from the purchase and sale of funds. 

Executor. —One who settles the estate of a testator. 

Executory. —Yet to be performed. 

Exports. —Goods or produce carried abroad in com¬ 
merce. 

Face .—The amount expressed on a note or draft. 

Factor. —An agent to whom goods are consigned— 
differs from broker in that the factor has the 
custody of tne goods. 


Failure. —Act of becoming insolvent. 

Fac Simile. —An exact copy. 

Fancy Stocks. —Term applied to stocks subject to 
sudden fluctuation in price. 

Favor. —A note or draft is said to be in favor of the 
payee. 

Fee Simple. —An estate held by a person in his own 
right and descendible to his heirs. 

Financier. —An officer of finance ; one having charge 
of the revenue. 

Fiscal. —Pertaining to a treasury or revenue. 

Foreclose. —To cut off the power of redemption under 
a'mortgage. 

Forestall. —To buy goods before they reach the 
market. 

Folio. —Page of a book, usually the two opposite 
pages. 

Franc. —A French silver coin, value about 20 cents. 

Frank. —A free letter; a writing which exempts 
from postage. 

Fraud. —Artifice by which another’s right or interest 
is impaired. 

Free Trade. —The policy of conducting international 
commerce without duties. 

Freehold. —Rand held by free tenure or in fee simple,, 
subject to no superior or conditions. 

Funds. —Stock or capital, a sum of money. 

Gauging. —Measuring the contents of casks, etc. 

Grant. —Conveyance ; bestowment ; a thing con¬ 
veyed by deed. 

Gross Weight. —Weight of goods, including case, 
bag, etc. 

Guarantee or Guaranty. —A surety for performance 
by a third person ; one who warrants. 

Guarantor. —A warrantor. 

Habeas Corpus. —A writ to deliver a person from 
false imprisonment. 

High Seas. —Waters of the ocean outside of the juris¬ 
diction of any country. 

Honor. —To accept and pay when due. 

Hypothecate. —To pledge as security. 

Import. —To bring from another country. 

Importer. —One who brings goods from abroad 

Impost. Duty on goods paid by the importer. 

Indemnity .—Recompense for injury or loss. 

Indenture. —A writing containing a contract. 

Indorsement. —A writing on the back of a note. 

In re. —In the matter of. 

Insolvency. —Inability to pay all debts. 

Insurance. —Indemnity from loss; the rate paid for 
indemnity. 

Instalment. Part of a sum of money paid or to be 
paid from time to time. 

Interest, fhe use of money ; premium paid for the 
use of money. 




BUSINESS TERMS AND RULES. 


627 


Intestate. —Dying without making a valid will. 

Investment. —The laying out of money in the pur¬ 
chase of property. 

Inventory. —A list of goods. 

Invoice. —A list of goods bought or sold, or con¬ 
signed. 

Jettison. —A voluntary throwing of goods overboard 
at sea in a storm to lighten ship. 

Jointure. —An estate in lands settled on a woman in 
consideration of marriage. 

Joint Stock. —Property held in common by a com¬ 
pany. 

Joint-tenancy. —Joint occupancy ; not so close inti¬ 
macy as partnership. 

Journal. —A book used to classify and arrange busi¬ 
ness transactions. 

Judgment Note. —A note in the usual form, with the 
addition of the power to confess judgment if not 
paid. 

Jurisdiction. —The authority by which judicial offi¬ 
cers take cognizance of and decide causes. 

Larceny. —The taking of goods or other personal 
property feloniously. 

Law-merchant. —The general body of commercial 
usages in matters relative to commerce. 

Lease. —A letting of land, etc., for hire ; the writing 
or contract for such letting. 

Legacy. —A bequest; a particular thing or certain 
sum of money given by last will or testament. 

Ledger .—Book of accounts. 

Lessee. —One to whom a lease is made. 

Letters of Credit. —A letter authorizing the holder to 
receive money on account of the writer. 

Liability. —Debt or claim against a person. 

License. —Begat permission to sell goods or to do 
certain things. 

Lien. —A legal claim on property to satisfy debt. 

Liquidate. —To pay off, as debts ; to settle or adjust 
accounts. 

Loan. —To deliver to another, for temporary use ; 
the thing lent. 

Malfeasance. —An act which one has no right to do. 

Mandatory. —One to whom business is intrusted or 
charge given. 

Manifest. —A list of articles comprisirg a vessel’s 
cargo. 

Margin. —A sum of money deposited with a broker, 
in stock transactions, to protect him against loss 
by the depreciation of stocks held by him for 
another party. Also the difference between the 
value of securities deposited as collateral and 
the amount loaned upon them. 

Marine. —Relating to the sea. 

Maritime Law. —Baw relating to harbors, ships and 
seamen. 


Mark. —A weight in European countries for esti¬ 
mating gold and silver ; a German gold coin 
equal to 23 T 3 ^c. 

Mart. —A place of public sale ; a market. 

Maturity. —The date when a note or draft falls due 
or is payable. 

Maximum. —The highest figure. 

Mercantile Law. —Baw relating to business trans¬ 
actions. 

JMerger. —The absorption of a thing of lesser import¬ 
ance by a greater, whereby the lesser ceases to 
exist, but the greater is not increased. For in¬ 
stance, a note on which a judgment is recovered 
is absorbed by and merged in the judgment. 

Minimum. —The lowest figure. 

Mint. —The place where money is coined. 

Misfeasance. —Doing in an improper manner, by 
which another receives an injury. 

Mitigation. —Bessening the amount of a judgment, 
penalty or punishment. 

Money. —Current coin and circulating medium. 

Money Broker. —A broker who deals in money or 
exchanges. 

Monopoly. —The sole power of vending goods. 

Alortgage. —The conveyance of real estate as col¬ 
lateral security of a debt. 

Mortgagee. —The person to whom the conveyance is 
made. 

Alorlgagor. —One who makes the mortgage. 

Negotiable. —That may be transferred by endorse¬ 
ment and delivery, or by delivery alone. 

Negotiate. —To transact business or treat with 
another respecting trade or treaty. 

Net. —Clear of all charges and deductions. 

Net Proceeds. —The sum left after deducting com¬ 
mission or discount, etc. 

Non-feasance. —The non-performance of an act that 
should be done. 

Non-suit. —Abandoning a case, usually by order of 
the court. 

Note. —An obligation without a seal; a written 
promise to pay. 

Notary Public. —An officer whose chief business it is 
to protest paper for non-payment. 

Open Policy. —A policy upon which amounts yet to 
be ascertained and insured may be entered at 
different times. 

Ostensible Partners. —Those whose names are made 
known to the public. 

Outstanding Debts— Those unpaid. 

Overt. —Open to view, not secret, but manifest. 

Par.-M<yasi\ value ; when market value equals face 
value. 

Partnership. —Company ; union of two or more in 
business. 





628 


BUSINESS TERMS AND RULES. 


Pawnbroker. —One wlio lends money on pledge or 
deposit of goods. 

Payee. —The party to whom payment is to be made. 

Payor. —One who pays cr is bound to pay. 

Pledge. —A pawn ; a deposit as security. 

Policy of Insurance. —Contract between the insurer 
and the insured. 

Portage. —The price of carrying; cost paid by the 
captain for running his vessel. 

Premises. —Things previously mentioned ; houses, 
lands, etc. 

Premium. —The sum paid for insurance ; the excess 
of value above par. 

Price Current. —A table of the current price of mer¬ 
chandise, stocks, bills of exchange, etc. 

Prima Facie. —On the first view of the matter. 

Primage. —A charge imposed in addition to the 
freight. 

Principal. —An employer ; the head of a commercial 
house ; the sum loaned upon which interest is 
paid. 

Pro rata. —According to the rate ; proportionately. 

Protest. —A formal declaration made by a notary 
public for want of payment of a promissory note, 
or for want of acceptance of payment of a bill of 
exchange. 

Qitarantine. —Restraint of intercourse to which a 
ship is subjected upon the supposition that she 
is infected w T ith disease. 

Quotations. —A statement of the prices of articles of 
merchandise, given for the information of cor¬ 
respondents. 

Rate. —The proportion or standard. 

Rebatement. —Deduction for prompt payment; dis¬ 
count. 

Real Estate. —Land, and everything that legally 
passes with the land, in a conveyance or sale. 

Receipt. —A writing acknowledging the taking of 
money of goods. 

Refund. —To repay or pay back. 

Resources ,—Pecuniary means ; effects ; property. 

Respondential Bond. —A pledge of a cargo at sea. 

Retail. —To sell in small quantities. 

Revenue. —Tax ; income ; rents ; customs and duties. 

Reversionary Interest. —A right to possession of 
property at the termination of a certain period, 
or upon the death of the holder. 

Revocation. —The recall of power or authority con¬ 
ferred, as the revocation of an agency. 

Salvage. —A reward or recompense allowed by law 
for the saving of a ship or goods from loss at sea, 
either by shipwreck or other means. 

Scrip. —Dividends issued by a stock company pay¬ 
able in stock. Scrip dividends are simply an 
increase of the capital of the company, as the 


stock issued to meet them is added to the capital, 
and in its turn is entitled to future dividends. 

Seaworthy. —Fit for a voyage ; in a proper condition 
to venture at sea. 

Secondarily. —Applied to the endorser of a note or 
the drawer of a bill, signifying that he is only 
conditionally liable, or liable if the maker and 
drawee fail. 

Shipment. —Goods ; act of shipping. 

Sight. —The time of presenting a bill to the drawee. 

Signature. —The peculiar style in which a person 
signs his name. 

Sinking Fund. —A fund created by a government or 
corporation for the extinction of its indebtedness, 
by the gradual purchase of its outstanding obliga¬ 
tions, and the application of the interest saved 
on these obligations thus redeemed to further 
purchases. 

Silent Partner. —One who invests his capital in a 
business house, but whose name does not appear 
in the firm. His liability is limited to the 
extent of his contribution, except in cases where 
he fails to make the proper publication of his 
connection with the concern. 

Solicitor. —One who solicits ; a lawyer or advocate 
in a court of chancery. 

Solvency. —Ability to pay all debts. 

Specialty. —A writing sealed and delivered, contain¬ 
ing some agreement. 

Statement. —Usually a list of property, or resources 
and liabilities. 

Statistics. —A collection of facts respecting any par¬ 
ticular thing. 

Statute law. —A law established by act of the legis¬ 
lative power. 

Stipend. —Settled pay for services ; daily, monthly 
or annual salary. , 

Stipulation. —An agreement or contract. 

Stocks. —Shares in joint stock companies, and notes 
on the Government, 

Stock Broker or Jobber. —One who speculates in 
stocks. 

Surety. —Security against loss; a person bound for 
the faithful performance of a contract by another. 

Tacit. —That which is understood ; implied. 

Tare. —An allowance for weight of box, case, bag, 
cask, etc., containing merchandise. 

Tariff. —A list of prices ; duties on imports and 
exports. 

Tax. —A rate or sum of money imposed on persons 
or property for public use. 

Tenants in common. —Persons holding lauds and 
tenements by several and distinct titles, and not 
by a joint title. 

Tenant. —One who holds prooerty under another. 




BUSINESS TERMS AND RULES. 


629 


Tenement. —That which is held. 

Tender. —To offer for acceptance. Legal tender is 
such money as the law prescribes shall pass 
current. 

Tenure. —The mode in which one holds an estate in 
lands. 

Testator. —The person who has made a valid will. 

Tickler. —Name of a book kept by banks. 

Time of Draft. —A draft maturing at a future speci¬ 
fied time. 

Tonnage. —Weight of a ship’s load; capacity of a 
vessel. 

Transact. —To perform any act of business; to 
manage. 

Transfer. —To convey ; to sell or alienate title. 

Treasury. —A place where public money is kept. 

Trustee. — One to whom some special trust is 
assigned. 

Uncurrent. —Not passing in common payment, as 
£. s. d. in the United States. 

Underwriter. —An insurer ; so called because he 
underwrites his name to the conditions of the 
policy. 

Usage of Trade. —Custom, or the frequent repetition 
of the same act in business transactions. 

Usance. —A fixed time on bills of exchange ; busi¬ 


ness habit generally acted upon from force of 
custom. 

Usury. —Excess of interest over the amount allowed 
by law. 

Valid. —Of binding force ; strong ; effectual. 

Value. —The rate of worth or amount or price of a 
commodity. 

Vend. —To sell ; to transfer for a pecuniary con¬ 
sideration. 

Vendee. —The person to whom a thing is sold. 

Versus. —Against. 

Void. —Having no binding force or effect. 

Voidable. —That wdiich has some force or effect, but 
which, in consequence of some inherent quality, 
may be annulled or avoided. 

Voucher. —A paper that confirms anything, particu¬ 
larly the truth of accounts. 

Wages. —Compensation for services. 

Waiver. —The relinquishment or refusal to accept of 
a right. 

Wares. —Goods ; merchandise ; commodities. 

Warrant. —To invest with authority to arrest a 
person ; to insure against defects. 

Wharfage. —Money paid for use of a wharf or dock.. 

Wharfinger. —The owner or keeper of a wharf. 






























il" 
ii l * 
i!ll. 

i!" 


4 ^ 

M 

4 s 

* 

<i* i! 

* 







ii* 




iS 

% 


Ik 



"i |4 

••liiSA, 

‘Jii'T 

"iil!^ 

4 \^l 

i 'Ii|t4 

.■•illii 



^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 

i|* ^ if* *f* *f* i k 



JTSHE following system of Bookkeeping, 
-*■ the best now in use in commercial 


schools and mercantile houses, should be 
learned by every boy and girl. It 
simple that it can be easily understood. 


is so 


It would be well for the learner to have 
an instructor, but the system here presented 
can be learned without this by anyone who 
will study it page by page and diligently 
follow the instructions. 


Signs and Abbreviations Used in Business. 


Acct .Account 

Ad lib. .. At pleasure 

Adnir .Administrator 

Admx .Administratrix 

Adv .Adventure 

Agt .Agent 

Amt .Amount 

A ns .Answer 

A. D .In the year of our Lord 

A. M. .In the year of the World 

A. M. .Before noon—Morning 

Apr. .April 

Asst .Assistant 

Asstd .Assorted 

Aug .August 

Ave .Avenue 

Bal .Balance 

Bds .Boards 

Bgs .Bags 

Bbl. .Barrel 

Bk .Bank 

B. B .Bill Book 

Blk .Black 

Bis .Bales 

Bot .Bought 

Bi'O .Brother 

Brot .Brought 

Bu .Bushel 

Bxs .Boxes 

Bills Rec. or BjR . . . . Bills Receivable 
Bills Pay. or BJP .... Bills Payable 
Cap .Capital 


C. B . 


Ch'gd, . 


Ck . 


C. L . 


C. 0 . D. . . 


Co . 


Coll . 


Col . 


Const. 


Com . 


Con. . . 


Cr . 


Cts. . . 


D. B. . . . 


Dep . 


Dec. . . 


Deft . 


Dft . 


Dis. . . 


D. i. . . . 


Do. . 


Doz. . 


Dr. . . 


Dray. . . 


D'sr. . . 

.... Days 

Pa. . . . 


E. E. . . 


E. & O. E. . . 

excepted 

Eng . 


Ent'd. . . 


Etal. . . . 



G30 
























































































BOOKKEEPING. 


031 


Ex .Example 

Exch .Exchange 

Exp .Expense 

Ex. ret. .At the information of 

Fav .Favor 

Feb .February 

f.o.b .Free on board 

Fol .Folio 

For'd .Forward 

Frt .Freight 

Gal. .. Gallon 

Gro .Gross 

Gt. Gro .Great Gross 

Guar .Guaranteed 

Hhd .Hogshead 

Hund .Hundred 

I. B .Invoice Book 

lb ■.Ibid—in the same place 

Id. .Idem—the same 

I. E .Id est—That is 

Ins .Insurance 

Inst .Instant—the present month 

Int .Interest 

Invt . . Inventory 

Jan .January 

J. D. B .Journal Day Book 

J. F. .Journal Folio 

Jour. .Journal 

L. B. . .Letter Book 

L. C. L .Less than Carloads 

L. F. .Ledger Folio 

Lbs .Pounds 

Mar .March 

Mdse .Merchandise 

Mem .Memorandum 

Messrs .Gentlemen—Sirs 

Mo .Month 

Mat .National 

M. B .Nota Bene—Take notice 

Mo .Number (Numero) 

M. O. S. .Not otherwise specified 

Mov .November 

O. C. .Overcharge 

Oct '.October 

O. R .Owner’s Risk 

Oz .Ounce 

P ;.Page 

Per. .By 

Per cent .By the hundred 

Per an .By the year 

Payt .Payment 

P. C. B .Pretty Cash Book 

Pd. .Paid 

Pkg .Package 

P.df L .Profit and Loss 


Pr . 

.... Pair 

P.S. . 


Ps . 


Prem . 


Pres . 


Pro .r. 

.... Proximo—the next monl 

Ptff. . 


Reed . 

.... Received 

R. R . 

.... Railroad 

S. B . 


Shipt . 


Sept . 


St . 


St. DJt . 


5 . S. . 


SS.- or ss. . . . 

.... That is to say 

Sq.ft, . 


Sq. yds . 


Sund's . 

.... Sundries 

T.B . 


Trans . 

.... Transaction 

Ult. . . . . 

.... Ultimo—the last month 

Vis . 

.... Namely 

Vs . 

.... Versus—against 

I V. B . 

.... Way bill 

Wk . 

.... Week 

Wt . 

.... Weight 

Yds. . ... . 

, . Yards 

Yr . 

.... Year 

V?. 

.... Dollars 

0- 

.... Cents 

£ .. 

.... Pound Sterling 

^. 

.... Shillings 

d. . 

.... Pence 

/. 

.... Used for shillings, as 

3/6 = 3s. 6d. 

@. 

... .At or to 

%. 

.... Account 

B/L . 

, . . Bill of lading 

C/O . 

.... Care of 

O.K. . 

.... All correct 

< < 

.... Ditto 

3 \I. 

. . . .One thousand 

fc . 

.... Per cent 

# . 

.... Per or by 

&c. 

.... And so forth 

&. 

.... And 

v . 

#. 

.... Check mark 

. . . Number or pounds 

(Mumber when placed 
fore a figure, pounds w 
placed after) 

4.4 or 4 l4. . . 

. . . Four quarter—one yard 

P . 

.... One and one-fourth 

i 2 . 

.... One and one-half 

/ 3 . 

. . . One and three-fourths 
















































































































632 


BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


METHOD OF KEEPING BOOKS. 

Bookkeeping is the science of accounts. 
Bookkeeping, like Banking, was first used 
in Italy. Two distinct methods are in use: 
bookkeeping by single entry and bookkeep¬ 
ing by double entry. 



HEAD FOR BOOKS. 

Single Entry shows one’s standing - with 

o 

the individual, firm or corporation with whom 
he has transacted business, and it does that 
as well as double entry; but it does not go 
beyond that. 

Double Entry, and double entry alone, 
exhibits the relation of the business man to 
the kinds of property possessed, and the 
loss or gain made upon each kind, and 
without the aid of anything else than the 
taking of the account of stock; the Ledger, 
by double entry, exhibits all the facts of the 
case. 

In double entry, accounts are not only 
with persons, but with all kinds of property, 
etc. The amounts which are placed on the 
debit side of one account must be placed on 
the credit side of another account. This is 
the fundamental principle of double entry 


bookkeeping, for there cannot be a debit 
without a corresponding credit, and vice 
versa. 

Single entry is without the advantage of 
the check furnished by the Trial Balance 
used in Double entry. When one desires his 
Ledger closed, to see where he stands and 
how he has reached his present position, if 
his Ledger has been keep by single entry it 
will furnish only two schedules or lists, the 
one consisting of the names of individuals, 
firms, or corporations owing him, and the 
other consisting of the names of individuals, 
firms or corporations to whom he is in debt.. 
All other facts needed in the determination 
of his condition must be ascertained outside 
of the Ledger. 

Debits are entries upon the left hand or 
charge side of an account of business trans¬ 
actions. Credits are entries upon the right 
hand or discharge or trust side of an account 
of business transactions. 

A Business Transaction is an exchange 
of values. 

ACCOUNTS. 

Accounts are of two kinds: Speculative 
and Non-speadative. 

Speculative Accounts show losses and 
gains, and include such accounts as Mer¬ 
chandise, Real Estate, Railroad Stock, Ex¬ 
pense, etc. 

Non-speculative Accounts show Re¬ 
sources and Liabilities on which, from their 
nature, can be neither increase or decrease 
of value, such as Cash, Bills Receivable, etc., 
and on which there is neither loss nor crain 

o » 

unless it arises incidentally, in the case of a 
failure of the individual, firm, or corpora¬ 
tion in debt, or loss of cash by theft or fire. 

BOOKS OF ACCOUNT. 

Books of Account are the various books 
in which entries of business transactions are 
made, and are of three kinds: Books of 


























BOOKKEEPING. 


633 


Original Entry, Auxiliary Books and Books 
of Subsequent Entry. 

Books of Original Entry are those in 
which the business transaction is recorded at 
the time of its occurrence, and from which 
is taken, directly or indirectly, to the Ledger: 
as the Day Book, Cash Book, Invoice Book, 
Sales Book, etc. 

Auxiliary Books aid materially in giv¬ 
ing the particulars and details of a trans¬ 
action. They comprise the Bank Book, Bill 
Book, Draft Book, Note Book, Order Book, 
Ticker, etc. 

Books of Subsequent Entry are the I 
Journal and Ledger. The Journal is some- I 
times used to prepare the entries for the 
Ledger, in which are collected together in 
one place, under their appropriate heads, all 
debits and credits of like character. 

BILLS AND BOOKS OF ORIGINAL 

ENTRY. 

The proper making of bills of goods is a 
very important feature of counting-house 
duty, and the recording of business trans¬ 
actions in books of original entry is of great 
importance. 

The requisites of a proper book of original 
entries are : 

First .—That the book is the original book 
of entries, and not one in which the entries 
are transcribed from another book. 

Second .—That they shall be properly de¬ 
tailed and not lumped, giving such items of 
account, prices and kinds of goods that the 
party shall be able to tell what he is charged 
with. 

Third .—That the entries charge the parties 
by name with sufficient definiteness to indi¬ 
vidualize the party charged, and to distin¬ 
guish him from every one else. 

Fourth .—That the entries are made for 
goods sold and delivered, or work and labor 
done in the usual course of business. 


Fifth .—That the respective dates of the 
entries are given. 

Sixth .—That the entries are made at or 
about the time the goods are set apart for 
delivery, or are delivered, or the work is 
finished. 

DAY BOOK. 

The book of original entry is the Day 
Book, or a subdivision of it. There should 
be entered into it, or its subdivision a concise 
and comprehensive history of the merchant’s 
business transactions, and they should be so 
carefully and clearly made that one familiar 


AN EXPERT ACCOUNTANT. 

with business affairs, although an entire 
stranger to these particular transactions, would 
understand them fully by merely reading the 
record of them. 

If mistakes are made, either in words or 
figures, they should be cancelled by drawing 
lines of red ink through the mistake, and 
should not under any circumstances be 
erased. As books of original entry only are 
allowed in cases of litigation, it becomes more 
important that erasures should not be made 
in them. 

The Day Book is rarely ever used in a ousi- 
ness by itself. The keeping of a Cash Book 
is strongly urged, no matter how limited 










634 


BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


the business in either number or volume of 
transactions, and, when kept, to use it only 
for the receipt or disbursement of cash. 

THE CASH BOOK. 

This may be defined as that part of the 
Day Book, or that branch of the Day Book, 
into which is entered all cash received. 

If the books of original entry are limited 
to the Cash Book and Day Book, the rule of 
(.classification to be followed in making entries 




HEAD FOR MECHANICS. 


in them is this: Enter into the Cash Book 
all Cash received and all Cash paid out, and 
enter everything else into the Day Book. 

In very many businesses it is very desira¬ 
ble that there should be kept, in some way, 
an Invoice Book and a Sales Book. 


THE INVOICE BOOK 

Is that branch or department of the Day 
Book into which purchases of Merchandise 
are entered. 

When it is necessary to keep an Invoice 
Book, it is also necessary to keep a 

SALES BOOK. 

This is a subdivision or part of the Day 
Book, into which are entered all sales of 
Merchandise made by the merchant. A 
Sales Book is sometimes made out of an 
ordinary letter copying book, into which, by 
an ordinary letter press, a copy of every bill 
sent by the merchant to his customers is 
taken, and from the Sales Book the charges 
and credits are taken to the Ledger. 

When the books of original entry em¬ 
brace Cash Book, Day Book, Invoice Book 
and Sales Book, there should be entered into 
the Cash Book, as above, all moneys received 
and all moneys paid out, and into the In¬ 
voice Book all Merchandise bought, and 
into the Sales Book all Merchandise sold, 
and into the Day Book every other kind of 
business transacted. 

Sometimes the Bill Book is used as a book 
of original entry. When so used it ceases to 
be an Auxiliary Book and becomes a branch 
or division of the Day Book, into which are 
entered all Bills Receivable received and 
Tills Payable issued. Under such circum¬ 
stances the Day Book would not be used for 
the reception and issuing of promissory 
notes and acceptances. 


Transactions to be recorded in books of original entry when the Day Book and Cash Book 
only are kept. 

February 3, 1888 —Commercial business with a Cash Capital of $2500. Bought of John B. Ellison & Sons 
350 yds. Black Diagonal Cloth, @ ^2.25=^787.50. Gave them my note, @ 90 days, for amount of their bill, 
$787.50. Sold T. J. Barlow 50 yds. Diagonal, @ $2.75 =$137.50. Received from him, cash, $137.50. Paid 
Rent of Store for one month, in advance, $125. Paid for Postage, $10. 

The day-book items above would appear in the Day Book as follows: 









BOOK-KEEPING. 

Phii.adei.phia, February 3, 189 . 


635 • 


1 

Commenced business this day with a cash Capital of $2500 

/ / 






Bought of John B. Ellison & Sons, on 90 days’ note, 

350 yds. Black Diagonal Cloth, @ $2.25 

/ / 



787 

50 


Gave John B. Ellison & Sons my note at 90 days for invoice of this date. 

/ / 



787 

50 


Sold T. J. Barlow, for cash, 

50 yds. Black Diagonal, @ $2.75 

. 



137 

50 


The cash items in the above set of transactions wonld appear in the Cash Book as 

follows: 

Dr, Cash. Cash. Cr, 



The books of every business man should 
faithfully reflect his monetary transactions. 
It is one of the achievements of a perfect 
system of book-keeping that it chronicles 
all the transactions of an individual or firm, 
and does it so effectively that the exact state 
of affairs can be made known any day. 
There must be clear ideas as to what needs 
to be done, and the strictest fidelity in doing 

Transactions to be entered in books of origv, 
Sales Book and Day Book. 


it. Some mercantile accounts are contin¬ 
ually and almost hopelessly muddled. 

There is no necessity for this, and, besides, 
it is disastrous to all business success. The 
old-fashioned, country store-keeper used to 
carry his accounts in his head, or kept them 
with a piece of chalk on the cellar door. 
He was a man to be laughed at, not to be 
imitated. 

' entry , comprising Cash Book , Divoice Book , 


March 1, 1S9 .—Invested in business, Cash, $2000. Bought of Camden Woolen Mills, 650 yards of Cassi- 
meres, @ $1.75 = $1 137-50. Gave them cash, on account, $537-5°> and my note, @ 60 days^for balance, $600, 


Pai(Tonefmonth’s RenP, in advance, $100. Paid for Stationery, $12.50. Sold to John Stilz & Son 200 yds, Cassi- 
meres (a), $2 25 = $450. Received in cash, on account, $200, and their note, @ 10 days, for $250. Bought of 
Wendell Fay & C0T500 yds. Black Serge, @ $2.25 = $1125. Gave them cash, on account, $625, and my note, 
0 3 o days, 'for $500. Sold to Hughes & Miller, 250 yds. Serge, © $2.75 = $687.50. Received from them, 

cash, $687.50. 
















































































C3G BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 

The cash items in preceding transactions would appear in Cash Book as follows: 


Dr. Cash. Cash. Cr, 



The purchases mentioned above would appear in the Invoice Book as foliov/s: 


Philadelphia, March i, 189 . 



Camden Woolen Mills 

650 yds. Cassimere, 

@ 

/ / 

$*■•75 



ii37 

50 

1 

Wendell, Fay & Co. 

500 yds. Black Serge, 

@ 

$2.25 



1125 

00 


The sales mentioned above would appear in the Sales Book as follows: 


Philadelphia, March i, 189 . 



Jno. Stilz & Son 

200 yds. Cassimere, 

@ 

/ / 

£2.25 



450 

OO 


Hughes & Miller 

250 yds. Serge, 

@ 

$2.75 



6S7 

50 


Those items mentioned above, which do not appear in the Cash Book, Invoice 
Book and Sales Book, would be entered in the Day Book as follows: 


Philadelphia, March i, 189 . 



Gave Camden Woolen Mills my note, @ 60 days, to balance their bill 
this date 

/ / 



600 

oc 


Received from John Stilz & Son their note, @ 10 days, for balance of bill 
of this date 

/ / 



250 

OO 


Gave Wendell, Fay & Co. my note, © 30 days, to balance their account 



c 

0 

OO 

1 











































































































































BOOK-KEEPING. 


637 


THE JOURNAL. 

Is a book in which the debits and credits of 
transactions appearing in the books of origi¬ 
nal entry may be written before they are 
taken to the Ledger, and it is also used for 
the recording of debits and credits needed 
in closing the Ledger. 

The writing of debits and credits in the 
Journal is called Journalizing. 

BAY-BOOK JOURNAL. 

The Day Book and the Journal are fre¬ 
quently combined in a book called the Day 
Book-Journal, in which the Day Book entry 
is written and journalized immediately un¬ 
derneath, and the amounts extended in the 
money columns as in the Journal, the money 
columns in the Day Book-Journal being used 
(or debits and credits instead of for items and 
totals as in the Day Book. 

RULES FOR DEBITING AND 
CREDITING. 

The rules for debiting and crediting Per¬ 
sonal Accounts, be they with individuals, 
linns or corporations, are: 


Debit the account of those to whom you 
give any value. Credit the account of those 
from whom you receive any value. 

The rules for debiting and acrediting 
accounts with things are: 

Debit the thing received, or that which 
costs value. Credit the thing parted with 
or that which produces you value. 

“Posting” is the process of transferring 
the various entries in the Cash Book and 
Day Book to their proper accounts in the 
Ledger. It is the custom of the best book¬ 
keepers to post their books once a week, and 
thus avoid an accumulation of work at the 
end of the month; but in no case should the 
posting be delayed longer than once a month., 
as it is necessary to close the Cash Book and 
Day Book on the last day of each month as 
has been already explained. 

The book-keeper must be careful to post 
each entry on the proper side of the account 
in the Ledger, and to write the figures 
correctly, as the slightest error will throw 
the books out of balance. 


Memorandum of transactions entered m the Day Book , on page 380, and here Journalized.\ 

March i, 189 .—Gave Camden Woolen Mills my note, @ 60 days, to balance account, $600. Received 
from John Stilz & Son their note, @ 90 days, for balance of bill this date, $250. Gave Wendell, Fay & Co. 
my note, @ 30 days, to balance their account, $500. 

These would appear in the Journal as follows: 

Philadelphia, March i, 189 . 



Camden Woolen Mills 

Bills Payable 
/ / 

600 

00 

600 

00 


Pills Receivable 


250 

00 



( 


Jno. Stilz & Son 



250 

00 



/ / 






Wendell, Fay & Co. 


500 

00 



1 

i 

1 

Bills Pavable 



500 

00 


Memorandum of transactions entered in the Cash Book , on page 380, and here Journalized .’ 

March 1, 189 .—Invested in business $2000. Gave Camden Woolen “Mills, on account, $537.50. Paid one 
month’s Rent, $100. Paid for Stationery, $12.50. Received from Jno. Stilz & Son, on account, $200. Gave 
Wendell, Fay & Co., on account, $625. Received from Hughes & Miller, on account, $687.50. 































638 


BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


These would appear in the Journal as follows: 


Philadelphia, March i, 1S9 . 


Cash 


CO 

CO 

Cl 

50 




Merchant 



2000 

OO 


Jno. Stilz & Son 



200 

OO 


Hughes & Miller 



687 

50 

Camden Woolen Mills 


537 

50 



Expense 


100 

00 

. 


Expense 


12 

50 



Wendell, Fay & Co. 


625 

00 




Cash 



I275 

OO 


Memorandum of transactions entered in the Invoice Book , on page 380, and here Journalized . 

March, 1 189 .—Bought of Camden Woolen Mills bill of Cassimeres amounting to $1137.50. Bought of 
Wendell, Fay & Co. bill of Serge, $1125.00. 

These would appear in the Journal as follows: 


Philadelphia, March i, 1S9 . 




Mdse. 

Camden Woolen Mills 

2262 

| 

50 

H 37 

50 

^ - --- 



Wendell, Fay & Co. 



1125 

00 


Memorandum of transactions entered in the Sales Book, on page 380, and here Journalized. 

March 1, 189 .—Sold John Stilz & Son Cloths to the amount of $450. Sold Hughes & Miller bill of Clotha 
to the amount of $687.50. 

These would appear in the Journal as follows: 


Philadelphia, March i, 1S9 . 



Jno. Stilz & Son 


450 

00 




Hughes & Miller 

Mdse. 

6S7 

5 ° 

1137 

50 


LEDGER. 

The Ledger is the principal book, and all 
other books are subservient to it. It is the 
book of accounts, and in it are gathered 
from the books of original entry, either 
directly or through the Journal, all the 
business transactions of which a record has 
been made; but nothing can be entered into 
tile Ledger until (1) it is known to what 
account the entry belongs, and (2) o\ which 
Aide it is to be entered. For each person 
who becomes indebted to us, or to whom we 
owe anything, and for each sort of property 


of which we may become possessed, an 
account must be opened and indexed, and 
the date and amount of the item placed 
therein. Numerous transactions are thus 
brought, in this condensed form, into a very 
small compass. The debtor, or charged 
items, are placed on the left hand side and 
the creditor, or discharged, or trusted items., 
on the right hand side. By deducting th£ 
sum of the items on the one side, from the 
sum of the items upon the other side, an 
easy determination is made of the amount 
due us, ot due by us, or the amount of 

















































BOOK-KEEPING. 


639 


property on hand, or the actual gain or loss. 

The Ledger is a summary of the transac¬ 
tions, and gives only the date and amount 
of the items, the page of the books from 
which they have been brought, and the 
name of the corresponding accounts. For 
other particulars, reference must be made to 
the books of original entry and to the 
auxiliary books. 

A double entry Ledger is usually divided 
vertically in the middle, and the ruling is 
the same on the left as on the right. 

Transactions appear in the books of origi¬ 
nal entry in the order of the date of their 
occurrence, but in the Ledger they are clas¬ 


sified in the order of their kind, all of the 
same kind being grouped together and con* 
Itituting an account. 

An account in the Ledger is an arrange¬ 
ment of the debits and credits of business 
transactions of a like character, in a space set 
apart for them with the name or title of the 
account written at the top. 

The Ledger is made up exclusively of 
these different kinds of debits and credits, 
or different accounts, and everv account has 
two sides—a debit or left hand one, and a 
credit or right hand one. Below will be 
found a space ruled as a page of a double 
entry Ledger, with the use of each division 
denoted: 


(Side.) 

Dr. 


(Name of account.) 

Birrs Receivable. 


(Side.) 

Cr. 


189 

>iy 


14 


Tojno. Wanamaker 


560 


75869 


189 

J ul y 


By W. M. Singei ly 




CASH ACCOUNT. 

Cash Account does not contain the items 
found in the Cash Book, but it is debited 
u To Sundries” for the total amount of cash 
received from all sources and credited “By 
Sundries” for cash expenditures of all kinds. 

The Cash Account in the Ledger is in it¬ 
self a skeleton Cash Book, or a Cash Book 
from which particulars have been excluded. 

As more money cannot be paid out than 
is received, Cash Account will either close it¬ 
self when all the money has been paid out, 
or will close “By Balance” for whatever 
amount remains unexpended. The differ¬ 


ence between the two sides at any time 
should agree with the amount of Cash on 
hand at that time. 

It is the custom of most book-keepers to 
use what is called a Petty Cash Book. Any 
blank book ruled with dollar and cent col¬ 
umns will answer. The Petty Cash Book is 
for expenditures only, and saves the book¬ 
keeper a great deal of time and labor which 
would be required were all the minor ex¬ 
penses entered in the Cash Book and trans¬ 
ferred separately to the Ledger. 

Cash is a Non-speculative Account. Take 
the following example: 



































640 


BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 

Cash. 


Dr. 


Cr 0 


189 






189 


— 



— 

Jan. 

31 

To Sundries 

5 

500 

00 

Jan. 

3 i 

By Sundries 

5 

300 

OO 

Feb. 

29 

“ do 

20 

300 

00 

Feb. 

29 

“ do 

20 

400 

00 

Mar. 

31 

“ do 

34 

200 

00 

Mar. 

3 i 

“ do 

34 

150 

OO 

Apr. 

30 

“ do 

46 

100 

00 

Apr. 

30 

“ do 

46 

200 

OO 

May 

3 i 

“ do 

53 

200 

00 

May 

3 i 

“ do 

53 

j 10000 

June 

30 

“ do 

64 

500 

00 

June 

10 

“ do 

64 

30000 







< t 

< < 

“ Balance 


1 35000 





1800 

00 





0 

0 

CO 

t-l 

GO 

109 




I 








June 

30 

To Balance 


I 350 

OO 








It will be noticed that the total Receipts 
of Cash are entered on the Debit, or left hand 
side, and that the total Payments are entered 
upon the Credit, or right hand side. 

MERCHANDISE ACCOUNT. 

This is a Speculative Account , and is 
charged with all goods or other property 
which we buy for the purpose of selling in 
the regular line or conduct of our business. 
It embraces the manufacturers’ wares, shop¬ 
keepers’ goods and the produce or property 
in which a merchant trades, as well as the 
staple commodities of a country in the hands 
of regular dealers in them. 

Merchandise is always Credited for the 
sale of that which has been charged against 
it. It may be likened to a clerk to whom is 
intrusted all the goods, etc., bought, and who 
is discharged from the responsibility of their 
care when they are sold. 

This account must be credited “By In¬ 
ventory” for the amount of merchandise on 


hand, as shown in the Inventory, then the 
account is to be closed “To ” or “ By Loss and 
Gain” account, according as the difference 
between the two sides shows a gain or a 
loss. 

After closing and ruling this account, it 
must be debited “To Inventory” for the 
amount of the stock on hand. 

The reader is recommended to rule several 
pages of a blank book, and to practice keep¬ 
ing a Day Book according to the instructions 
herein contained. By this it is not meant 
that he should simply copy or confine him¬ 
self to the forms given in these pages. He 
should, beginning with the Cash and Day 
Books, open a complete set of books, and 
keep them as though he were actually en¬ 
gaged in business, extending them as far as 
possible, and posting them as directed in 
these instructions. This will give him an 
amount of practice which will be found very 
useful. 


Purchases and Sales of Merchandise. 

January io, 189 .—Bought from John Wanamaker bill of goods amounting to $652.75. Bought from Straw- 
bridge & Clothier a number of articles amounting to $126.37. Bought from Coffin, Altemus & Co. a case of 
Muslin for $141.63. Received from Wood, Brown & Co. Cassimeres to the amount of $1394.60. Bought from 
Morris & Lewis Beavers amounting to $3264.48. Bought of Hood, Bonbright & Co. Dry Goods to the amount 
of $ 463 - 74 - 

Sold M. L. Waterhouse & Sons, Frankford, Phila., Beavers to the amount of $326.48. Sold Curwen Stod- 
dart & Bro. Beavers to the amount of $652.50. Sold S. C. Webster & Sou Dry Goods to the amount of $231 87 
Sold Mrs. M. D. Graham, Dover, Del., goods to the amount of $75. 

Inventory of stock on hand amounts to $5300. 








































BOOK-KEEPING. 


641 


These entries taken from the Day Book, through the Journal, will appear in the Mer* 
chandise Account of the Ledger as follows: 


Mdse. o. 


189 

Jan. 

10 

ToJ. Wanamaker 

8 

652 

75 

189 

Jan. 

10 

By M. L. Waterhouse 

8 

^26 a8 


4 4 

“ Strawbridge & Clothier 

8 

126 

37 

44 

4 4 

“ Curwen Stoddart & Co. 

8 

652 

5 ° 



“ Coffin, A. & Co. 

8 

141 

6 3 

( 4 

4 4 

“ S. C. Webster & Son 

8 

231 

87 



“ Wood, B. & Co. 

8 

1394 

60 

<< 

<< 

“ Mrs. M. D. Graham 

8 

75 

00 

•< 4 

4 4 

“ Morris & Lewis 

8 

3264 

78 

<< 

t 4 

“ Inventory 

12 

5500 

00 



“ Hood, Bonbright & Co. 

8 

4 6 3 

74 

<< 

4 4 





44 

4 4 

“ Loss and Gain 

15 

741 

98 


4 4 









67S5 

85 





6785 

85 

189 












Jan. 

31 

To Inventory 

14 

55 oo 

00 








PERSONAE ACCOUNTS. 

A Personal Account is an account with 
either an Individual, a Firm, ora Corpora¬ 
tion, or with such a natural or legal person 
as may sue or be sued at law. 

An Account bearing the name of an Indi¬ 
vidual, Firm, or Corporation should be 
debited for all moneys paid, all goods sold^ 
or for property of any sort or kind transfer¬ 
red to such individual, firm, or corporation. 

Such an Account should be credited for 
all moneys received, or goods bought, or for 
property of any sort or kind received from 
such individual, firm, or corporation. 

If the sum of the debits of such an Account 
is greater than the sum of the credits, the 
individual, firm, or corporation is in debt, 
and constitutes what is called in business a 
Book Account due to the merchant or busi¬ 
ness man, or an Asset, or a Resource, and 
will close “ By Balance.” If, on the other 
hand, the sum of the credits is greater than 
the sum of the debits, the merchant or busi¬ 
ness man owes the individual, firm, or cor¬ 


poration, and it is called a Liability, and will 
be closed “To Balance.” 

A very great assistance to the book-keeper 
in checking his books is the habit, now well- 
nigh universal, of sending out statements of 
accounts on the first of each month, by which 
we learn whether or not the books of our 
customers agree with our books, and, receiv¬ 
ing from those to whom we are indebted, 
similar statements, we learn how our ac¬ 
counts appear on the Ledgers of those to 
whom we are indebted, and thus is insti¬ 
tuted a comparison between our accounts as 
they appear on their books and their ac¬ 
counts as they appear on our books. • 

This matter of sending out monthly state¬ 
ments should be borne in mind, because it is 
of assistance to the book-keeper in testing 
the correctness of his books, as well as for 
its importance to the financial management 
of the business. One can never be too 
prompt in making monthly statements. 

Personal Accounts are Non-speculative 
Accounts. 


Business Transacted with Individuals, Firms and Corporations. 

Vebruary io, 189 .—Sold Robert Boyd, bill of Oils and Paints to amount of $135.50. Also sold him 100 
shares Reading R. R. Stock, @ $30 a share, $3000. Bought of him ioo.shares Penna. R. R. Stock, @ $52 a 
share, $5200. Received from him Cash for amount of bill of goods sold him, $i 35 - 5 °* Paid him, on account o r 
balance due on exchange of Railroad Stocks, $1000. 

41 




















































642 


BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


This will appear in Robert Boyd’s Account of the Ledger as follows : 


Dr. 


189-. 


Feb. 

10 

4 4 

( 4 

4 < 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 




To Mdse. 

“ Reading R. R. Stock 
“ Cash 
“ Balance 


Robert Boyd. Or. 





189-. 


By Penn a. R. R. Stock 




10 

135 

50 

Feb. 

ro 

10 

5200 

oa 

10 

3000 

00 

44 

4 4 

“ Cash 

10 

135 

50 - 

10 

1000 

00 



—— 





1200 

00 



-— " 





5335 

50 





5335 5^ 

I 




189-. 









Feb. 

10 

By Balance 


1200 90 


It will be noticed that Personal Accounts, 
be they with individuals, firms or corpora¬ 
tions, are debited for all values given to them, 
and credited for all values received from 
them. The observance of this principle will 
be of benefit in all bookkeeping. 

BILLS RECEIVABLE ACCOUNT. 

A Bill Receivable is a written obligation 
for the unconditional payment of a certain 
sum of money at a specified time to a certain 
person, his order or bearer, without interest, 


issued by any one but the merchant, and 
payable to him by virtue of the written 
promise contained in it. It may be either a 
negotiable promissory note, or an acceptance 
of a time draft. 

Bills Receivable Account in the Ledger 
is debited whenever such a note or draft is 
received, and is credited whenever such a 
note or draft is transferred to another, either 
in the course of trade, or when surrendered 
to the maker upon payment. 


The language of a negotiable promissory note varies in different States of the Union 
The following are the more common forms : 


$175° PA- Phi lad'a, March 15, 189-. 

Thirty days after date , /promise to pay . 

to the order of Sharpless Brothers . 

Seventeen hundred and fifty . Dollars , 

at the Girard National Bank , without defalcation , value received. 

No. 12. Due 4/14/17/9-. Edward Hayworth. 

#A7 to°o Baltimore , Md.,fune 14 , 189-. 

Thirty days after date, I promise to pay . 

to the order of Jno. IV. Garrett's Sons . 

Three hundred and eighty-seven . pp Dollars , 

value received. 

No. 3. Due 7/14/17/9-. a. B. Long. 

Drafts are sometimes drawn after date and sometimes after sight. Those drawn after 
date, if accepted, are payable the prescribed time, plus three days of grace, after the date of 
the instrument. Those drawn after sight are payable the prescribed time, plus grace, after 
acceptance, in neither case are they binding upon the person upon whom they are drawn 
unless he agrees to honor them by his written acceptance across the face. An acceptance 
of a draft is as binding upon the person who signs it as is his signature to a note. 

























































BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


G43 


It will be noticed tliat Bills Receivable Account is always debited when notes and 
accepted drafts payable to the merchant or business man are received and credited 
whenever such notes and accepted, drafts are transferred to others. 


BILLS PAYABLE ACCOUNT. 

A Bill Payable is a written obligation for 
the unconditional payment of a certain sum 
of money at a specified time to a certain 
person, his order or bearer, without interest, 
issued by one and payable by him by virtue 
of his written promise contained in it. It 
has to some extent the force of a note, given 
over the signature of the one who is obli¬ 
gated to the amount named in the note. 

Bills Payable Account is credited when 
one issues, either in the form of a promissory 
note, or of an acceptance of a time draft 
drawn upon him, such a written obligation, 
and it is debited when one redeems such 
obligations. 

The language of a Bills Payable is the 
same as that of a Bills Receivable. It is 
called a Bills Payable when one is uncondi¬ 
tionally liable as maker or acceptor of the 
obligation, and it is called a Bills Receivable 
when it is held by some other person than 
the maker or acceptor. The same note or 
acceptance has both names applied to it; 
that is, it is both a Bills Receh'^b 1 ^ and a 
Bills Payable. It is a Bills Pay a Die only to 
one person. All other persons who may 
become holders of it, call it a Bills Receiv¬ 
able. The name is not applied because the 
note or acceptance is received by the mer¬ 
chant, or parted with by him, but the name 
arises from the relation which the holder 
bears to the note or acceptance. If, as above 
stated, the relation be that of payor of the 
note or acceptance when due, the payor will 


call it a Bills Payable, and all other persons; 
who may have handled the note or accept¬ 
ance call it a Bills Receivable. 

STORE FIXTURES ACCOUNT. 

A storekeeper needs shelving, counter^ 
desks, a fireproof safe, etc., and when he pur¬ 
chases such property for his own use, he does 
not charge it to Merchandise, because he does 
not buy the shelving, etc., for the purpose of 
selling it, nor would it be just to his business 
to pay for such property and call it an expense 
of business; for, if he should sell out, these 
fixtures would constitute a valuable piece of 
property, which he could sell to his succes¬ 
sor, or, if he were to go out of business, they 
could be sold to a dealer in fixtures. The 
rule requiring a separate account to be kept 
of fixtures, in distinction from merchandise 
is very serviceable and should be observed. 

Again, if the business man was not a store¬ 
keeper, but a manufacturer, he would need 
to buy machinery, tools, etc., and *n some 
departments of business this account ,?ould 
be called “ Machinery and Tools. ? 

Store Fixtures, or Machinery and Tools, or 
Furniture, would be debited for the full value 
of all such property purchased, and would be 
credited in case any of it should ever be sold. 

These are Speculative Accounts and must 
be credited with the amount of Inventory of 
Stock on hand in each, and the accounts 
then closed into Loss and Gain. 

After closing and ruling these accounts, 
they must be debited “To Inventorv” for 
the amount of the stock on hand. 


Store Fixtures Purchased and Sold. 

March 9 189 .Bought of Amos Hillborn & Co. Office Desks and Chairs, costing $150. Bought Irom 
Marvin Safe Co. one large double Fireproof Safe, $225. Bought of Cornelius & Co. Gas Fixtures for office, $60. 
Wm. C. Merritt has put up Shelving and Counters and sent me his bill, amounting to $85. 

July 15, 189 .—Sold for Cash, to a dealer, my Office Desks for $60. Bought ol Hall & Garrison new double 

Desk, $50. 






644 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


This will appear in a Store Fixtures Account of the Ledger as follows: 


Dr . Store Fixtures. 


189 






189 


■ - 



Mar. 

9 

To A. Hiilborn & Co. 

19 

150 

00 

July 

5 

By Cash 

19 

60 

44 

4 4 

“ Marvin Safe Co. 

19 

225 

00 






1 4 

< 4 

“ Cornelius & Co. 

19 

60 

00 






44 

4 4 

“ W. C. Merritt 

19 

85 

00 






July 

5 

“ Hall & Garrison 

19 

50 

1 

00 







EXPENSE ACCOUNT. 

This is an account which enables a busi¬ 
ness man to gather together all the running 
expenses of his business in one place for any 
given period. It informs him of the outgo, 
while other accounts show v *.n what the 
income and profit are. 

It is debited for all moneys paid, or liabil¬ 
ities incurred, from which no direct return 
is expected, as, for instance, rent of store, 
hire of clerks, advertising, etc. Under this 
general head or account is emerged up on 
the debit side everything that is expended 
in the conduct of the business, except that 
spent for the commodities in which one 
deals, and such matters as have been pre¬ 
viously described as Store Fixtures, or 
Machinery and Tools, etc., or Furniture. 
It is frequently subdivided. If one desires 
to know just how much is spent for rent, 
he opens a Rent Account and charges that 
account with the money either paid for rent, 
or owed for rent, and does not put it in 
Expense Account. If, for any reason, the 
merchant desires to know how much he is 
spending for clerk hire, he opens an account 
called Salary Account or Clerk Hire Account. 
If one desires to know how much he is 
spending for Postage, he may open a Post¬ 
age Account, and not charge postage until 
the end of the year, when he would debit 
Expense for the whole sum. In general, 
it may be said that where the amounts spent 
for a particular kind of expense are large, it 
is good usage to open a specific account for 
that kind of expense, leaving the Expense 


Account to be charged only with those 
things which cannot be very well individ¬ 
ualized, and which would not amount to 
any considerable sum in a year. 

Expense is a Speculative Account , and 
closes into Loss and Gain. 

REAL ESTATE ACCOUNT. 

This is the name of a Ledger Account to 
which is charged the cost of all Real Estate, 
consisting either of land or buildings, or 
both. It is frequently the case that a book¬ 
keeper lias as many Real Estate Accounts as 
there are independent properties possessed, 
and they are distinguished one from another 
by words in the title of the account denot¬ 
ing the localitv, or previous owners cf the 
property. 

Real Estate Account is debited with its 
cost, with repairs and all taxes. 

It is credited for the sales and for all rents 
received. 

DISCOUNT AND INTEREST ACCOUNT. 

This account is debited for all moneys 
which one pays for money borrowed, and for 
all discounts allowed debtors on their bills 
for payment of the same before maturity. 
It is credited for all moneys received for the 
loan of money, or for discounts allowed by 
creditors for the payment of bills before 
maturity. The importance of this account 
will be seen when we consider that a large 
part of business is carried on by loans and 
discounts. 

It is a Speculative Account, and closes into 
Loss and Gain. 

























645 


BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


Discounts i cceivcd cuid allowed, and transactions with others involving interest. 

189 'Ti^" CCe ^ V ^ fron J J* B ’ Lippincott Co. an allowance of 5 per cent, for cash payment of bill of 
p 13 ’? n Allowe ^ Granville B. Haines & Co., 3 per cent, discount for cash settlement of bill of May 21, 
u' ” ai V ^^. aran ^ ee . Jrust Co. 4 months’ interest on my loan from them of $5000, $100. The College Bank 

charged me for discounting a bill receivable for $900, © 3 months, $14.10. I discounted for R. J. Allen his note 
for $1000, and charged him discount of #15. J 

This would appear i.i Discount and Interest Account cf the Ledger as follows: 

Discount and Interest. 


Cr. 


Id9 

June 


C< 


To G. B. Haines & Co. 
“ Guarantee Trust Co. 
Cash 


<< 


27 

48 

37 

189 

June 

1 

27 

100 

00 

< < 

i t 

27 

14 

10 




ByJ. B. LippincottCo 
“ Cash 


27 

13 

27 

15 


93 

00- 


DebitS show the merchant what borrowing money and collecting his bills before 
maturity has cost him. 


Credits show the merchant what he has 
before maturity. 

MATERIAL. ACCOUNTS AND 
LABOR ACCOUNTS. 

In a manufacturing business, instead of 
charging directly to the Merchandise Account 
the cost of production, it is a well-approved 
custom to open a Material Account to which 
is charged the cost of the raw material, and 
to open a Labor Account to which is charged 
the wages expended upon the manufacture 
of the goods. 


made by loaning money and paying his bills 

When closing the Ledger, Material Ac¬ 
count must be credited for the amount of 
material on hand as shown by the Inventory, 
and then both of these accounts (Material 
and Labor) should be closed into Mer¬ 
chandise Account. 

They are A on-speculative Accounts , and 
are kept so as to make clear just how much 
of the cost of the manufactured article arises 
from labor, and how much from raw material, 


Purchases of Raw Material. 

June 16, 189 .—Bought of E. A. Greene & Co. 6000 lbs. Mestizo Wool, © 28c. = $i6So. Bought of Sheble & 
Mill 10,000lbs. Common Domestic Wool, @ 20c. = $2000. 

This would appear in Material Account of the Ledger as follows : 

Dr. Material Account. Cr. 


1S9 

June 

t6 

To E. A. Greene & Co. 

29 

16S0 00 

189 

July 

1 

By Mdse 

29 

3680 

«< 

< i 

“ Sheble & Hill 

29 

2000 00 

i 

36S0 00 

• 




3 68 ° 




Payments to Artisans for Piecework; 


June 16, 1S9 .—Paid Geo. Doll, for week’s work at loom, $13. Paid Jos. Cook, for loom work, $14.50. Paid 
And. Wagner, for designs for carpets, $35.25. 

This would appear in the Labor Account of the Ledger as follows: 


D>\ Labor Account. Cr. 


189 

— 





189 


By Mdse. 


62 


'one 

16 

To Geo. Dolt 

29 

13 

00 

July 

1 

29 

75 

* n 

< 6 

“ Jos. Cook 

29 

14 

50 



___ 




«( 

« 

“ Andrew Wagner 

29 

35 

25 



--- 








62 

75 




1 

62 

7 % 


% 


















































































G4G 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


CAPITAL. ACCOUNT. 

The Capital Account is variously named 
by book-keepers. By some the name of the 
Proprietor of the business is used; by others 
the word “Stock,” and some call it the Cap¬ 
ital Account. The name Stock is quite 
aged, but it is often misunderstood by 
learners as having something to do with 
the stock of goods on hand when the Inven¬ 
tory is taken. The use of the name of the 
Proprietor as a caption for this account is 
growing in favor, and where there is more 
than one proprietor it is positively necessary 
that the names of the proprietors should be 
used. 

This account is debited for his liabilities 
and credited for his resources at the time of 
beginning business, it is also debited for any 
withdrawals of capital made by the proprie¬ 
tor and credited for any additional invest¬ 
ments made by him; but if the withdrawals 
made by him are for personal expenses, they 
should be kept in a personal expense account 
until the closing of the Ledger, and should 
then be charged up to the Capital Account 


in one lump sum. It is also debited at the 
time of settling the business for the net loss, 
if one has been made, or credited with the 
net gain found to have been made at the 
time of settling business. 

In some cases this account is credited with 
interest on investments, and debited for 
interest on withdrawals. In other cases no 
investments are to be accounted for. 

The net capital invested in the business is 
found by subtracting the sum of the debits 
from the sum of the credits. It is what the 
business owes the proprietor, because it is 
the amount by which the resources exceed 
the liablilities. In an adverse condition of 
business the sum of the debits may be the 
larger. If so, it shows net insolvency, which 
is the amount that the proprietor needs to 
put into the business to enable the debts 
to be paid. The net capital is shown by 
the entry “To Balance” .above the ruling, 
and net insolvency is shown by the entry 
‘ ‘ By Balance ’ ’ above the ruling, 

Capital Account is a No ^speculative 
Account. 


Transactions wliich belong in the Capital Account. 

January I, 189 .—J. F. Morris and A. B. Lewis have formed a copartnership, under the firm name of MoniS 
& Lewis. Morris invests Merchandise to the amount of $1500; Cash, $ 2000; Bills Receivable, $1000. The 
business is to pay off certain of his promissory notes, to the amount of $500, and amounts which he owes—Terry 
& Co., $600, and Folwell Bros. & Co., $400. The net amount invested by him is, therefore, $3000. A. B. Lewis 
invests : Cash, $2000 ; Merchandise, $2500; Bills Receivable, $ 2000, and the business is to pay off certain of his 
promissory notes to the amount of $1200. His net investment is, therefore, $5300. 

July 1, 189 .—The business is settled, showing a net gain of $6Soo, one-half of which goes to Lewis and one- 
half to Morris. 


This would appear in the proprietors’ Capital Accounts of the Ledger as follows: 


Dr. J- F. Morris (Capital Account). Cr. 


189 






189 



— 

— 


Jan 

1 

To Bills Payable 

32 

500 

00 

Jan. 

1 

By Mdse. 

31 

1500 

00 

<< 

< < 

“ Terry & Co. 

32 

600 

00 

i i 

< < 

‘ ‘ Cash 

31 

2000 

00 

4 i 

< c 

“ Folwell, Bro. & Co. 

32 

400 

00 

i < 

< ( 

“ Bills Receivable 

31 

1000 

00 

>iy 

1 

“ Balance 


6400 

00 

July 

1 

“ Loss and Gain 

32 

3400 

00 





7900 

00 





7900 

00 

' -*-»■- 




1 


189 




1 








July 

1 

By Balance 

1 

6400 

00 


















































Dr. 


BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 

A. B. Lewis (Capital Account). 


Cr. 


647 


189 

Jan. 

July 

1 

1 

To Bills Payable 
“ Balance 

32 

1200 

8700 

00 

00 

189 

Jan. 

< < 

a 

July 

I 
< < 

< < 

I 

By Cash 
“ Mdse. 

“ Bills Receivable 
‘ ‘ Loss and Gain 

1 

32 

32 

32 

32 

2000 

2500 

2000 

3400 

00 

00 

00 

00 





9900 

00 




9900 

00 







189 

July 

I 

By Balance 


8 

CO 

00 


This account will be debited for the business man’s liabilities, withdrawals, etc., for 
the net loss, and sometimes for interest on withdrawals. It is credited for investments of 
all sorts, net gain, and sometimes interest on investments. 


PERSONAL EXPENSE ACCOUNT, OR 
PRIVATE ACCOUNT. 

This account is debited for what the busi¬ 
ness man takes out for his personal use, or 
for the maintenance of his family. It is very 
rarely ever credited. It should not be credited 
except when the merchant returns some of 
the money which he had previously drawn. 


The Account is opened and kept to enable 
the bookkeeper to charge against the Mer¬ 
chant’s Capital Account his personal expenses 
in one sum. 

It is a Non-speculative Account , and is 
closed into the Capital Account at the time 
of closing the Ledger. 


Amounts Drawn Out by a Merchant for Personal and Family Use . 

February i, 1S9 .—A. B. Lewis drew out, for his own use, $200. March 15th.—He withdrew $300. June 
'9th.—He drew out S500. 

This would appear in the Merchant’s Personal Account of the Ledger as follows : 


Dr. A. B. Lewis’ Personae Expenses. Cr. 


189 






189 






Feb. 

1 

To Cash 

32 

200 

00 

July 

1 

By A. B. L. Cap. Ac. 

32 

1000 

00 

Mar. 

15 

“ do 

32 

3 °° 

00 



_ _ 




June 

9 

“ do 

3 2 

500 

00 



-" ''' 








1000 

00 

• 




1000 

00 


INVENTORY ACCOUNT. 

This account is debited for the amount of goods and other property on hand at the 
time of taking an account of stock, and is credited for the same after the losses and gains 
have been ascertained. 

It is a Non-speculative Account. 

Account of Stock of Mitcliell, Fletcher & Co. 

Merchandise, $9763.38. Store Building, $9000. Counters, Shelving, Desks, Chairs, Fireproof Safe, Gas 
SFixtures, etc., $1625. 100shares Reading Railroad Stock @ 32, $3200. 














































































648 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


This would appear in Inventor}" Account of the Ledger as follows ! 


Dr. 


Inventory. 


189 






189 

fuly 

1 

To Mdse. 

35 

9763 

38 

July 

44 

< • 

“ Real Estate 

35 

9000 

00 

4 4 

fc 

4 4 

“ Store Fixtures 

35 

1625 

00 

<( 

u 

44 

“ Reading Rail Road Stock 

35 

3200 

00 

<< 





23,588 

38 





1 

i 




Cr. 


By Mdse. 

“ Real Estate 
“ Store Fixtures 
“ Reading Rail Road Stock 


35 

9763 

3 & 

35 

9000 

00 

35 

1625 

OG 

35 

3200 

OO 


23,588 

38 





LOSS AND GAIN ACCOUNT. 

Loss and Gain Account is debited with all 
Losses and credited with all gains. The dif¬ 
ference between the sum of the debits and 
the sum of the credits is the net gain or net 
loss. If the sum of the debits is the greater, 
it is a net loss ] if the sum of the credits is 


] the greater it is a net gain 

Into this account are brought all the losses 
and gains which have occurred in the busi- 

o 

ness, and they are here compared and the net. 
gain or loss determined. 

It is a Non-speculative Accor nt , and closes 
into the Capital Account. 


Schedule of Losses and Gains. 

July i, iSo .—Porter Sc Coates, on closing their Ledger for the year, find that they have gained : On Mer¬ 
chandise, $21,630.80; on Real Estate sold during the year, $2,800 ; on Discount and Interest, $963.40; on Penna_ 
R. R. Stock, $1140; on Phila. & Reading R. R. Stock, $813. 

They have lost: On Expense Account, $581.60 ; on Salary Account, $9830; on Rent, $5000. 

Their net gain for the year is, therefore, $11,935.60. 

This would appear in Loss and Gain Account of the Ledger as follows; 


Dr. Loss and Gain. Cr . 


I89 





I89 




—--— 


July 

I 

To Expense 

36 

581 60 

July 

1 

By Mdse. 

36 

21,630 

80 

44 

4 4 

“ Salary 

3 6 

9830,00 

4 4 

4 4 

“ Real Estate 

36 

2800 

00 

a 

4 4 

“ Rent 

36 

5000 00 

44 

4 4 

“ Discount and Interest 

36 

963 

40 

tt 

4 4 

“ Porter 

36 

596780 

4 r 

4 4 

“ Pa. R. R. Stock 

36 

1140 

00 

it 

44 

“ Coates 

36 

5967,80 

4 4 

4 • 

“ P. & R. R. R. Stock 

3 6 

813 

00 





27,347 

20 





27,347 

20, 


Debits are losses; Credits are gains. 


SHIPMENT ACCOUNTS. 

Shipments are names given to accounts to 
which are charged the cost of goods sent to 
be sold for our account and at our risk by a 
Factor, or Bailee, called a Commission Mer¬ 
chant The account is kept for the purpose 
of ascertaining the gain or loss on goods sent 
to a particular person. 


At the time of shipping, the account, by 
whatever name it may be called, is debited 
for the cost of the merchandise and all ex¬ 
penses incurred in shipping the same. It is 
credited for the net sum yielded by our goods 
in the hands of the Commission Merchant. 

The shipments are distinguished one from 
another by the letters of the Alphabet, or the 















































































BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


G49 


N mnerals, or by naming the person to whom 
they are sent. 

Great care should be taken when crediting 
the Shipments for net proceeds, to charge 
them to the Commission Merchant as a 
Factor, and not as a person, for he holds 


the business man's money, not as a debt due 
to the business man, but as the business 
man’s funds in trust until they are remitted, 
and returned to the proper owner. 

These are Speculative Accounts , and close 
into Loss and Gain. 


Goods sent to be sold at our risk and on our account , and returns for same. 

January 2, 189 .—Shipped and consigned to Charles Berger, to be sold on our account and at our risk, 150 
yds. Brussels Carpet, @ 65c., $97.50; 500 yds. Ingrain Carpet, % 50c., $250.00; 1000 yds. Stair Carpet, @ 45c., 
$450.00; in all, $ 797 - 50 - Paid shipping expenses, $7.50. (13th) Received from Charles Berger an account of 

sales, showing our net proceeds to be $772.56. 

This will appear in the Shipment Account of the Ledger as follows; 

Dr. Shipment, Charles Berger. Cr. 


189 


* 




189 






Jan. 

2 

To Mdse. 

38 

79 7 

50 

Jan. 

13 

By C. Berger, Factor 

39 

1 

772 

56 

44 

4 4 

“ Cash 

38 

! 

7 

50 




Debits show the cost of the go^ds sent, and also the expenses, and credits what they 
produce. 


SHIPMENTS IN COMPANY. 

This is the name given to an account 
representing the business man’s interest in a 
lot of goods sent to be sold partially at his 
risk and partially on his account. 

Shipment in Company is made debtor for 
the cost of the merchant’s interest at the time 
the goods are shipped, and it is credited for 
the net proceeds of his share at the time the 
commission merchant renders the account of 
sales. 

Goods sent to be sold partially at our risk 


Shipments in Company are distinguished 
one from another by letters of the Alphabet 
or Numerals, in the same manner as Ship¬ 
ments. 

Care should be taken at the time of receiv¬ 
ing the account sales from the commission 
merchant to charge the commission merchant 
as a Factor or Bailee, for the reasons named 
under the head of Shipment Accounts. 

These are Speculative Accounts , and close 
into Loss and Gain. 

and partially on our account , and returns for 


same. 

June 1, 189 .—Shipped to Russell & Mason 1000 Bales Cotton, valued at $60,000, on which they are to assume 
one-fourth of the risk by reason of having paid a part of the purchase price. They are to have a proportionate 
share of the gains. Paid expenses of shipment, $12.50. 

July 3, 189 .—Received account sales from Russell & Mason of my interest in the shipment, showing my net 

proceeds to be $46,500. 

This will appear in the Shipment in Company Account of the Ledger cl 3 follows : 

Dr. Shipment in Co. with Russell & Mason. A. Cr . 


189 

June 

1 

To Mdse. 

40 

45,oco 00 

189 

July 

3 

By R. & M., Factors 

40 

46,500 

00 

4 4 

4 4 

“ Cash 

40 

9 

I 

37 





I 

1 



Debits show the cost of the merchant’s interest in the Shipment and the expenses for 
his share of same ; credits show what that interest has yielded him. 











































BOOK-KEEPING. 


350 

FACTOR’S OR BAILEE’S ACCOUNTS. 

These are accounts kept by the business 
man with Commission Merchants engaged 
in the sale of his goods. 

They are debited for the net proceeds re¬ 
ported to the business man by his Commis¬ 
sion Merchant on each account sales, and 
they are credited whenever the money or 
other property may be sent by the Commis¬ 
sion Merchant to the business man. 

The employment of the account enables a 
business man to prove conclusively the rela¬ 
tion existing between himself and his Com¬ 
mission Merchant; that the Commission 
Merchant holds i:i his hands in trust as the 
property of the business man anything 
that may be to the debit of Factor’s Ac¬ 
count. It enables one to distinguish clearly 
the difference between debts due by the Fac¬ 
tor as an individual and moneys held by him 
as an Agent, cr Factor, or Bailee. 

CONSIGNMENTS, SALES ACCOUNTS, Etc. 

These are names given to Accounts repre¬ 
senting goods received from another business 
house, to be sold on its account and at its 
risk, by a Commission Merchant as a Factor, 
or Bailee, or Agent. 

Such Accounts are debited for any ex¬ 
penses incurred in receiving, o^ handling, or 
storing the goods, and also for whatever the 
Commission Merchant may charge for the 
services rendered by him in selling them, or 
guaranteeing payment for same. They are 
credited for what the goods bring and the 
difference between the amount for which the 
goods are sold and the charges of the Com¬ 
mission Merchant, either for services rendered 
or money expended, belongs to the Owner, 
and is held by the Commission Merchant as 
the Owner’s money, in trust, until it is 
remitted. Care should be taken, when the 
Consignment Account is closed, that cr^it 


will be given to the owner as Principal or 
Bailor. 

These are Non-speculative Accounts; for, 
after the Commission Merchant reimburses 
himself for his outlay and pays himself for 
his trouble, the balance belongs to the . 
Owner. 

MERCHANDISE COMPANY. 

This is a name given to an account of 
goods received from another business man, 
to be sold partially at his risk and partially 
at tlu commission merchant’s risk. 

Such accounts are debited for the commis¬ 
sion merchant’s share of their cost, also for 
moneys expended on them by the commis¬ 
sion merchant, and for his services in selling 
them, as well as for the net proceeds belong¬ 
ing to the shipper. They are credited for 
the sales of the goods, and close into Loss 
and Gain. 

They are Speculative Accounts , and illu¬ 
strate very clearly the difference between buy- 
ing goods outright and receiving them to 
sell them at another person’s risk, for the 
shipper must be credited in his personal 
account for that part of the cost of the goods 
on which the commission merchant takes 
the risk. That is an absolute purchase by 
the commission merchant of that much of 
the goods, and he owes for that part or share 
of them as he owes for any other goods 
which he buys outright; but for the ship¬ 
per’s net proceeds credit should be given to 
another account than the personal account 
of the shipper, called by his name ; with the 
word Principal, cr Bailor, added, for such 
money belongs to the shipper, and is held 
by the commission merchant in trust foi 
him. 

PRINCIPAL’S OR BAILOR’S ACCOUNTS. 

These accounts enable the Commission 
Merchant to show with clearness that in cer¬ 
tain transactions he is acting as an agent^ 






BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


601 


md that certain credits on his books are not 
debts due by him, but money or property 
belonging - to bis principal, held by him in 
trust. 

They are credited whenever an Account 
•Sales is rendered, and the Consignment 
Account, or Sales Account, is closed out. 
They are debited whenever the money, or its 
equivalent, is remitted. 

They are Non-speculative Accounts. 

COMMISSION ACCOUNT. GUARANTEE 

ACCOUNT. 

These Accounts are credited for the Com¬ 
mission charged by the Commission Merchant 
to his customers for his services in selling 
their goods. 

It is very rarely ever debited ; such a cir¬ 
cumstance could only arise by the Commis¬ 
sion Merchant getting some other one in his 
line of business to aid him in selling the 
goods and giving them a part of his Join- 
mission for doing it. In any such case Com¬ 
mission Account would be debited. 

Guarantee Account is sometimes associated 
with Commission Account; that is to say, 
the Commission allowed by the business man 
to the Commission Merchant may be intended 
to cover the pay for selling the goods, and 
also a recompense for guaranteeing the sound¬ 
ness of the accounts made by selling the 
goods payable at some future time. In some 
lines of business 2 J /z per cent. is allowed for 
selling and per cent, for guaranteeing, 
and the 5 per cent, is credited to the one 
account called “ Commission and Guarantee 
Account.” Some book-keepers may prefer 
to keep a Commission Account by itself and 
a Guarantee Account by itself. 

They are Speculative Accounts, and close 

into Loss and Gain. 

PRACTICAL DEDUCTIONS. 

Every business transaction in the hands c r 
a double-entry book-keeper requires: 


First .—Some Ledger Account, or Ac¬ 
counts, to be debited, and some Ledger Ac¬ 
count, or Accounts, to be credited. 

Second .—In every business transaction, 
the debit, or sum of the debits, carried to the 
Ledger, must equal the credit, or sum of the 
credits, taken to that account. 

The fundamental law of book-keeping by 
double entry is, that there should be as much 
placed upon the debit side as there is placed 
upon the credit side, and no business can be 
transacted, however slight, which does not 
require at least one debit and one credit to 
be made in the Ledger. 

TRIAL BALANCES. 

One of the most perplexing positions the 
book-keeper ever occupies is at the time 
when he takes off a trial balance. This te 
made up from the face of the Ledger, and 
consists of the names of all open Ledger 
accounts, with their debit balances in one 
column and their credit balances in another 
column. If the debit balances amount to a 
sum equal to the total of the credit balances, 
the trial balance is said “to come out all 
right,” but the debit side of the Ledger can 
be equal to the credit side of the Ledger, 
and yet the Ledger contain many errors; 
and were the book-keeper furnished with 
no better proof of the correctness of his 
work he would have very little ground for 
the satisfaction whicn is universally felt by 
a book-keeper when his trial balance does 
thus “come out right.” A little reflection 
will cause it to appear that the debit and 
credit balances of the Ledger can be equal 
and yet errors like these abound: 

1. Errors in entering a transaction in 
books of original entry, as, for instance, a 
sale in the Invoice Book, or a purchase m 
the Sales Book; the omission of the whole 
j of a transaction. All of which may be 






BOOK-KEEPING. 


C52 

described in a general way as mis-entries in 
the books of original entry. 

2. If the transaction is incorrectly Journ¬ 
alized; that is to say, Bills Payable should 
be credited when we get somebody else’s 
note discounted, or anything of that char¬ 
acter. To be spoken of in general as mis¬ 
takes in debiting or crediting. 

3. Any mistake in posting, provided the 
right amount has been taken to the right 
side 0/ the Ledger, but to a wrong account. 
Thus, in posting, if a debit belonging to A’s 
account is taken to the debit side of B’s 
account, and the right amount is used, an 
error will be produced in two accounts, and 
yet there will not be any disturbance of the 
equality of the footings of the trial balance. 
Any transposition of figures, if the transpo¬ 
sition occurs on both sides. These errors 
may be spoken of in general as mis-posts. 

A practical, satisfactory check upon one 


in book-keeping is the custom, almost uni¬ 
versal, of sending out statements of accounts 
to debtors at the beginning of each month. 

If the recipient should find he is over¬ 
charged, the book-keeper would learn his 
mistake. 

Trial balances are taken off at two stated 
periods, one at the end of each month show- 
ing- the debtor and creditor balances of all 
open accounts, and one taken off after the 
Ledger is closed, showing the debtor and 
creditor balances of all accounts which 
remain open at that time. When the 
entries have been correctly made in the 
Ledger, and the trial balance taken off with¬ 
out mistake, the debit and credit columns of 
balances will equal each other. 

Nothing more, however, is proven by 
either of the trial balances than that the 
Ledger is in balance—a satisfactory thing 
for every book-keeper to know. 


A Ledger, and the Trial Balance of Same. 

June 30, 1S9 .—The Ledger shows the following balances on this date : Merchandise, Dr., $2547.40; Cash, 
Dr-, $i 547- 8 4 ; Bills Payable, Cr., $365 ; John Thomas, Dr., $145.10 ; Richard Mann, Dr., $75 ; George Brown, Cr., 
$325.15 ; Alfred Douglas, Cr., $61.89; Store Fixtures, Dr. $360; Expense, Dr., $76.70; Students’ Capital Account, 
Cr., $4000. 


This will appear in the Monthly Trial Balance as follows 

Triai, Balance, June, 189 . 




Balances. 




Dr. 

Cr. 


I 

Merchandise 





3 

Cash 

2547 

40 



7 

Bills Payable 

1547 

84 



9 

John Thomas 



365 

OO 

10 

Richard Mann 

145 

10 



11 

Geo. Brown 

75 

00 



12 

Alfred Douglass 



325 

15 

13 

Store Fixtures 



6 l 

80 

14 

Expense 

360 

00 



15 

Students’ Capital Account 

76 

70 







4000 

OO 


* 

N , 

4752 

04 

4752 

04 





































BUSINESS RULES AND FORMS. 


653 


CLOSING THE LEDGER. 

A very interesting branch of a book¬ 
keeper’s work is closing the Ledger. There 
are two general ways of closing accounts: 
“‘To or By Loss and Gain” and “To or By 
Balance.” To close an account is to make 
both sides equal. In the process of closing 
the Ledger, all the losses and gains that 
have occurred in the business are gathered 
together in the Loss and Gain Account, and 
there compared. The gains are placed upon 
the credit side; the losses upon the debit 
side. When the credit side is the greater, 
the account is closed “To Capital Account,” 
and shows a net gain. The opposite entry, 
“By Loss and Gain,” is made in the Capital 
Account, and increases the capital. When 
the debtor side is the greater, the account is 
closed, “By Capital Account,” and shows a 
net loss. The opposite entry, “To Loss and 
Gain,” is made in the Capital Account, and 
decreases the capital. 

Red ink should not be used at all, unless 
it is used for a definite purpose. A safe 
general rule is to use black ink in the 
Ledger in the recording of all entries which 
come from other books, and to use red ink 
m making entries which are made for the 
purpose of closing and bringing down the 
balances to the new accounts. Custom is 
not uniform, however, regarding this rule. 
Very many of those who use red ink for 
closing, prefer to use black ink in making 
the transfers of the closing entries. 

In closing the Ledger, it is necessary to 
remember the classification cf Ledger Ac¬ 
counts, separating clearly those which are 
speculative and show losses and gains from 
those which are non-speculative and show 
resources and liabilities. To the former 
class, showing losses and gains, belong Ex¬ 
pense, Discount and Interest, Commission, 
Insurance, Merchandise, etc., etc. To the 


latter class, showing resources and liabilities, 
belong accounts with Individuals, Firms and 
Corporations, Cash, Bills Receivable, Bills 
Payable, etc. 

Unless the property possessed in the busi¬ 
ness has all been sold, it is a necessary step 
in closing the Ledger to take an account of 
Stock and to credit the respective accounts 
heretofore charged with the amount of prop¬ 
erty now on hand. Nor should a Ledger be 
closed until a first trial balance has been 
taken off, and the Ledger found to be in 
balance, and also, there should be a test of 
the correctness of the Ledger by comparing 
the Cash and Bills Receivable balances with 
the Cash on hand and the Bills Receivable 
on hand, and the sending out and receiving 
of Statements. 

First .—Close all Speculative Accounts 
into “Loss and Gain” account by journal¬ 
izing and posting. 

Second .—Close “Loss and Gain” account 
into the Capital Account by journalizing and 
posting. 

Third .—Close “Inventory” account by 
crediting it and debiting the corresponding 
accounts. 

Fourth .—Then close all accounts now un¬ 
closed, “To” or “By Balance,” ruling them 
up and bringing down the balance on the 
opposite side of each account so closed. 

All entries “To” or “By Balance” to be 
made in red ink. 

Fifth .—After the Ledger is closed take off 
a trial balance to ascertain if the Ledger is 
still in balance. 

If the work is correctly done, the two 
sides of the trial balance will be equal, for 
the reason that in the case in which the 
business is possessed of more assets than 
liabilities, there will be found upon the debit 
side all the resources, and on the credit side 
! all th^ labilities, together with the net 




654 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


capital, which is the excess of resources over 
liabilities; and the net capital properly ap¬ 
pears on the same side with the liabilities, 
because the business owes to its proprietor 
that which he has invested in it; and if all 
the assets were collected, dollar for dollar of 
. their face value, as they appear on the books, 
and the liabilities were paid out of them, 
the net capital would appear as a surplus, to 
be paid over to the proprietor. So, in ad¬ 
versity, the debit side of the trial balance 
will, as before, consist of the resources, to¬ 
gether with the net insolvency, which, taken 
together, will equal the credit, or liability 
side, for the reason that the proprietor would 
have to furnish, from other resources, the 
amount of the insolvency of the business to 
enable the liabilities to be discharged, and 
the net insolvency is properly placed with 
the resources for this reason. 

BANK DEPOSITS. 

No reference has been made in this book 
to a ledger account with a bank, as it is not 
customary, and is objectionable. Money in 
bank is generally regarded as money on 
hand in another safe, an account of which 
appears, or should appear, on the stub of the 
check book. When money is deposited the 
liability of the bank for the money so depo¬ 
sited is acknowledged by the receiving teller 
by an entry on the debit side of a pass book, 
called the bank book. From this the book¬ 
keeper should copy the amount and add it to 
the previous balance in bank, as shown by 
the stub in his check book. From this he 
should deduct the amount of each check 
drawn, the difference showing the amount 
in bank subject to draft. This may not al¬ 
ways agree with the balance as shown by the 
bank book when settled at bank, for the 
reason that a business man subtracts from 
his bank balance the amount of the check 
at the time of its issue. The bank does not 


charge the account of a customer for a check 
drawn until it is presented and paid at bank. 
In keeping the check book there are many 
advantages arising from entering on the stub. 

The Philadelphia Clearing House Associa¬ 
tion furnishes to the business community 
quite a number of useful rules to be observed 
by those doing business with a bank. W& 
quote a few as follows : 

“ If you write or stamp over your endorse¬ 
ment upon all checks which you send to be 
deposited to your credit in bank the words, 

1 For deposit to our credit,’ it will prevent 
their being used for any other purpose.” 

Another is that you “Do not give your 
checks to strangers.” Another is that “It 
is desired that all your checks for large 
amounts should be presented for payment by 
a person known to the pa)' mg teller or other 
officer of the bank.” 

Another is: “In conformity with the rules 
adopted by all barks of this city and mem¬ 
bers of the Clearing Elouse Association, you 
are hereby notified that you are held resnon- 
sible as endorser for the non-payment of all 
checks upon other banks of this city, mem 
bers of said Association, deposited by you as 
cash in this bank, until the close of the 
business day next succeeding that on which 
such checks are deposited. This bank receiv¬ 
ing such checks only for collection on your 
account through the exchanges of the Clear¬ 
ing House. Upon all other checks and drafts 
deposited by you as cash your responsibility 
as endorser continues until payment has been 
ascertained by this bank.” 

PROTEST. 

Besides these suggestions it is well to re¬ 
member that not only with checks but with 
promissory notes held by you and secured to 
you by endorsement, that you lose the secur¬ 
ity of the endorsement if you fail to protest 
those not paid at maturity- 








CORRECT FORMS FOR NOTES, BILLS, CHECKS, 
DRAFTS, RECEIPTS, ETC 


LLpersons transacting business find 
it necessary to write various busi¬ 
ness forms. Among those in most 
frequent use are Receipts, Orders, 
Bills of articles purchased, Prom- 
p issory Notes, Checks, Drafts, etc. 

To better understand these, it is well to be 
acquainted with the meaning of the various 
commercial terms to be constantly seen in 
our general reading. 

COMMERCIAL TERMS. 

$ -means dollars , being a contraction 

of U. S., which was formerly placed before 
any denomination of money, and meant, as 
it means now, United States Currency. 

£ - means pounds, English money. 

@ stands for at or to. lb for pound, and bbl. 
for barrel; ^ for per or by the. Thus, Butter 
sells at 20@30c ^ ft), and Flour at $8@i2 
f bbl. 

% {or per cent, and ^ for number. 

June i —Wheat sells at $ i. 2 o@ 1.25, “seller 
July.” Seller Jidy means that the person who 
sells the wheat has the privilege of delivering 
it at any time during the month of July. 

Selling short, is contracting to deliver a cer¬ 
tain amount of grain or stock, at a fixed price, 
within a certain length of time, when the 
seller has not the stock on hand. It is for the 
interest of the person selling “short,” to depress 
the market as much as possible, in order that 


he may buy and fill his contract at a profit 
Hence the “shorts” are termed “bears.” 

Buying long , L to contract to purchase a 
certain amount of grain or shares of stock at 
a fixed price, deliverable within a stipulated 
time, expecting to make a profit by the rise of 
prices. The “longs” are termed “bulls,” as 
it is for their interest to “operate” so as to- 
“toss” the prices upward as much as possible. 

PROMISSORY NOTES. 

A promissory note is a promise or engage¬ 
ment in writing to pay a specified sum at a 
time therein limited, or on demand, or at 
sight, to a person therein named, or his order 
or assigns, or to the bearer. The persoa 
making the note is called the drawer or maker. 

A note is void when founded upon fraud. 
Thus, a note obtained from a person when in¬ 
toxicated, or obtained for any reason which is 
illegal, cannot be collected. If, however, the 
note is transferred to an innocent holder, the 
claim of fraud or no value received will not 
avail. The party holding the note can collect 
it if the maker is able to pay it. A note given 
upon Sunday is also void in some States. 

Notes bear interest only when it is so ex¬ 
pressed; after they become due, however, they 
draw the legal rate of the State. If it is in¬ 
tended to have the note draw more than the 
legal rate of interest, after maturity, the 

655 


















'656 


HOW TO DO BUSINESS 


words should so specify in the body of the 
note as follows: “with interest at the rate of 

-per cent, until paid.” Notes payable 

on demand or at sight, draw no interest until 
after presentation or demand of the same has 
been made, unless they provide for interest 
from date on their face ; they then draw the 
legal rate of interest of the State. 

If “with interest” is included in the note, 
it draws the legal rate of the State where it is 
given from the time it is made. 

If the note is to draw a special rate of in¬ 
terest higher than the legal, but not higher 
than the law allows, the rate must be specified. 

If the note is made payable to a person or 
order, to a person or bearer, to a person or 
his assigns, or to the cashier of an incorporated 
company or order, such notes are negotiable. 

When transferring the note, the indorser 
frees himself from responsibility, so far as the 
payment is concerned, by writing on the back, 
above his name, “Without recourse to me in 
any event.” 

The simple indorsement of the name of the 
person selling the note, which serves as a 
transfer, upon the back of the same, is not in 
some States a guarantee for the payment of 
the note at maturity. When it is designed 
particularly to be a guarantee, it should be so 
stated on the back of the note, as follows: 

JOHN MEEK. 

“ For value received , I (or we) hereby guarantee 
the payment of the within note at maturity , or at any 

time thereafter , with interest at - per cent, until 

paid; and agree to pay all costs or expenses paid or 
incurred in collecting the same.” 

JOHN MEEK. 

When a note is made payable at a definite 
period after date, three days beyond the time 
expressed on the face of the note (called days 
of grace) are allowed to the person who is to 
pay the same, within which to make such 


payment. Notes payable “on demand ” are 
not entitled to days of grace. 

If a note is payable at a bank, and is held 
there on the day upon which it falls due, until 
the usual hour for closing, ready for receiving 
payment thereon, no further demand upon 
the maker is necessary, in order to charge the 
indorser. The demand must, in all cases, be 
made upon the last of the days of grace ; a 
demand before that time passing for nothing 
as against the indorser. 

The days of grace, which must be com¬ 
puted according to the laws of the State 
where the note is payable, are to be reckoned 
exclusive of the day when the note would 
otherwise become due, and without deduction 
for Sundays or holidays ; in which latter case, 
by special enactments in most of the States, 
notes are deemed to become due upon the 
secular day next preceding such days. Thus, 
a note, due upon the twenty-fifth day of 
December, is payable on the twenty-fourth, 
as the day when due is Christmas day ; if the 
twenty-fourth chance to be Sunday, it is due 
upon the twenty-third. 

In order to charge an indorser, the note, if 
payable at a particular place, must be pre¬ 
sented for payment at the place upon the 
veiy day it becomes due; if no place of pay¬ 
ment be named, it must be presented, either 
to the maker personally, or at his place of 
business, during business hours, or at his 
dwelling house, within reasonable hours ; if 
payable by a firm, a presentment may be 
made to either of the partners, or at the 
firms place of business ; if given by several 
persons jointly, not partners, the demand 
must be made upon all. If the note has been 
lost, mislaid, or destroyed, the holder must 
still make a regular and formal demand offer¬ 
ing the party, at the same time, a sufficient 
indemnity for failure to return the note. 








HOW TO DO BUSINESS 


657 


NEGOTIABLE NOTE. 

With interest at legal rate per cent, from date. 


ate 

yix 

yK 

'ate 

SK 1 

'ate 

y& 

Chicago, III., Jan. i, 18—. 

Qy^zee &$cm£^d afterdate, for value received, (2/ promise 

to pay ^S^az/ed or order, ifflazzc/zec/ ^Lo/ZaZd^ 

with interest. C WiZZtam C Sow/e. 

NEGOTIABLE NOTE. 

W T ith interest at ten per cent, after maturity, until paid. 

ate 

y& 

ate 

y& 

'ate 

y& 

ate 

y& 

ate 

y& 

'£te 

y& 

$-/ 6 > 0 , Des Moines, Iowa., April 2 , 18—. 

For value received, nzne/^ <Zayd after date, OZ promise 
to pay ZZtZ/iam ^JoZdozi^ or order, C ^ne ( 2/u?ic/zec/ ZZZ 0 /Ya Zd^ 

with interest at ten per cent, after maturity, until paid. 

ZZ-naz/ed y^oZc/cm. 


BANK CHECK. 



42 






















658 


HOW TO DO BUSINESS 


ENDORSEMENT OF CHECK ON BACK. 



BANK DRAFT. 


XK 

ate 

xK 

'ate 

XK 

x& 

as 

IS 

85fl 

No. 398. FIRST NATIONAL BANK. 

^£00 Jersey City, QA^ov. <2, 18 —. 

For value received, pay to the order of C ^ / . dffl. ( 2 ^ac/fet, 

AABa/io'mote, (Afttve dffianc/tec/ Dollars, which charge 

with or without advice to this Bank. 

Ayeoye AAcid^tci. 

JAAn y^f Aym/eteoTij &A 44 -I ( ~Sa4'At'et. 

<&a SCCic/ Jffla/toria/ 

SIGHT DRAFT. 

ate 

'ate 

ate 

xK 

xK 

ate 

XK 

XK 

$300 New York, (2 Pe/d. /£, 18 —. 

At sight pay ( 2 ?f or order, &%teo 

(Ptunc/tcc/ Dollars, and charge the same to the account of 

« ^ K r M M M encc ^ 




















LEGAL FORMS “HIS® 

ym $P 





A HAND-BOOK OF LAW 





yTTHB following compilation of business law 
JL contains the essence of a large amount of legal 

verbiage : i. If a note is lost or stolen, it does not 
release the maker; he must pay it, if the consider¬ 
ation for which it was given and the amount can be 
proven. 

2. Notes bear interest only when so stated. 

3. Principals are responsible for the acts of their 
agents. 

4. Each individual in a partnership is responsible 
for the whole amount of the debts of the firm, except 
in cases of special partnership. 

5. Ignorance of the law excuses no one. 

6. The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 

7. An agreement without consideration is void. 

8. A note made on Sunday is void. 

9. Contracts made on Sunday cannot be enforced. 

10. A note by a minor is voidable. A contract made 
by a minor is void. 

11. A contract made by a lunatic is void. 

12. A note obtained by fraud, or from a person in 
a state of intoxication, cannot be collected. 

13. It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. 

14. Signatures made with a lead-pencil are good in 
law. 

15. A receipt for money is not always conclusive. 

16. The acts of one partner bind all the rest. 

17. The maker of an “ accommodation ’ ’ bill or note 
(one for which he has received no consideration, hav¬ 
ing lent his name or credit for the accommodation of 
the holder) is not bound to the person accommodated, 
but is bound to all other parties, precisely as if there 
was a good consideration. 

18. No consideration is sufficient in law if it be 
illegal in its nature. 

19. Checks or drafts must be presented for 7 ayment 
without unreasonable delay. 

20. Checks or drafts should be presented during 
business hours ; but in this country, except in the 
case of banks, the time extends through the day and 
evening. 

21. If the drawee of a check or draft has changed 
his residence, the holder must use due and reasonable 
t ’licence to find him. 


22. If one who holds a check, as payee or other¬ 
wise, transfers it to another, he has a right to insist 
that the check be presented that day, or, at farthest, 
on the day following. 

23. A note indorsed in blank (the name of the in¬ 
dorser only written) is transferable by delivery, the 
same as if made payable to bearer. 

24. If time of payment of a note is not named, it is 
payable on demand. 

25. The time of payment of a note must not depend 
upon a contingency. The promise must be absolute. 

26. A bill may be written upon any kind of paper, 
either with ink or pencil. 

27. The payee should be named in the note, unless 
it is payable to bearer. 

28. An indorsee has a right of action against all 
whose names were on the bill when he received it. 

29. If the letter containing a protest of non-pay¬ 
ment be put into the post-office, any miscarriage docs 
not affect the party giving notice. Notice of protest 
may be sent either to the place of business or of 
residence of the party notified. 

30. The holder of a note may give notice of protest 
either to all the previous indorsers or only to one of 
them; in case of the latter he must select the last 
Indorser, and the last must give notice to the last 
before him, and so on. Each indorser must send 
notice the same day or the day following. Neither 
Sunday nor any legal holiday is counted in reckon¬ 
ing time in which notice is to be given. 

31. The loss of a note is not sufficient excuse for 
not giving notice of protest. 

32. If two or more persons, as partners, are justly 
liable on a note or bill, due notice to one of them is 
sufficient. 

33. If a note or bill is transferred as security, or 
even as payment of a pre-existing debt, the debt 
revives if the note or bill be dishonored. 

34. An indorsement may be written on the face or 
back. 

35. A11 indorser may prevent his own liability to 
be sued by writing “without recourse” or similar 
words. 

^6. An oral agreement must be proved by evidence. 

059 









GGO 


LEGAL FORMS. 


A written agreement proves itself. The law prefers 
written to oral evidence, because of its precision. 

37. No evidence can be introduced to contradict or 
vary a written contract; but it may be received in 
order to explain it, when such explanation is needed. 

38. Written instruments are to be construed and 
interpreted by the law according to the simple, cus¬ 
tomary and natural meaning of the words used. 

39. The finder of negotiable paper, as of all other 
property, must make reasonable efforts to find the 
owner, before he is entitled to appropriate it for his 
own purposes. If the finder conceal it, he is liable 
to the charge of larceny or theft 

40. Joint payees of a bill or note, who are not 
partners, must all join in an indorsement. 

41. One may make a note payable to his own order 


[ and indorse it in blank. He must write his name 
across its back or face, the same as any other indorser. 

42. After the death of a holder of a bill or note, his 
executor or administrator may transfer it by his 
indorsement. 

43. The husband who acquires a right to a bill ot 
note which was given to the wife, either before or 
after marriage, may indorse it. 

44. “Acceptance ” applies to bills and not to notes. 
It is an engagement on the part of the person 0:1 
whom the bill is drawn to pay it according to its 
tenor. The usual way is to write across the face of 
the bill the word “ accepted.” 

45. An account outlawed according to statute of 
state where it is contracted cannot be collected 
unless judgment note has been given. 


glisipess 


N agreement or contract is an arrange¬ 
ment entered into by two or more 
persons, by which each binds himself 
to perform certain specified acts within a 
designated time. 

Agreements may be verbal, but it is better 
in all cases, and absolutely essential in matters 
of importance, to express them in writing. 

Fraud annuls all contracts and obligations, 
and the party so wronged is relieved of his 

General Form 

This Agreement, made this tw T enty-fifth day of 
September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
eight hundred and ninety—, between John Swan, of 
Livonia, County of Livingston, State of New York, 
party of the first part, and Hiram Bolt, of the same 
place, party of the second part, 

WITNESSETH, That the said John Swan, party of 
the first part, hereby covenants and agrees, that he 
will deliver to the said Hiram Bolt, party of the 
second part, during the month of September, one 
hundred cords of hickory wood, at the woodyard of 
the said Hiram Bolt, as follows : twenty cords to be 
delivered on or before the 10th of October; twenty 
cords more to be delivered on or before the 15th of 
October; twenty cords more on or before the 20th of 
October ; twenty cords more on or before the 25th of 
October, and the remaining twenty cords on or before 
the 30th of October ; the entire quantity of one hun¬ 
dred cords to be delivered by the 30th of October. 

And the said Hiram Bolt, party of the second part, 


obligation by law. If both the parties to an 
agreement act fraudulently, neither can take 
advantage of the fraud of the other; nor can 
one who acts fraudulently set his own fraud 
aside for his benefit. 

Agreements should be prepared and signed 
in duplicate, triplicate, etc., according to the 
number of persons concerned in them. Each 
party should have a copy, and should care¬ 
fully preserve it. 

of Agreement. 

iu consideration of the prompt fulfilment of this 
agreement by the said John Swan, party of the first 
part, agrees and binds himself to pay to the said 
John Swan, the sum of three dollars for each and 
every cord of hickory wood delivered to him by the 
said John Swan or his agents, and to pay for each 
cord of wood as soon as it is delivered at his wood- 
3^ard. 

In case of the failure of either party to this con¬ 
tract to make good his promises, it is hereby stipu¬ 
lated and agreed that the party so failing shall forfeit 
to the other party the sum of one hundred dollars in 
cash as fixed and settled damages. 

In Witness Whereof, the parties to these 
presents have hereunto set their hands and seals, 
the day and year first above written. 

JOHN SWAN. [seal,.] 
HIRAM BOLT, [seae.j 
Signed, sealed and delivered ) 
in presence of S 








LEGAL FORMS. 


CGI 


] ;ci\Vs of Partnership 


PARTNERSHIP is an agreement be¬ 
tween two or more persons for join¬ 
ing together their money, goods, 
labor, and skill, or any or all of them, in 
some lawful commerce or business, under 
an understanding, express or implied from 
the nature of the undertaking, that the 
parties to the agreement shall share be¬ 
tween them the profits and loss arising 
therefrom. 

It is not necessary that each partner should 
contribute an equal amount of money to be 
entitled to an equal share of the profits. An 
individual may contribute his knowledge of 
the business to be engaged in, or his skill, or 
his labor, or all three, the other partner or 
partners contributing a specified sum of 
money, or the money and their services. 
The agreement must state exactly what is 
contributed. 

The act of one partner binds all the others. 


Thus, if one partner gives a negotiable note 
for the use of the firm, and signs it with his 
individual name, such signature binds all the 
other partners. 

A person who contributes his money to 
the capital of a firm and shares its profits,, 
without allowing his name to be used, is 
termed a secret or silent partner. A person 
contributing to the capital and sharing the 
profits of the concern, but taking no active 
part in its management, is termed a sleeping 
or dormant partner. Both of these are liable 
to creditors for the debts of the concern, 
even though they did not know them to be 
members of the firm. 

In forming partnerships, it is generally the 
rule to form them for a stated period, which 
must be expressed in the agreement. This 
is termed a limited partnership, and expires 
“ by limitation ” at the end of the period 
named. 



A Partnership Agreement. 


This Agreement, made this tenth day of June, 
189-, between James Smith, of Salem, Washington 
County, N. Y., of the one part, and Henry Smythe, 
of the same place, of the other part, witnesseth : 

The said parties agree to associate themselves as 
co-partners, for a period of five years from this date, 
in the business of buying and selling hardware and 
such other goods and commodities as belong in that 
line of trade ; the name and style of the firm to be 
“Smith & Smythe.” 

For the purpose of conducting the business of the 
aboved named partnership, James Smith has, at the 
date of this writing, invested Five Thousand Dollars, 
as capital stock, and the said Henry Smythe has paid 
in the like sum of Five Thousand Dollars, both of 
which amounts are to be expended and used in 
common, for the mutual advantage of the parties 
hereto, in the management of their business. 

It is further agreed that once every year, or oftener, 
should either party desire, a full, just and accurate 
exhibit shall be made to each other, or to their 
executors, administrators or representatives, of the 


losses, receipts, profits and increase made by reason 
of, or arising from, such co-partnership. And after 
such exhibit is made, the surplus profit, if such there 
be, resulting from the business, shall be divided be¬ 
tween the subscribing partners, share and share alike. 

[Here state amount to be drawn out annually 
by eachparty .] 

It is also agreed that in case of a misunderstanding 
arising with the partners hereto which cannot be set¬ 
tled between themselves, such difference of opinion 
shall be settled by arbitration, upon the following con¬ 
ditions, to wit: Each party to choose one arbitrator, 
which two thus elected shall choose a third ; the 
three thus chosen to determine the merits of the case, 
and arrange the basis of a settlement. 

In Witness Whereof, The undersigned hereto 
set their hands the day and year first above written. 

JAMES SMITH. 

HENRY SMYTHE. 

Signed in presence of 
John Jones, 
vSamuee Brown. 






662 


LEGAL FORMS. 


Deeds 


< TN this country, no lands can be trans¬ 
ferred excepting by a deed, which 
must be properly signed, sealed, wit¬ 
nessed, acknowledged, delivered, and re¬ 
corded. In some of the States, seals are 
not necessary to the validity of a deed. 

A deed must be delivered in order to ren¬ 
der it valid. There is no special form neces¬ 
sary to constitute a proper delivery. If the 
deed comes into the possession of the grantee 
with the knowledge and consent of the gran¬ 
tor, however it may have been gotten posses¬ 
sion of, it is a valid delivery. If a man makes 
a deed and fails to deliver it, and dies with 

Warranty Deed 

This Indenture, Made this eighteenth day of 
March, in the year of our Lord 189-, between Ben 
Cooper, of Ramsey, County of Fayette, State of 
Illinois, and Mary, his wife, of the first part, and 
L. Y. Rood, of the same place, of the second part. 

WiTNESSE-H, That the said party of the first part, 
for and in consideration of the sum of Three Thou¬ 
sand Dollars in hand, paid by the said party of the 
second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowl¬ 
edged, have granted, bargained, and «old, and by 
these presents do grant, bargain and sell, unto the 
said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, 
all the following described lot, piece, or parcel of 
land, situated in the town of Ramsey, in the County 
of Fayette, and State of Illinois, to wit: 

\Here describe the property .] 

Together with all and singular the hereditaments 
and appurtenances thereunto belonging or in any 
wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, 
remainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits 
thereof; and all the estate, right, title, interest, claim 
and demand whatsoever, of the said party of the first 
part, either in law or equity, of, in, and to the above 
bargained premises, with the hereditaments and 
appurtenances : To have and to hold the said prem¬ 
ises above bargained and described, with the appur¬ 
tenances, unto the said party of the second part, his 
heirs and assigns, forever. And the said Ben Cooper, 
and Mary, his wife, parties of the first part, hereby 
expressly waive, release and relinquish unto the said 
party of the second part, his heirs, executors, admiuis- 


it in his possession, the deed is of no effect 
whatever. A deed to a married woman 
may be delivered either to her or to her 
husband. 

A deed must be recorded to be valid 
That is, the grantee must deliver it to the 
Recorder of Deeds, or other official appointed 
by law for that purpose, who must cause it 
to be copied in full in a book kept in his 
office for that purpose. A deed is regarded 
as recorded from the moment it is placed in 
the hands of this officer, and he generally 
writes upon it the year, month, day, hour, 
and minute when he received it. 

with Covenants. 

trators, and assigns, all right, tit'll, claim, interest, 
and benefit whatever, in and to th e above described 
premises, and each and every part thereof, which is 
given by or results from all laws of tnis State per¬ 
taining to the exemption of homesteads. 

And the said Ben Cooper and Mary Cooper, his 
wife, party of the first part, for themselves and their 
heirs, executors, and administrators, do covenant, 
grant, bargain, and agree, to and with the said party 
of the second part, his heirs and assigns, that at the 
time of the ensealing and delivery of these presents 
they were well seized of the premises above conveyed, 
as of a good, sure, perfect, absolute, and indefeasible 
estate of inheritance in law, and in fee simple, and 
have good right, full power, and lawful authority to 
grant, bargain, sell, and convey the same, in manner 
and form aforesaid, and that the same are free and 
clear from all former and other grants, bargains, 
sales, liens, taxes, assessments, and encumbrances of 
what kind or nature soever, and the above bargained 
premises in the quiet and peaceable possession of the 
said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, 
against all and every person or persons lawfully 
claiming or to claim the whole or any part thereof, 
the said party of the first part shall and will warrant 
and forever defend. 

In testimony whereof, the said parties of the first 
part have hereunto set their hands and seals the day 
and year first above written. 

BEN COOPER. I 3 EAE.] 

MARY COOPER. [seae-I 





LEGAL FORMS. 


663 


Mortgages 


MORTGAGE is a deed conveying real 
estate to a creditor, as security for a 
debt. It conveys the property to him 
as fully and absolutely as though it were sold 
outright, with this difference, that the debtor 
retains by the terms of the deed the right to 
pay the debt and redeem the property within 
a specified time. 

It is usual for the mortgage to contain an 
agreement that the mortgagor shall keep the 
premises insured in a certain sum for the 
benefit of the mortgagee. Where no such 
stipulation is made, and the mortgagee in¬ 


sures the premises, he cannot recover the 
cost of the insurance from the mortgagor. 

Should a mortgagor erect buildings upon 
mortgaged land, the mortgagee, on taking 
possession, becomes the owner of these 
buildings also. If, however, the mortgagee 
erects buildings upon lands on which he 
holds a mortgage, the mortgagor, upon re¬ 
deeming the land, becomes the owner of 
such buildings without paying the mort¬ 
gagee for them. Such matters may, and 
should always, be regulated by an agree¬ 
ment between the parties. 



Real Estate Mortgage to Secure Payment of Money. 


This Indenture, Made this nineteenth day of 
October, in the year of our Lord, 189-, between W. H. 
Harrison, of Urbana, County of Champaign, and 
State of Illinois, and Helen, his wife, party of the first 
part, and Robert Fairchild, party of the second part. 

Whereas, The said party of the first part is justly 
indebted to the said party of the second part, in the 
sum of Four Thousand Dollars, secured to be paid by 
two certain promissory notes (bearing even date 
herewith), the one due and payable at the First 
National Bank at Champaign, Ill., with interest, on 
the nineteenth day of October, in the year 189- ; the 
other due and payable at the First National Bank at 
Champaign, Ill., with interest, on the nineteenth day 
of October, 189-. 

Now, Therefore, This Indenture Witness- 
ETH, That the said party of the first part, for the 
better securing the payment of the money aforesaid, 
with interest thereon, according to the tenor and 
effect of the said two promissory notes above men¬ 
tioned ; and, also, in consideration of the further sum 
of one dollar to them in hand paid by the said 
party of the second part, at the delivery of these 
presents, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowl¬ 
edged, have granted, bargained, sold, and conveyed, 
and by these presents do grant, bargain, sell, and 
convey, unto the said party of the second part, 
his heirs and assigns, forever, all that certain parcel 
of land, situate, etc. 

[.Describing the premises. ] 

To have and to hold the same, together with all 
•and singular the tenements, hereditaments, privi¬ 


leges, and appurtenances thereunto belonging or in 
any wise appertaining. And also, all the estate, 
interest, and claim whatsoever, in law as well as in 
equity, which the party of the first part have in and 
to the premises hereby conveyed unto the said party 
of the second part, his heirs and assigns, and to 
their only proper use, benefit, and behoof. And the 
said W. II. Harrison, and Helen, his wife, party of 
the first part, hereby expressly waive, relinquish, 
release, and convey unto the said party of the second 
part, his heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, 
all right, title, claim, interest, and benefit whatever, 
in and to the above described premises, and each and 
every part thereof, which is given by or results from 
all laws of this State pertaining to the exemption of 
homesteads. 

Provided Alwa\ , and these presents are upon 
this express condition, that if the said party of the 
first part, their heirs, executors, or administrators, 
shall well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, to the 
said party of the second part, his heirs, executors, 
administrators, or assigns, the aforesaid sums of 
money, with such interest thereon, at the time and 
in the manner specified in the above mentioned 
promissory notes, according to the true intent and 
meaning thereof, then, in that case, these presents 
and everything herein expressed, shall be absolutely 
null and void. 

In WITNESS Whereof, the said party of the first 
part hereunto set their hands and seals the day and 
year first above written. 

W. H. HARRISON. [1,. S.] 
HELEN HARRISON. [L. S.] 






664 


LEGAL FORMS. 


Landlords ar|d ^daqts 


EASES should be written. No par¬ 
ticular form of words is essential, but 
the lease should state in the clearest 
manner the terms and conditions of the 
agreement, so that nothing may be left to 
dispute between the landlord and tenant. 
The law does not recognize verbal promises 
as binding. Therefore the lease must state 
explicitly all the covenants between the 
parties. 

When the landlord desires to prevent his 
tenant from sub-letting a part or the whole 
of the premises, he must provide for it in the 
lease. A person holding a lease which does 
not contain this prohibition can sub-let at 
his pleasure. 

The lease should definitely state the period 
for which it is given. If no time is specified 
the tenant can hold the property for one 
year, but no longer. A tenant-at-will cannot 
vacate the property without giving notice of 


his intention, nor can he be put out without 
being- given notice of the landlord’s desire to 
regain possession of the property. The laws 
in the various States are quite uniform as to 
the time of notice required. If the rent be 
payable quarterly, three months’ notice must 
be given. If it be payable at more frequent 
periods, then the notice must equal in length 
the period of the payment. If the rent is 
payable monthly, a month’s notice is suffi¬ 
cient; if weekly, a week’s notice will answer. 

A lease given for a specified time, as one 
year, expires at the end of that time, and the 
tenant may leave without giving notice, or 
the landlord may put him out without notice. 

A lease should be recorded, whether the 
law requires it or not. Such record binds a 
subsequent purchaser of the property to 
assume all the obligations of the former 
landlord as expressed in the lease, and is a 
necessary legal form. 



Form of Lease of a Farm and Buildings 


This AGREEMENT, Made this first day of January, 
189- between PelegRoss, of Shawnee County, State 
of Kansas, party of the first part, and O. B. Scott, of 
the county and State aftnesaid, party of the second 
part, 

WITNESSETH, That the said Peleg Ross lets, and 
the said O. B. Scott agrees to take and hold of him 
as tenant all that parcel of land, with the buildings 
and improvements appertaining and belonging to 
it, situate— 

[Here insert an accurate and careful description 
of the property. ] 

From the first day of February next ensuing, upon 
the terms following, that is to say : 

Said tenant shall be deemed a tenant from year 
to year; 

That said tenant enter and take possession of said 
premises on the first day of February next; 

That either party may determine the tenancy by a 
notice in writing, three months before the expiration 
of any year from the first day of February next pre¬ 
ceding ; 


That the rent of said premises shall be five hun¬ 
dred dollars per annum, payable in half yearly pay¬ 
ments on, etc., and on, etc. ; 

That the said tenant agrees to cause the following 
repairs to be made, viz.: [ Here state the repairs 
agreed upon~\ ; 

That said tenant on quitting the farm shall receive 
such pecuniary compensation for improvements in 
fencing, etc., as two arbitrators (one of which arbi¬ 
trators shall be nominated by each party, and if 
either neglect to nominate his arbitrator, the other 
party may nominate both arbitrators) shall award, 
which arbitrators shall abate according to the benefit 
derived by the tenant from such repairs, improve¬ 
ments, and additions, and take into consideration 
how far, at the expiration of the tenancy, they may 
be beneficial to the estate. 

In "Witness Whereof, The said parties have 
hereunto set their hands and seals the day and 
year first above “Titten. 

PEFEG ROSS, [seai,.] 

O. B. SCOTT. [seae.] 





LEGAL FORMS. 


GG5 


fxast Wills aqd : restaii^ei]ts 


NY one may make a will who is of 
legal age and sound mind. A mar¬ 
ried woman cannot, however, make 
a will unless the law of the State in which 
her property is situated vests her with the 
separate ownership of it. 

The legal age for making a will devising 
real estate is twenty-one years. In most of 
the States a male, aged eighteen years, or a 
female, aged sixteen years, may bequeath 
personal property by will. 

The person making a will, if a male, is 
called the testator ; if a female, the testatrix. 

A will is of no effect during the life of the 
maker, and may be set aside, altered or re¬ 
placed by a new will, at any time previous 
to the death of the maker. 

The last will made annuls all previous 
wills. It is, therefore, the duty of the tes¬ 
tator to state distinctly in the first part that 
this is his last will. If he has made other 
wills, he should state that by this instrument 
he revokes all other wills. 

The will should close with a formal state¬ 
ment that it is the deliberate act of the tes¬ 
tator, and that it is properly signed ai d 
sealed by him. 

All wills must be witnessed. Tnis is a 
very important part of making a will, and 
should be performed in strict accordance 
with the laws of the State in wAch it is 
made. Some of the States require two, and 
some three credible witnesses. It is a good 
plan for the testator to have the will witnessed 
by three persons, in all cases, whether the 
law requires it or not. 

General F( 

I, Thomas Henry Howard, of the City of Baltimore, 
State of Maryland, declare this to be my last will and 
testament. 

I. I give and bequeath to my wife Catharine 


The witnesses to a will should see the 
testator sign it. He should perform the act 
in their presence. If the testator cannot 
write, or is too feeble by reason of old age 
or sickness to do so, he may make his mark 
in the presence of the witnesses. 

Where a will is made, and the testator 
subsequently disposes of any or all the prop¬ 
erty described in the will, the will is invali¬ 
dated to the extent of the alienation of the 
property. 

Where a man makes a will, and subse¬ 
quently marries and has children, the law 
regards the will as revoked, unless the tes¬ 
tator, alter such acts, makes a new will con¬ 
firming the original one. 

A person cannot be an executor to a will 
if at the time of the probate of the will he is 
a minor, a drunkard, a convict, or of unsound 
mind. 

Wills are of two kinds, written and verbal 
or nuncupative. 

A codicil is an addition to a will designed 
to modify or add new provisions to a will. 
It does not revoke the will. Though there 
can be but one will, there may be any num¬ 
ber of codicils, 

A will made by a single woman is revoked 
by her subsequent marriage. By the terms 
of her marriage settlement she may, how¬ 
ever, provide for the right to dispose of her 
property. 

A wife cannot be deprived of her dower 
by any will of her husband. A husband 
may, however, bequeath to his wife a certain 
sum in lieu of her dower. 

•m of Will. 

Howard, all the fixtures, prints, books, paintings,, 
linen, china, household goods, furniture, chattels, 
and effects, other than money, or securities for 
money, which shall, at my death, be in or about my 






STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS. 


0G3 


house, No. 458 Park avenue, in the said City of 
Baltimore. 

2. I also give and bequeath unto my said wife, the 
sum of fifty thousand dollars in the preferred stock of 
the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company, now held 
by me. 

3. I give and devise to my son, George Frederick 
Howard, his heirs and assigns, forever, all that 
certain brick dwelling and lot of ground, known as 
Number 529, in St. Paul street, in the said City of 
Baltimore, together with all the hereditaments and 
appurtenances thereto belonging, or in anywise 
appertaining ; to have and to hold the premises above 
described to the said George Frederick Howard, his 
heirs and assigns, forever. 

4. I give and bequeath to my said son, George 
Frederick Howard, the sum of one hundred thousand 
dollars, in the bonds of the United States of America, 


known as the five-twenty bonds, being all the secur¬ 
ities of the United States now held by me. 

5. I also bequeath to each of my domestic servants 
who may be living with me at the time of my death, 
the sum of two hundred dollars. 

6. All the rest, residue, and remainder of my real 
and personal estate, I give, devise, and bequeath in 
equal shares, to my said wife, Catharine Howard, 
and to my son, George Frederick Howard, their heirs 
and assigns forever. 

7. I appoint my said son and my said friend, Alfred 
W. Fee, executors of this my will, and desire that 
they shall not be required to give any security for 
the performance of their duties. 

In Witness Whereof, I, Thomas Henry Howard, 
have hereunto set my hand and seal this twenty-fifth 
day of May, 189-. 

THOMAS HENRY HOWARD, [seat.] 


44= 


Tj0 —l 




k.y.v 

Statutes of Limitations 1 


L-SS 






a* — 3 , 


.2— 





Showing the Limit of Time for Notes, Accounts and Judgments 

in the Various States and Territories. 


Note. —“ J. P.” means judgments of Justices of the Peace and other Courts not of record. Sealed 
instruments and notes with witnesses, in some of the States, are not within these limitations, nor are judg¬ 
ments rendered in other States. The lien of a judgment on real estate in some States is shorter in time than 
the period of limitation. Special limitations apply to claims presented to executors or administrators and 
disputed by them. 


States, Territories, &c. 

NOTES. 

ACCOUNTS. 

JUDGMENTS. 

Alabama. 

6 years. 

Stated accounts, 6 years ; open 
accounts 3 years. 

10 years ; J. P. from 3% to 

5 years. 

Alaska . 

6 years. 

6 years. 

10 years. 

Arizona. 

5 years. 

3 years; between merchant and 
merchant, 4 years. 

5 years. 

Arkansas. 

5 years. 

3 years. 

10 years. 

California .... 

Made in State, 4 years ; 
outside. 2 years. 

2 years. 

5 years. 

Colorado. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

10 yrs.; J. P. 7 yrs. 

Connecticut .... 

6 years. 

6 years. 

17 years. 

Delaware. 

6 years. 

3 years. 

10 years. 

District of Columbia. 

3 years. 

3 years. 

12 years ; J. P. 3 years if execu¬ 
tion issued in 1 year. 

Florida. 

5 years. 

4 years. 

20 yrs.; J. P. 7 yrs. 






































STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS. 


667 


States, Territories, &c. 


Georgia . . 
Idaho . . . 
Illinois . . . 
Indiana . . 
Indian Territory 
Iowa . . . 
Kansas . . 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 
Maine . . . 
Manitoba . . 
Maryland 
Massachusetts 
Michigan . . 


Minnesota 
Mississippi 
Missouri . 
Montana . 
Nebraska . 
Nevada. . 

New Brunswicl 
Newfoundland 
New Hampshire 
New Jersey . 
New Mexico 
New York . 
North Carolina 
North Dakota 
Nova Scotia . 
Ohio .... 
Oklahoma Territ 
Ontario. . . 
Oregon. . . 

Pennsylvania 

• 

Prince Edward 
Quebec. . . 
Rhode Island 
South Carolina 
South Dakota 
Tennessee 


:o 


Isla 




nd 


NOTES. 


6 years. 

5 years, 
io years, 
io years. 

5 years, 
io years. 

5 y r ears. 

15 years ; if discounted in 
bank, 5 years. 

5 y^ears. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

3 years. 

6 yean 
6 years. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

io yrears. 

8 years. 

5 y r ears. 

6 yrears. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

6 yrears. 

6 years. 

6 yrears. 

6 yrears. 

3 years. 

6 yrears. 

6 yrears. 

i 5 years. 

5 years. 

6 yrears. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

6 yrears. 

5 years. 


6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 


ACCOUNTS. 


4 years. 

4 years. 

5 years. 

6 years. 

3 years. 

5 years. 

3 years. 

Between merchant and mer¬ 
chant, 5 years ; between mer¬ 
chant and consumer, 2 years. 

3 years. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

3 years. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

when acknowledged i 
g, 6 years. 


3 years; when acknowle 
writing, 6 years. 


in 


5 years. 

5 years. 
4 years. 
4 years. 

6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 

4 years. 
6 years. 
3 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 
3 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 

5 years. 

6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 
6 years. 


JUDGMENTS. 


7 years. 

6 years. 

20 yrs.; J. P. 5 yrs. 
20 years. 

Unsettled. 

20 yrs.; J. P. 10 yrs. 

5 years. 

1 5 years. 

10 years. 

20 years. 

10 years. 

12 years. 

20 yrs.; J. P. 6 yrs. 
10 yrs.; J. P. 6 yrs. 
10 years. 

7 years. 

10 years. 

6 years. 

5 years. 

6 years. 

20 yrs.; J. P. 6 yrs. 
20 years. 

20 years. 

20 years. 

7 years. 

20 yrs.; J. P. 6 yrs. 
10 yrs.; J. P. 7 yrs. 
10 years. 

20 yrs.; J. P. 4 yrs. 

21 years.. 

5 years. 

20 years. 

10 years. 

20 years. 

20 years; County Court, 10 years 

30 years. 

20 years. 

20 years. 

20 years. 

10 years. 



































6G8 


STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS. 


States, Territories, &c. 

NOTES. 

ACCOUNTS. 

JUDGMENTS. 

Texas. 

4 years. 

On stated and open accounts. 2 
years; on mutual and current 
accounts, concerning trade of 
merchandise between mer¬ 
chant and merchant, 4 years. 

io years. 

Utah. 

4 years. 

2 years. 

5 years. 

Vermont. 

6 years. 

6 years. 

8 years. 

Virginia. 

5 years. 

Between merchant and mer¬ 
chant, 3 years; others, 2 years. 

If execution returned unsatis¬ 
fied, 20 years ; if no such returr 
made, io years. 

Washington .... 

5 years. 

3 years. 

6 years. 

West Virginia . . . 

10 years. 

5 years. 

io years. 

Wisconsin .... 

6 years. 

6 years. 

20 yrs.; J. P. 6 yrs. 

Wyoming .... 

5 years. , 

8 years. 

5 years; but under some cir¬ 
cumstances may be revived 
after that time. 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR 

OR 

READY RECKONER 

pB W |3jpB 






@ Y the use of the following tables the 
cost of any number of articles at any 
given price can be ascertained at a 
glance. The first column of figures shows 
the number of articles ; the second column 
of figures shows the total cost. For exam¬ 
ple, 17 articles at cent each, amount to 


4 t 4 cents; 98 articles amount to 2414 cents. 
No one can fail to see the convenience of 
these tables. By consulting them you not 
only save time, but you are sure of the 
accuracy of the reckoning. Almost instantly 
the desired result can be obtained and it is 
certain to be correct. 


At 4 Cent. 


No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

I 

. k 

18 

•44 

35 

. 84 

52 

•13 

6q 

.17I 

86 

.214 

2 

• i 

19 

• 44 

36 

• 9 

53 

• 134 

70 

•174 

87 

• 2 ii 

3 


20 

•5 

37 

• 94 

54 

.134 

71 

• 174 

8S 

.22 

4 

.i 

21 

•54 

33 

• 94 

55 

.134 

72 

.18 

S9 

.224 

5 

.i 4 

22 

•54 

39 

• 94 

56 

.14 

73 

. 184 

90 

. 22 5 

6 

• i* 

23 

•54 

40 

.10 

57 

.144 

74 

.184 

91 

.22.| 

7 

.i 4 

24 

.6 

4 i 

,to 4 

53 

.144 

75 

.184 

92 

.23 

8 

.2 

25 

.64 

42 

.104 

59 

.144 

76 

• 19 

93 

•234 

9 

.24 

26 

.6 j 

43 

-.io! 

60 

•w 

77 

.194 

94 

.234 

IO 

.24 

27 

.64 

44 

.11 

61 

• 154 

73 

• 195 

96 

.24 

ii 

.2| 

28 

•7 

45 

.114 

62 

.154 

79 

. 19! 

98 

. 24 i 

12 

•3 

29 

• 74 

46 

.114 

63 

.154 

80 

.20 

100 

.25 

13 

•34 

30 

•74 

47 

.n| 

64 

.16 

81 

.204 

200 

• 5 ® 

14 

•34 

31 

••74 

48 

.12 

65 

.164 

82 

.205 

300 

•75 

*5 

•34 

32 

• 8 

49 

. 124 

66 

.164 

83 

. 2o| 

400 

1.00 

16 

•4 

33 

. 84 

50 

.124 

67 

. i6| 

84 

.21 

500 

1.25 

17 

• 44 

34 

. 84 

5 i 

.124 

68 

•17 

85 

.214 

I coo 

2.50 












































































































































































































































































































































































































LIGHTNING CALCULATOR 


CCD 


At | Cent 


At 2 Cents. 


No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

i 

• i 

32 

. 16 

63 

• 3 i i 

1 

. 2 

32 

.64 

63 

1.26 

2 

. r 

t 

33 

. 162 

64 

•32 

2 

• 4 

33 

.66 

64 

1.2S 

3 

. u 

34 

•17 

65 

.322 

3 

. 6 

34 

.68 

65 

1.30 

4 

. 2 

35 

- I 7 i 

66 

• 33 

4 

. 8 

35 

.70 

66 

1.32 

5 

. 23 

36 

.18 

67 

•332 

5 

. 10 

36 

•72 

67 

1-34 

6 

• 3 

37 

»i8£ 

68 

• 34 , 

6 

. 12 

37 

•74 

68 

1*36 

7 

■• 32 

33 

.19 

69 

•345 

7 

.14 

38 

.76 

69 

1.38 

8 

• 4 

39 

• 19* 

70 

• 35 , 

8 

. 16 

39 

.78 

70 

1.40 

9 

. 4 i 

40 

.20 

7 i 

•355 

9 

.18 

40 

.80 

7 i 

1 42 

IO 

• 5 

4 i 

•20* 

72 

. 3 6 

10 

.20 

4 i 

.82 

72 

1.44 

ii 

• 5 i 

42 

.21 

73 

• 364 

11 

.22 

42 

.84 

73 

1.46 

12 

. 6 

43 

•2l£ 

74 

• 37 , 

12 

.24 

43 

.86 

74 

1.48 

13 

. 6J 

44 

. 22 

75 

.372 

13 

.26 

44 

.88 

75 

1.50 

14 

• 7 

45 

.22^ 

76 

.38 

14 

.28 

45 

• QO 

76 

1.52 

15 

• 7 i 

46 

•23 

73 

•39 

15 

•30 

46 

.92 

78 

1.5& 

16 

. 8 

47 

• 23 £ 

80 

.40 

16 

• 32 

47 

•94 

80 

1.60 

17 

. 84 

48 

.24 

82 

• 4 i 

17 

•34 

48 

.96 

82 

1.64 

18 

• 9 

49 

.244 

84 

.42 

18 

•36 

49 

.98 

84 

1.68 

19 

. 94 

50 

.25 

86 

•43 

19 

•33 

50 

1. 

86 

1.72 

20 

. 10 

5 1 

•252 

S8 

•44 

20 

.40 

5 i 

1.02 

88 

1.76 

21 

.104 

52 

.26 

90 

•45 

21 

.42 

52 

1.04 

90 

1.80 

22 

.11 

53 

. 263 

92 

.46 

r? 

•44 

53 

1.06 

92 

1.84 

23 

.114 

54 

•27 

94 

•47 

23 

.46 

54 

1.08 

94 

1.88 

24 

. 12 

55 

.274 

96 

.48 

24 

.48 

55 

1.10 

96 

1.92 

25 

.124 

56 

.28 

98 

•49 

25 

•50 

56 

1.12 

98 

1.96 

26 

• 13 

57 

.2S4 

100 

• 5 v> 

26 

.52 

57 

1.14 

100 

2. 

27 

•134 

53 

•29 

200 

1. 

27 

•54 

58 

1.16 

200 

4 - 

28 

.14 

59 

.295 

300 

1.50 

28 

.56 

59 

1.18 

300 

6. 

29 

.144 

60 

.30 

400 

2. 

29 

.58 

60 

1.20 

400 

8. 

30 

• 15 

61 

.302 

500 

2.50 

30 

.60 

61 

1.22 

500 

10. 

31 

.154 

62 

•31 

1000 

5 - 

31 

.62 

62 

1.24 

1000 

20. 



At 

I Cent. 



At 5 Cents. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

1 

. 1 

32 

.32 

63 

•63 

1 

• 5 

32 

1.60 

63 

3-15 

2 

. 2 

33 

•33 

64 

.64 

2 

.10 

33 

1.65 

64 

3-20 

3 

• 3 

34 

•34 

65 

•£>5 

3 

• 15 

34 

1.70 

65 

3-25 

4 

• 4 

35 

•35 

66 

.66 

4 

.20 

35 

1-75 

66 

3-30 

5 

• 5 

36 

.36 

67 

.67 

5 

.25 

36 

1.80 

67 ' 

3-35 

6 

. 6 

37 

•37 

68 

.63 

6 

•30 

37 

1.85 

68 

3 40 

7 

• 7 

38 

.38 

69 

.69 

7 

•35 

38 

1.90 

69 

3-45 

8 

. 8 

39 

•39 

70 

.70 

8 

.40 

39 

i -95 

70 

3-50 

9 

• 9 

40 

.40 

7 i 

• 7 i 

9 

• 45 

40 

2. 

7 i 

3-55 

10 

. 10 

41 

.41 

72 

• 72 

10 

.50 

4 i 

2.05 

72 

3-60 

11 

.11 

42 

.42 

73 

•73 

11 

• 55 

42 

2.10 

73 

3-65 

12 

. 12 

43 

•43 

74 

•74 

12 

.60 

43 

2-15 

74 

3-70 

13 

• 13 

44 

•44 

75 

•75 

13 

•65 

44 

2.20 

75 

3-75 

14 

.14 

45 

•45 

76 

.76 

M 

.70 

45 

2.25 

7 <> 

3- 80 

15 

.15 

46 

.46 

7 S 

•73 

15 

•75 

46 

2.30 

78 

3 - 9 ° 

16 

. 16 

47 

•47 

80 

.80 

16 

.So 

47 

2-35 

80 

4 - 

17 

•17 

43 

.48 

82 

•83 

17 

•35 

48 

2.40 

82 

4.10 

18 

. 18 

49 

•49 

84 

.84 

18 

.90 

49 

2.45 

84 

4.20 

19 

.19 

50 

•50 

86 

.86 

19 

•95 

50 

2.50 

86 

4-30 

■20 

.20 

51 

• 5 i 

88 

.88 

20 

I. 

5 i 

2-55 

88 

4.40 

21 

.21 

52 

•52 

90 

.90 

21 

1.05 

52 

2.60 

90 

4-50 

22 

.22 

53 

•53 

92 

.92 

22 

1.10 

53 

2.65 

92 

4.60 

23 

.23 

54 

•54 

94 

•94 

23 

I -15 

54 

2.70 

94 

4.70 

24 

•24 

55 

•55 

96 

.96 

24 

1.20 

55 

2.75 

96 

4.80 

25 

.25 

56 

.56 

98 

.98 

25 

1.25 

56 

2.80 

98 

4.90 

26 

.26 

57 

•57 

100 

1. 

26 

1.30 

57 

2.85 

100 

5 - 

27 

.27 

53 

.58 

200 

2. 

27 

1-35 

58 

2.90 

125 

6.25 

28 

.28 

59 

•59 

300 

3 - 

28 

I.40 

59 

2-95 

150 

7-50 

29 

.29 

60 

.60 

400 

4 - 

29 

1-45 

60 

3 - 

175 

8.75 

30 

• 30 

61 

.61 

500 

5 - 

30 

1.50 

61 

3-05 

200 

10. 

3 i 

•31 

62 

.62 

liooo 

10. 

3 i 

1-55 

62 

3.10 

225 

n.25 

















































































670 


LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 


At io Cents. 

At 25 Cents. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

Nd. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

i 

. 10 

32 

3.20 

63 

6.30 

1 

.25 

32 

8. 

63 

15-75 

2 

.20 

33 

3-30 

64 

6.40 

2 

•50 

33 

8 25 

64 

16. 

3 

•30 

34 

3-40 

65 

6.50 

3 

-75 

34 

8.50 

65 

16.25 

4 

.40 

35 

3-50 

66 

6.60 

4 

1. 

35 

8-75 

66 

16.50 

5 

.50 

36 

3.60 

67 

6.70 

5 

1 25 

36 

9 - 

67 

16-75 

6 

.60 

37 

3-70 

63 

6.80 

6 

1.50 

37 

9-25 

68 

17. 

7 

.70 

38 

3.80 

69 

6.90 

7 

i -75 

38 

9.50 

69 

17-25 

8 

.80 

39 

3 - 9 ° 

70 

7 - 

8 

2. 

39 

6-75 

70 

17.50 

9 

.90 

40 

4 * 

71 

7.10 

9 

2.25 

40 

10. 

7 i 

17-75 

IO 

1. 

4 i 

4.10 

72 

7.20 

10 

2.50 

41 

10.25 

72 

18. 

ii 

1.10 

42 

4.20 

73 

7-30 

11 

2-75 

42 

10.50 

73 

18.25 

12 

1.20 

43 

4-30 

74 

7.40 

12 

3 - 

43 

10.75 

74 

18.50 

13 

1.30 

44 

4.40 

75 

7-50 

13 

3-25 

44 

11. 

75 

18-75 

14 

1.40 

45 

4-50 

76 

7.60 

14 

3-50 

45 

11.25 

76 

19. 

15 

1.50 

46 

4.60 

78 

7.80 

15 

3-75 

46 

11.50 

78 

19.50 

16 

1.60 

47 

4.70 

80 

8. 

16 

4 - 

47 

11.75 

80 

20. 

17 

1.70 

48 

4.80 

82 

8.20 

17 

4-25 

48 

12. 

82 

20.50 

18 

1.80 

49 

4.90 

84 

8.40 

18 

4-50 

49 

12.25 

84 

21. 

19 

1.90 

50 

5 - 

86 

8.60 

19 

4-75 

50 

12.50 

86 

21.50 

20 

2. 

51 

5-10 

88 

8.80 

20 

5 - 

5 i 

12.75 

88 

22. 

21 

2.10 

52 

5-20 

90 

9 - 

21 

5-25 

52 

13 - 

90 

22.50 

22 

2.20 

* 53 

5-30 

92 

9.20 

22 

5-50 

53 

13-25 

92 

23 - 

23 

2.30 

54 

5-40 

94 

9.40 

23 

5-75 

54 

13.50 

94 

23.50 

24 

2.40 

55 

5-50 

96 

9.60 

24 

6. 

55 

13-75 

96 

24. 

25 

2.50 

56 

5.60 

98 

9.80 

25 

6.25 

56 

14. 

98 

24.50 

26 

2.60 

57 

5-70 

100 

10. 

26 

6.50 

57 

14-25 

100 

25. 

27 

2.70 

58 

5.80 

125 

12.50 

27 

6-75 

58 

14.50 

125 

31-25 

28 

2.80 

59 

5-90 

150 

15. 

28 

7 - 

59 

14-75 

150 

37-50 

29 

2.90 

60 

6. 

175 

17-50 

29 

7-25 

60 

15 - 

175 

43-75 

30 

3 - 

61 

6.10 

200 

20. 

30 

7-50 

61 

15-25 

200 

50 - 

31 

3 -io 

62 

6.20 

225 

22.50 

3 i 

7-75 

62 

15-50 

225 

56.25 


At 12* Cents, 

or * of a 

Dollar. 



At 33* Cents, 

or * of a 

Dollar 


No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

1 

.12$ 

32 

4 - , 

63 

7 . 87 * 

r 

• 33 * 

32 

io.66| 

63 

21* 

2 

.25 

33 

4-12* 

64 

8. 

2 

• 66| 

33 

11. 

64 

21 - 33 * 

3 

• 37 * 

34 

4-25 

65 

8.12$ 

3 

I. 

34 

H- 33 * 

65 

21 66* 

4 

.50 

35 

4-372 

66 

8.25 

4 

1 - 33 * 

35 

11.66* 

66 

22. 

5 

.62* 

36 

4-50 

67 

8 - 37 * 

5 

I.66J 

36 

12. 

67 

22.33* 

6 

•75 

37 

4.62* 

68 

8.50 

6 

2. 

37 

12.33* 

68 

22.66* 

7 

.87* 

38 

4-75 

69 

8.62* 

7 

2.33 k 

38 

12.66* 

69 

23 - 

8 

1. 

39 

4-87* 

70 

8-75 

8 

2.66* 

39 

* 3 - 

70 

23 - 33 * 

9 

1.12* 

40 

5 • 

7 i 

8.87* 

9 

3. 

40 

13 - 33 * 

71 

23.66* 

io 

1.25 

4 i 

5.12* 

72 

9 - , 

10 

3 - 33 * 

4 r 

13.66* 

72 

24. 

II 

1 - 37 * 

42 

5-25 

73 

9.12* 

IX 

3-66* 

42 

14 - , 

73 

24 - 33 * 

12 

1.50 

43 

5-372 

74 

9-25 

12 

4 - 

43 

14 - 33 * 

74 

24.66* 

13 

1.62* 

44 

5-50 

75 

9 - 37 * 

13 

4 - 33 * 

44 

14.66* 

75 

25 - 

14 

1-75 

45 

5.62* 

76 

9-50 

14 

4.66* 

45 

T 5 - 

76 

25 - 33 * 

15 

1 - 87 * 

46 

5 - 75 , 

73 

9-75 

15 

5 - 

46 

15 - 33 * 

78 

26. 

l6 

2. 

47 

5 - 87 * 

80 

10. 

16 

5 - 33 * 

47 

15-66* 

80 

27 - 

17 

2.12* 

48 

6. 

82 

10.25 

17 

5-66* 

48 

16. 

82 

27 - 33 * 

18 

2.25 

49 

6.12* 

84 

10.50 

18 

6. 

49 

16.33* 

84 

28. 

19 

2 - 37 * 

50 

6.25 

86 

10-75 

19 

6 - 33 * 

50 

16.66* 

86 

28.66* 

20 

2.50 

51 

6-372 

88 

ii. 

20 

6 66* 

5 i 

17 - 

88 

29.66* 

21 

2.62* 

52 

6.50 

90 

1125 

21 

7 - , 

52 

17 - 33 * 

9 ° 

30 - 

22 

2-75 

53 

6.62* 

92 

11-50 

22 

7 - 33 * 

53 

17 66* 

92 

30.66* 

23 

2.87$ 

54 

6-75 

94 

n -75 

23 

7-66* 

54 

18. 

94 

31 - 33 * 

24 

3 - 

55 

6.87* 

96 

12. 

24 

8. 

55 

18 - 33 * 

96 

32 - 

25 

3-12* 

56 

7 - 

98 

12.25 

25 

8 - 33 * 

56 

18.66* 

98 

32.66* 

26 

3-25 

57 

7.12* 

100 

12.50 

26 

8.66* 

57 

19. 

100 

33 - 33 * 

27 

3 • 37 a 

58 

7-25 

125 

15-62* 

27 

9 - 

58 

19 - 33 * 

125 

41.66* 

28 

3-50 

59 

7 - 37 * 

150 

18.75 

28 

9 - 33 * 

59 

19.66* 

150 

50 . 

29 

3-62* 

60 

7-50 

175 

' 21.87^ 

29 

9-66* 

60 

20. 

175 

58 . 33 * 

30 

3-75 

ol 

7.62* 

200 

25 * 

30 

10. 

61 

20 33* 

200 

66.66* 

31 

3 - 87 * 

6 2 

7-75 

225 

23 . 12 * 

31 

10 33* 

62 

20 66* 

225 

75 - 












































































LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 


on 



At 433 

Cents 

or -fa of a 

Dollar 



At 56? Cents, 

or of a 

Dollar. 


No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

i 

•434 

32 

14 - 

63 

27.56? 

1 

• 56 t 

32 

18. 

63 

35 - 43 ? 

2 

.875 

33 

14 43 ? 

64 

28. 

2 

I . 12? 

33 

18.56? 

64 

36 

3 

i. 3 i 4 

34 

14.874 

65 

28.43? 

3 

1.68? 

34 

19 12? 

65 

36.56? 

4 

1-75 

35 

J 5 - 3 U 

66 

28.874 

4 

2.25 

35 

19.68? 

66 

37 - 12 ? 

5 

2.183 

36 

15.75 

67 

29.31? 

5 

2.81? 

36 

20.25 

67 

37 - 68 ? 

6 

2.62 i 

37 

16.18? 

63 

2 9-75 

6 

3 - 37 ? 

37 

20.81? 

68 

38.25 

7 

3.063 

38 

16.624 

69 

30.18? 

7 

3-932 

38 

21.37? 

69 

38.81? 

8 

3-50 

39 

17.06? 

70 

30.624 

8 

4-50 

39 

21.93? 

70 

39 - 37 ? 

9 

3 - 93 i 

40 

17-50 

7 i 

3 i-o 6 ? 

9 

5-064 

40 

22.50 

7 i 

39 - 93 ? 

IO 

4-374 

4 i 

17 - 93 ? 

72 

31-50 

10 

5.624 

41 

23.06? 

72 

40.50 

ii 

4.8U 

42 

18.374 

73 

3 i 93 ? 

11 

6.182 

42 

23.62? 

73 

41.06? 

12 

5-25 

43 

18.814 

74 

32-374 

12 

6-75 

43 

24.18? 

74 

41.62? 

13 

5 - 6 S 3 

44 

19 25 

75 

32.8r? 

13 

7 - 3 U 

44 

24 - 75 , 

75 

42.18? 

14 

6 .124 

45 

19.68? 

76 

33-25 

14 

7.874 

45 

25 - 31 ? 

76 

42 . 75 , 

15 

6.56! 

46 

20.124 

78 

34-125 

"5 

8.432 

46 

25.87? 

78 

43 - 87 ? 

16 

7 - 

47 

20.56? 

80 

35 - 

16 

9 - 

47 

26.43? 

80 

45 - 

17 

7 - 43 ? 

48 

21. 

82 

35-874 

17 

9 - 56 ? 

48 

27 - 

82 

46.12? 

18 

7.874 

49 

2 I- 43 ? 

84 

36.75 

18 

10.12? 

49 

27 56? 

84 

47.25 

19 

8.313 

50 

21.874 

86 

37.624 

19 

10.684 

50 

28.12? 

86 

48 . 37 ? 

20 

8.75 

5 i 

22.31? 

83 

38.50 

20 

11.25 

5 i 

28.68? 

8S 

49-50 

21 

9. i8l 

52 

22.75 

90 

39-374 

21 

ii.8i? 

52 

29.25 

90 

50.62? 

22 

9 62$ 

53 

23.18? 

9 2 

40.25 

22 

12.375 

53 

29.81? 

92 

51 - 75 , 

23 

lo.o 64 

54 

23.624 

94 

41.124 

23 

12-932 

54 

30 . 37 ? 

94 

52.87? 

24 

10.50 

55 

24.06? 

96 

42. 

24 

13-50 

55 

30.93? 

96 

54 - 

25 

10.93? 

56 

24.50 

98 

42.875 

25 

14.06? 

56 

31-50 

98 

55 - 12 ? 

26 

H -373 

57 

24 - 93 ? 

100 

43-75 

26 

14.624 

57 

32•06? 

100 

56.25 

27 

ir. 8 i 3 

53 

25-374 

125 

54.68? 

27 

15-18? 

58 

32.62? 

125 

7031? 

28 

12.25 

59 

25.81? 

150 

65.624 

28 

15-75 

59 

33 -18? 

150 

84 . 37 ? 

29 

12.683 

60 

26.25 

175 

76.56? 

29 

16.31? 

60 

33-75 

175 

98 - 43 ? 

30 

13.124 

61 

26.68? 

200 

87.50 

30 

16.87?' 

61 

34 - 31 ? 

200 

112.50 

31 

13.653 

62 

27.124 

225 

98.43? 

3 i 

17 - 43 ? 

62 

34 - 87 ? 

225 

126.56? 

At 50 Cents. 


At 87V Cents, or ? of a 

Dollar. 


No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts 

1 

.50 

32 

16. 

63 

31.50 

1 

.874 

32 

28. 

63 

55 - 12 ? 

2 

1. 

33 

16.50 

64 

32 . 

2 

i- 75 , 

33 

28.87-? 

64 

56. 

3 

1.50 

34 

17 - 

65 

32.50 

3 

2.624 

34 

29-75 

65 

56.87? 

4 

2. 

35 

17-50 

66 

33 - 

4 

3-50 

35 

30.62? 

66 

57-75 

5 

2.50 

36 

18. 

67 

33-50 

5 

4 - 37 ? 

36 

31-50 

67 

58.62? 

6 

3 * 

37 

18.50 

68 

34 - 

6 

5 - 25 , 

37 

32 . 37 ? 

68 

59-50 

7 

3-50 

38 

19. 

69 

34-50 

7 

6.12? 

38 

33-25 

69 

60.37? 

8 

4 - 

39 

19.50 

70 

35 - 

8 

7 * . 

39 

34 - I2 ? 

70 

61.52 

9 

4.50 

40 

20. 

7 i 

35-50 

9 

7-874 

40 

35 - , 

7 i 

62.12? 

10 

5 - 

4 i 

20.50 

72 

36. 

10 

8 - 75 , 

4 i 

35 . 87 a 

72 

63 - 

n 

5-50 

42 

21. 

73 

36-50 

11 

9 62? 

42 

36 - 75 , 

73 

63-87? 

12 

6. 

43 

21.50 

74 

37 - 

12 

10.50 

43 

37.62? 

74 

64-75 

13 

6.50 

44 

22. 

75 

37-50 

13 

11-374 

44 

38.50 

75 

65.62? 

14 

7 - 

45 

22.50 

76 

38 . 

14 

12.25 

45 

39 - 37 ? 

76 

66.50 

15 

7.50 

46 

23 - 

78 

39 - 

15 

13 • 12 a 

46 

40.25 

78 

68.25 

16 

8. 

47 

23.50 

80 

40. 

16 

l 4 . 

47 

41.12? 

80 

70 . 

17 

8.50 

48 

24. 

82 

41. 

17 

14-872 

48 

42 ‘o I 

82 

71-75 

18 

9 - 

49 

24.50 

84 

42. 

18 

15 - 75 , 

49 

42.87? 

84 

73-50 

19 

9-50 

50 

25. 

86 

43 - 

19 

16.622 

50 

43 - 75 . 

86 

75-25 

20 

10 

5 i 

25-50 

88 

44. 

20 

17 - 50 , 

5 i 

44.622 

88 

77 - 

21 

10.50 

52 

26. 

9 ° 

45 -. 

21 

18.37? 

52 

45-50 

90 

78.75 

22 

11. 

53 

26.50 

92 

46. 

22 

19 - 25 , 

53 

46.372 

92 

80.50 

23 

11.50 

54 

27. 

94 

47 - 

23 

20.124 

54 

47.25 

94 

82.25 

24 

12. 

55 

27-50 

96 

48. 

24 

21. 

55 

48.12? 

96 

84. 

25 

12.50 

56 

28. 

98 

49 - 

25 

21.874 

56 

49 - , 

98 

85-75 

26 

13. 

57 

28.50 

100 

50 . 

26 

22.75 

57 

49.87? 

100 

87.50 

27 

13-50 

58 

29. 

125 

62.50 

27 

23.624 

58 

50.75 

125 

109.37? 

28 

14. 

59 

29.50 

150 

75 - 

28 

24.50 

59 

51.62? 

150 

131-25, 

20 

14.56 

60 

30. 

175 

87.50 

29 

25-374 

60 

52.50 

175 

1 53 .12* 

30 

15. 

61 

30.50 

200 

100. 

30 

26.25 

61 

53 - 37 ? 

200 

175 - 

31 

15-50 

62 

31 - 

225 

112.50 

3 i 

27.12? 

62 

54-25 

225 

196.87? 









































































672 


LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 


At $1.25 Cents. 


"No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

1 

1.25 

36 

45 - 

7 i 

88-75 

2 

2.50 

37 

46.25 

72 

90. 

3 

3-75 

38 

47.50 

73 

91.25 

4 

5 - 

39 

48-75 

74 

92.50 

5 

6.25 

40 

50 - 

75 

93-75 

6 

7-50 

41 

51-25 

76 

95 - 

7 

8-75 

42 

52-50 

77 

96.25 

8 

10. 

43 

53-75 

78 

97-50 

9 

11.25 

44 

55 - 

79 

98.75 

10 

12.50 

45 

56-25 

80 

100. 

11 

13-75 

46 

57-50 

81 

101.25 

12 

15 - 

47 

58.75 

82 

102.50 

13 

16.25 

48 

60. 

83 

103.75 

14 

17-50 

49 

61.25 

S 4 

105. 

15 

18.75 

50 

62.50 

85 

106.25 

16 

20. 

5 i 

63-75 

86 

107.50 

17 

21.25 

52 

65 - 

87 

108.75 

18 

22.50 

53 

66.25 

88 

no. 

19 

23-75 

54 

67.50 

89 

hi. 25 

20 

25 - 

55 

68.75 

90 

112.50 

21 

26.25 

56 

70 - 

9 i 

H 3-75 

22 

27-50 

57 

71-25 

92 

115 - 

23 

28.75 

58 

72.50 

93 

116.25 

24 

30 . 

59 

73 75 

94 

117.50 

25 

31-25 

60 

75 - 

95 

ii 8.75 

26 

32.50 

61 

76.25 

96 

120. 

27 

33-75 

62 

77-50 

97 

121.25 

28 

35 - 

63 

78.75 

98 

122.50 

29 

36.25 

64 

80. 

99 

123-75 

30 

37-50 

65 

81.25 

100 

125. 

31 

38.75 

66 

82.50 

125 

156.25 

32 

40. 

67 

83-75 

150 

1S7.50 

33 

41-25 

68 

85 - 

175 

218.75 

34 

42.50 

69 

86.25 

200 

250. 

35 

43-75 

70 

87.50 

225 

281.25 


At $1.50 Cents. 


No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

1 

1.50 

36 

54 - 

7 i 

106.50 

2 

3 - 

37 

55-50 

72 

108. 

3 

4-50 

38 

57 - 

73 

109.50 

4 

6. 

39 

58.50 

74 

1 ir. 

5 

7-50 

40 

60. 

75 

112.50 

6 

9 - 

41 

61.50 

76 

114. 

7 

10.50 

42 

63 - 

77 

115-50 

8 

12. 

43 

64.50 

78 

117. 

9 

13-50 

44 

66. 

79 

118.50 

10 

* 5 - 

45 

67.50 

80 

120. 

11 

16.50 

46 

69. 

81 

121.50 

12 

18. 

47 

70.50 

82 

123. 

13 

19.50 

48 

72 . 

83 

124.50 

14 

21. 

49 

73-50 

84 

126. 

n 

22.50 

50 

75 - 

85 

127.50 

16 

24. 

5 i 

76.50 

86 

129. 

17 

25-50 

52 

78 . 

87 

130.50 

18 

27. 

53 

79-50 

88 

132. 

19 

28.50 

54 

81. 

89 

133-50 

20 

30 - 

55 

82.50 

90 

135 . 

21 

31-50 

56 

84. 

9 i 

136.50 

22 

33 - 

57 

85.50 

92 

138. 

23 

34-50 

58 

87. 

93 

139-50 

24 

36 - 

59 

88.50 

94 

141. 

25 

37-50 

60 

90. 

95 

142.50 

26 

39 - 

61 

91.50 

96 

144. 

27 

40.50 

62 

93 - 

97 

145-50 

28 

42. 

63 

94-50 

98 

147. 

29 

43.50 

64 

96. 

99 

148.50 

30 

45 - 

65 

97-50 

100 

150. 

3 i 

46.50 

66 

99. 

125 

187.50 

32 

4S. 

67 

100.50 

150 

225. 

33 

49.50 

68 

102. 

175 

262.50 

34 

51 - 

69 

103.50 

220 

300. 

35 

52.50 

70 

105. 

250 

337-50 


At $1.75 Cents. 


No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

No. 

Dols. Cts. 

1 

1-75 

18 

31.50 

35 

61.25 

52 

91. 

69 

120.75 

86 

150.50 

2 

3-50 

19 

33-25 

36 

63 - 

53 

92-75 

70 

122.50 

87 

152.25 

3 

5-25 

20 

35 - 

37 

64-75 

54 

94-50 

7 i 

124.25 

88 

154 . 

4 

7 - 

21 

36.75 

38 

66.50 

55 

96.25 

72 

126. 

89 

155.75 

5 

8-75 

22 

38.50 

39 

68.25 

56 

98. 

73 

127-75 

9 ° 

157.50 

6 

10.50 

23 

40.25 

40 

70. 

57 

99-75 

74 

129.50 

9 i 

159-25 

7 

12.25 

24 

42. 

4 i 

71-75 

58 

ior.50 

75 

131.25 

92 

161. 

8 

14. 

25 

43-75 

42 

73-50 

59 

103.25 

76 

133 - 

93 

162.75 

9 

15.75 

26 

45-50 

43 

75-25 

60 

- 105. 

77 

134-75 

94 

164.50 

10 

17.50 

27 

47-25 

44 

77 - 

61 

106.75 

78 

136.50 

96 

168. 

II 

19.25 

28 

49. 

45 

78.75 

62 

108.50 

79 

138.25 

98 

171.50 

12 

21. 

29 

50.75 

46 

80.50 

63 

110.25 

80 

140. 

100 

175 . 

13 

22.75 

30 

52.50 

47 

82.25 

64 

112. 

81 

141.75 

125 

218.75 

14 

24.50 

3 i 

54-25 

48 

84. 

66 

U 3-75 

82 

143-50 

150 

262.50 

15 

26.25 

32 

56 . 

49 

85.75 

65 

115.50 

83 

145.25 

175 

306.25 

16 

28. 

33 

57.75 

50 

87.50 

67 

117.25 

84 

147 . 

200 

350 . 

17 

29.75 

34 

59.50 

51 

89.25 

68 

119. 

S 5 

148.75 

225 

393-75 












































































iUHsaa 


*v- 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 



OF 


VALUABLE INFORMATION 


%v 


JiSte: 

C: 






. ......I 1 ^i..........l.......i.....;;M.....I.,;;; f ;;; — •** *'»**3*?!!*! ...l.lii................................ m£ 7.IT!..... ij;.. J !?!I IT*..*1 

rP - 1 @ © © * © © © © © ■© © ©, © ©m ©!;$•©. i iiliii 






Presidents of the United States. 



HE various States, 
during January, 
1789, held elections 
for choosing elec¬ 
tors by whom the 
States were to be 
represented in the 
selection of their first Presi¬ 
dent. On the first Wednes¬ 
day in February of the same 
year, 1789, the electors 
appointed, met in their re¬ 
spective States to cast their 
votes for President and Vice- 
President. After some fur¬ 
ther action, we have the 
historic record that, on the 


first Wednesday in March, George Wash¬ 
ington was chosen President and John Adams 
was selected for Vice-President. 

Washington being at Mt. Vernon, Va., 
considerable time was necessary to advise 
him of his election. His journey north was 
slow, owing to the ovations and enthusiastic 
welcomes that greeted him at every point. 
Upon his arrival at New York a delay in the 
ceremony of inauguration, incidental to prepa¬ 
rations of getting Federal Hall in readiness, 
was occasioned ; so that it was not until April 
30th that everything was in shape for his 
being sworn into ofifice. John Adams took 
the oath as Vice-President, April 21st. 


43 


The salary to be paid the President was a 
source of much discussion in Congress, in 
view of the fact that the Constitution required 
that the President should receive a compen¬ 
sation for his services. Washington had 
stated that he did not wish any salary. The 
limits suggested by Congress ranged from 
$15,000 to $70,000. It was finally placed 
at $25,000. This remained the presidential 
salary until Grant’s second term, when it 
was increased to $50,000, March 3, 1873. 

Valuable Information. 

The following tables give very complete 
information respecting our National Govern¬ 
ment. They treat of the education, marriage, 
etc., of the different Presidents, giving statis¬ 
tics also respecting the Vice-Presidents, and 
furnishing the figures in the popular and 
electorial votes. 

The names of the political parties are also 
given, one of Tiich it will be seen has a 
history dating back to 1801. There is also 
a table showing the annual salaries of the 
principal United States officers. The records 
show that there have been six Secretaries oi 
State who became Presidents. No Secre¬ 
taries of the Treasury, the Navy, or the 
Interior, nor any Postmasters, or Attorney 
Generals have become President. The reader 
will also notice interesting facts concerning 
Washington and a great number of tables. 

673 


























































674 


OUR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 

Education, Marriage, Children, Etc., of the Presidents. 


Washington ... 
Adams. 

Jefferson. 

Madison. 

Monroe. 

Adams, J. Q.. 

J ackson. 

Van Buren.... 
Harrison, W.. 

Tyler. 

Polk. 

Taylor. 

Fillmore. 

Pierce. 

Buchanan. 

Lincoln. 

Johnson. 

Grant. 

Hayes. 

Garfield. 

Arthur. 

Cleveland. 

Harrison, B... 
McKinley. 


EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES. 


Common school. 

Graduate, Harvard College, 1755 

^ Clvo/111nfn Cnllorro AViIIiqtyi 


1762 . 

Graduate, Princeton College, 1771 ... 
Entered College William and Mary. 
Graduate, Harvard College, 1787 .... 

Self-taught. 

Academy. 

Entered Hampden, Sydney College.. 


| 1806 . 

University of North Carolina. 

Common school....... 

Public school. 

Graduate, Bowdoin College, 1824 .... 
Graduate, Dickinson’s College, 1809 . 

Self-taught. 

Self-taught. ... 


f Graduate, West Point Mil. Academy, 
{ 1843 . 


Graduate, Kenyon College, O., 1842 . 
Graduate, William’s College, 1856 ... 

Graduate, Union College, 1848 . 

Common school..'. 


Allegheny College, 1861 . 


PROFES¬ 

SION. 

EARLY 

vocat’on 

Planter... 

Surveyor. 

. Lawyer... 

Teacher.. 

> 

. Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

. Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

. Politician 

Lawyer... 

. Lawyer .. 

Lawyer... 

. Lawyer... 

Lawyer.. 

. Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

Army. 

Medicine. 

y 

Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

. Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

Army. 

Soldier.... 

Lawyer... 

Tailor. 

Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

Farmer... 

Politician 

Tailor. 

> 

Army. 

Tanner.... 

Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

Teacher... 

Lawyer... 

Teacher... 

Lawyer... 

Teacher... 

. Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 

. Lawyer... 

Lawyer... 


ANCESTRY. 


English. 

English. 


Welsh.., 

English. 

Scotch... 


FATHERS 

BUSINESS* 


, Planter 
.Farmer 

Planter 

Planter 

.Planter 


English.j. •. .Lawyer 

Scotch-Irish —Farmer 


Dutch... 
English. 


English. 

Scotch-Irish 

English. 

English. 

English. 


....Farmer 

.Statesman 


..Jurist 

...Farmer 

...Planter 

...Farmer 

...Farmer 


Scotch-Irish ..Merchant 
English .... F armer 


English. 


Scotch. 

Scotch. 

English. 

Scotch-Irish 

English. 

English. 

Scotch. 


.Sexton 


.Tanner 

..Merchant 
....Farmer 
Clergym’n 
Clergy m’n 

.Farmer 

..Mechanic 

































































































ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VALUABLE INFORMATION. 


675 


Vice-Presidents. 



1-2 


3 

4 
5-6 

7 

8-9 

10-11 

12 


John Adams 1 

Thomas Jefferson 1 . 

Aaron Burr. . 

George Clinton 2 . 

Elbridge Gerry 2 . 

D. D. Tompkins. 

John C. Calhoun 3 . 

Martin Van Buren 1 .... 
13 Richard M. Johnson.. 
14John Tyler 4 . 

15 George M. Dallas. 

16 Millard Fillmore 4 . 

17!Wm. Rufus King 2 . 

18 John C. Breckinridge 

19 Hannibal Hamlin. 

2o'Andrew Johnson 4 . 

Schuyler Colfax. 

Henry Wilson 2 . 

William A. Wheeler. 


21 

22 

23 


1789; Mass. 
1796 Va.... 
1800 N. Y. 
1804'N. Y. 
1812 Mass. 
1816 N. Y. 


1824 

1832 

1836 

1840 

1844 


S. C.. 
N. Y. 
Ky.... 

Va. 

Penn, 


54 

53 

44 

65 

68 

42 

42 

50 


1 735 Quincy, Mass. 

1743 Shad well, Va.. 

1756 Newark, N. J. 

i739iUlster Co., N. Y... 

1744 Marblehead, Mass. 

1774 Scarsdale, N. Y_ 

1782 Abbeville, S. C. 


1848 N. Y. 


24 Chester A. Arthur 4 . 

25 Thomas A. Hendricks 2 . 

26 Devi P. Morton. 

27 Adlai E. Stevenson. 

28 Garret A. Hobart. 

29 

3° 


1852 

1856 

i860 

1864 

1868 

1872 

1876 

1880 

1884 

1888 

1892 

1896 


Ala. 
Ky.... 
Me.... 
Tenn. 
Ind... 
Mass., 
N. Y. 
N. Y. 
Ind... 
N. Y., 
Ills... 

N. J... 


1820 
1826 
1836 
1812 
1814 
1825 
1850 

17S2 Kinderhook, N. Y. 1862 

56) 1780! Louisville, Ky. 1850 

1862 
TS64 

1874 
1853 

1875 

1891 

1875 

1885 

1875 


50] 1790 Green way, Va. 

. 52'1792 Philadelphia, Pa. 

4S 1800 Summer Hill, N. Y, 
66 1786 Sampson Co., N. C. 
35 1821 Lexington, Ky. 

5i 

56 


1809 Paris, Me. 

1808 Raleigh, N. C. 

45 1823 New York, N. Y. 

60 1812 Farmingham, N. H.. 

57 1819 Malone, N. Y. 

50 1830 Fairfield, Vt. 

65 1819 Muskingum Co., O... 

641824 Shoreham, Vt.- 

57T835 Christian Co., Ky. 

.'52’1844 Monmouth Co., N. J. 


1887 

1886 

1885 


Quincy, Mass. 

Monticello, Va. 

Richmond Co., N. Y. 
Washington, D. C.... 
Washington, D. C.... 
Richmond Co., N. Y. 
Washington, D. C.... 
Kinderhook, N. Y.... 

Frankfort, Ky. 

Richmond, Va. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

Dallas Co., Ala. 

Lexington, Ky..... 

Portland, Me. 

Greenville, Tenn. 

Mankato, Minn. 

Washington, D. C. 

Malone, N. Y. 

New York, N. Y. 

Indianapolis, Ind. 


1 Later elected President. 


2 Died in office. 


3 Resigned. 


4 Succeeded to Presidency. 


Popular and Electoral Votes for President, 


PARTY. 


Popular 

Vote. 


Elec. 

Vote. 


736,656 


<3 

26 

14 

11 

48 


YEAR. CANDIDATES. 

1828 .. Andrew Jackson.Democrat. 647 , 231..178 

1828 .. John Q. Adams.Federc..,... 509 , 097 .. 83 

1832 .. Andrew Jackson.Democrat. 687 , 502..219 

1 832 .. Henry Clay.Nat. Repub... 530 , 189 .. 49 

1832 .. John Floyd.Whig. 11 

1832 .. William Wirt.Whig. J 

1836 .. Martin Van Buren...Democrat. 761 , 549.170 

1836 .AV. H. Harrison.Whig 

1836 .. Hugh L White.Whig 

1836 .. Daniel Webster.Whig 

1836 .. W. P. Mangum.Whig 

1840 .. Martin Van Buren...Democrat. 1 , 128 , 702 .. 

1840 .. W. H. Harrison.Whig. 1 , 275 , 017..23 1 

1840 .. J. G. Birney.Liberal. 7 , 059 ...^.. 

1844 .. Tames K. Polk.Democrat. 1 , 337 , 243 . 1/0 

1844 .. Henry Clay.Whig. 1 , 299 , 068 .. 1O0 

1844 .. James G. Birney.Liberal. 62 , 300 ...... 

1848 .. Zachary Taylor.Whig. 

1848 .. Lewis Cass.Democrat. 1 , 220 , 541.127 

1848 .. Martin Van Buren...Free Soil. 291 , 263 ...... 

1852 .. Franklin Pierce.Democrat. 1 , 601 , 474..254 

1852 .. Winfield Scott.Whig. 1 , 386 , 578 .. 42 

1852 .. John P. Hale.Free Soil. 156 , 149 ...... 

1856 .. James Buchanan.Democrat. 1 , 838 , 169..174 

1856 .John C. Fremont.Republican... 1 , 341 , 262.114 

1856 .. Millard Filmore.American. 874 . 534 .. 8 

1860 .. Abraham Lincoln Republican... 1,866 852..180 

I860!.Stephen A. Douglas..Democrat.L 375 . 157 .. 72 

1860 . J. C. Breckinridge....Democrat. 845 ,/ 0 o.. oJ 


PARTY. 


.John Bell.Union. 

.Abraham Lincoln.Republican... 

.Geo. B. McClellan...Democrat. 

.U. S. Grant.Republican... 

.Horatio Seymour.Democrat. 

.U. S. Grant.Republican... 

.Horace Greeley.Liberal. 

.Charles O’Conor.Democrat. 

.R. B. Hayes.Republican... 

.Samuel J. Tilden.Democrat. 

.G. C. Smith.Prohibition.... 

.James A. Garfield.Republican... 

.W. S. Hancock.Democrat. 

.James B. Weaver.Greenback.... 

.Grover Cleveland.Democrat. 

.James G. Blaine.Republican... 

.Benjamin F. Butler..Teople’s. 

.John P. St. John.Prohibition.... 

.Benjamin Harrison...Republican... 

.Grover Cleveland.Democrat. 

.Clinton B. Fisk.Prohibition.... 

.A. J. Streeter.Union Labor. 

.Benjamin Harrison...Republican... 

.Grover Cleveland.Democrat...., 

James B. Weaver.Populist... 

.William McKinley...Republican... 

.William J. Bryan.Dem.-Pop.... 

Joshua Levering.Prohibition.... 

.John M. Palmer.N. Democrat. 


Popular Elec. 
Vote. Vote. 

589,581.. 12 
2,216,067..212 

1.808.725.. 21 
3,015,071..214 

2.709.613.. 80 
3,597,070..286 
2,834,079...... 

29,408. 

4,033,950..185 

4.284.885.. 184 

Q ^99 

4,449’053.'.214 
4,442,035.155 
307,306. 

4.874.986.. 219 
4,851,981.182 

175,370. 

150,369. 

5.439.853.. 233 

5.540.329.. ! C3 

249,506. 

146,935. 

5,162,874.145 

5.556.562.. 277 
1,055,424.. 22 

7.101.401.. 271 
6,470,656.176 

130,560,. 

132,056. 







































































































































































































































676 


OUR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 


Politics of the Presidents. 

The subjoined table will be found interesting, as a 
reference, to many of our readers. Of course, the 
name of Washington heading the list does not mean 
that he wthe candidate of any party or faction, but 
is placed there to complete the roll. The name of the 
President is given, the date of his inauguration and 
the party to which he belonged. In connection with 
this it is interesting to note the ballots cast at the 
national conventions and the popular vote for Presi¬ 
dent by States. 

NAME. INAUGURATION. POLITICS. 

George Washington.April 30, 1789.Unanimous. 

John Adams.March 4, 1797......Federal. 

Thomas Jefferson.March 4, 1801.Democrat. 

James Madison.March 4, 1809.Democrat. 

James Monroe.March 4, 1817.Democrat. 

John Ouincy Adams....March 4, 1825.Federal. 

Andrew Jackson.March 4, 1829.Democrat. 

Martin Van Buren.March 4, 1837.Democrat. 

Wm. Henry Harrison..March 4, 1841.Whig. 

John Tyler.April 6 , 1841.Whig. 

James K. Polk.March 4, 1845.Democrat. 

Zachary Taylor.March 5, 1849.Whig. 

Millard Fillmore.July 9, 1850.Whig. 

Franklin Pierce.March 4, 1853.Democrat. 

James Buchanan.March 4, 1857.Democrat. 

Abraham Lincoln.March 4, 1861.Republican. 

Andrew Johnson.April 15, 1865......Republican. 

Ulysses S. Grant.March 4, 1869.Republican. 

Rutherford B. Hayes...March 5, 1877.Republican. 

James A. Garfield.March 4, 1881.Republican. 

Chester A. Arthur.Sept. 20, 1881.Republican. 

Grover Cleveland.March 4, 1885.Democrat. 

Benjamin Harrison.March 4, 1889.Republican. 

Grover Cleveland.March 4, 1893.Democrat. 

William McKinley.March 4, 1897.Republican. 

Ballots Cast at the National Conventions 

in 1896. 

The National Republican Convention for nominat¬ 
ing candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency 
was held at St. Louis, June 16, 1896. The platform 
reaffirmed the doctrine of protection and declared for 
the gold standard. President McKinley was nomi¬ 
nated on the first ballot. He received 661J votes; 
Reed, 84J; Quay, 61J; Morton, 58; Allison, 35J. 
Garret A. Hobart was nominated for the vice-presi¬ 
dency. 

The Democrats met in Chicago, July 7, 1896. W. 


J. Bryan, of Nebraska, was nominated for the presi¬ 
dency on the fifth ballot. He received 500 votes; 
Bland 106; Pattison, 95; Matthews, 31; Boies, 26. 
Arthur Sewall, of Maine, was nominated for the vice¬ 
presidency. 

The Sound-Money Democratic National Convention 
was held at Indianapolis, September 2, 1896. Senator 
John M. Palmer, of Illinois, was nominated for the 
presidency, and Gen. Simon B. Buckner, of Kentucky, 
for the vice-presidency. 

The result of the election is recorded below: 

Popular Vote for President by States 

in 1896. 


States. McKinley. Bryan. Palmer. Levering. 

Alabama. 54,737 131,219 6,464 2,147 

Arkansas. 37,512 110,103 893 889 

California. 146,588 144,166 . 2,573 

Colorado. 26,271 161,269 . 1,717 

Connecticut. 110,297 56,740 4,336 1,806 

Delaware. 20,452 16,615 956 602 

Florida. 11,889 32,213 1,778 868 

Georgia. 20,191 94,232 2,708 . 

Idaho. 6,324 23,192 . 181 

Illinois. 607,130 466,703 6,390 9,796 

Indiana. 323,719 305,771 2,146 3,056 

Iowa. 289,293 223,741 4,519 3,192 

Kansas. ■ 158,541 171,810 1,209 2,351 

Kentucky. 218,171 217,890 5,114 4,781 

Louisiana. 22,012 77,096 1,810 . 

Maine. 80,421 34,504 1,864 1,571 

Maryland. 136,978 104,745 2,507 5,928 

Massachusetts.... 279,976 105,711 11,749 2,998 

Michigan. 293,327 237,251 6,930 4,968 

Minnesota. 193,501 139,626 3,202 4,343 

Mississippi. 4 730 63,457 1,021 390 

Missouri. 304,940 363,652 2,355 3,169 

Montana. 10,490 43,680 

Nebraska. 101,064 115,999 2,797 1,196 

Nevada. 1,939 8,377 . 

New Hampshire. 57,444 21,650 3,420 776 

New Jersey. 221,367 113,675 6,373 5,614 

New York. 819,838 551,513 18,972 16,075 

North Carolina... 155,222 174,488 578 635 

North Dakota 26,336 20,689 . 356 

Ohio. 527,945 478,547 1,831 5,060 

Oregon. 48,711 46,739 974 789 

Pennsylvania. 728,300 427,127 11,000 19,274 

Rhode Island. 37,437 14,495 1,166 1,160 

South Carolina... 9,313 58,801 824 . 

South Dakota. 40,802 40,930 . 992 

Tennessee. 148,773 168,176 1,951 3,098 

Texas. 164,886 368,299 5,030 185 

Utah. 13,861 67,053 . 

Vermont. 50,991 10,607 1,329 728 

Virginia. 135,388 154,985 2,127 2,341 

Washington. 39,153 51,646 1,668 968 

West Virginia.... 104 414 92,927 677 1,203 

Wisconsin. 269,135 165,528 4,584 7,509 

Wyoming. 10,072 10,855 . 159 


Total. 7,101,401 6,470,656 132,056 130 560 














































































































ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VALUABLE INFORMATION. 677 


Annual Salaries of Principal United States 


Officers. 

LEGISLATIVE. 

President. $ 50,000 

Vice-President. 8,000 

Secretary o f State. 8,000 

Secretary of Treasury. 8,000 

Secretary of Interior. 8,000 

Secretary of Navy. 8,000 

Secretary of War. 8,000 

Secretary of Agriculture. 8,000 

Postmaster-General. 8,000 

Attorney General. 8,000 

Speaker of House of Representatives. 8,000 

United States Senators. 5,000 

Representatives in Congress. 5,000 

UNITED STATES MINISTERS TO 

England.$ 17,500 

Germany. 17,500 

France. 17,500 

Russia. 17,500 

China. 12,000 

Brazil. 12,000 

Spain. 12,000 

Japan. 12,000 

Mexico. 12,000 

Central America. 10,000 

Chili. 10,000 

Peru. 10,000 

Venezuela. 7,500 

Turkey. 7>5°° 

Sweden and Norway. 7 , 5 3° 

Netherlands. 7,5°° 

Denmark. 5 ,oco 

Greece. 5> oco 

Uruguay. 5 , 000 

Portugal. 5 ,ooo 

S witzerl and. 5 , 000 

Liberia. 4,000 

JUDGES. 

Chief Justice U. S. Supreme Court.$ 10,500 

Associate Judges. 10,000 

United States Circuit Judges. 6,000 

U. S. District Judges.from $ 3,500 to. 4,5°° 

Judge of U. S. Court of Claims. 4,5°° 

HEADS OE DEPARTMENTS. 

Director of Geological Surveys. $ 6,000 

Auditor of Railroad Accounts. 5 . 000 

Superintendent of Census. 6 ,coo 

Superintendent of Naval Observatory. 5 > 000 

Commissioner of Patents. 5>°°° 

Director of the Mint. 4,5°° 

Commissioner of General Land Office. 4,000 

Superintendent of Signal Service. 5,500 

Commissioner of Pensions. 5 , 000 


Superintendent of Nautical Almanac. $ 4,400 

Commander of Marine Corps. 4,500 

Commissioner of Indian Affairs. 4,000 

Commissioner of Education. 3 , 00 a 


Salaries of the United States Army and 
Navy Officers. 

ARMY. 


General...$ 13,500 

Lieutenant-General. 11,000 

Major-General. 7,500 

Brigadier-General. 5,500 

Colonel. 3)500 

Lieutenant-Colonel. 3,000 

Major. 2,500 

Captain. 2 ,ooo 

Regimental Adjutant.„„. 1,800 

First Lieutenant. 1,600 

Second Lieutenant. 1,400 

NAVY. 

Admiral.$ 13,000 

Vice-Admiral. 9,000 

Rear-Admiral. 6,000 

Commodore. 5,000 

Captain. 4,500 

Commander. 3,500 

Lieutenant-Commander. 2,800 

Lieutenant. 2,400 

Master. 1,800 

Ensign. 1,200 

Midshipman. 1,000 


Tlie President’s Salary, etc. 

Most people believe that the $ 50,000 a year which 
the President gets as his salary is.the sum total. This 
is a mistake. $ 36,064 is given him, in addition to his 
salary of $ 50 , 000 , to pay the salaries of his subordinates 
and clerks. His private secretary is paid $ 3 , 250 , his 
assistant private secretary $ 2 , 250 , his stenographer 
$ 1 , 800 , five messengers, each $ 1 , 200 , a steward $ 1 , 800 , 
two door-keepers, each $ 1 , 200 , four other clerks at 
good salaries, one telegraph operator, two ushers $ 1,200 
and $ 1 , 400 , a night usher $ 1 , 200 , a watchman $ 900 , and 
a man who takes care of the fires who receives $864 a 
year. In addition to this, there is given him $ 8,000 
for incidental expenses such as stationery, carpets, and 
the care of the presidential stables. And under anoth¬ 
er heading there is given him nearly $ 40,000 more. 
Of this $ 12,500 is for repairs and refurnishing the White 
House, $ 2,500 is for fuel, $ 4,000 is for the green-house, 
$ 15,000 is for gas, matches and the stable. The White 
House, all told, costs the country in connection with 
the President considerably over $ 125,000 a year. 

Cabinet Facts. 

There were six Secretaries of State who afterward 
became Presidents, namely, Jefferson, Madison, Mon¬ 
roe, John Quincy Adams. Van Buren, and Buchanan. 


I 



















































































078 


OUR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 


Monroe was Secretary of War for a short time after he 
had served in the State Department, and General 
Grant was Secretary of War adinterim. There have 
been no Secretaries of the Treasury, the Navy, or the 
Interior, nor any Postmasters or Attorney Generals 
who have become President. Jeff Davis was Secretary 
of War under President Pierce. 

Religion of the Presidents. 

Washington, Garfield, and Harrison were the only 
Presidents who were church members, but all, one ex¬ 
cepted, were men who revered Christianity. Adams 
married a minister’s daughter, and was inclined to 
Unitarianism. Jefferson was not a believer, at least 
while he was Chief Magistrate. Madison’s early con¬ 
nections were Presbyterian. Monroe is said to have 
favored the Episcopal Church. John Quincy Adams 
was like his father. Jackson was a Presbyterian and 
died in the communion of that church. Van Buren 
was brought up in the Reformed Dutch Church, but 
afterward inclined to the Episcopal Church. Harrison 
leaned toward the Methodist Church, and Tyler was an 
Episcopalian. Polk was baptized by a Methodist 
preacher after his term of office expired. Taylor was 
inclined to the Episcopal communion. Fillmore at¬ 
tended th? Unitarian Church, and Franklin Pierce was 
a member, but not a communicant, of a Congregation- 
alist Church, at Concord. Buchanan w r as a Presbyte¬ 
rian, as is also Benjamin Harrison. General Grant 
attended the Methodist Church, and President Garfield 
the Church of the Disciples. 

Presidents of the United States Inaugurated 
on Other than the 4th of March. 

George Washington, April 30 , 1789 ; James Monroe, 
second term, March 5 , 1821 ; John Tyler, April 6 , 1841 ; 
Zachary Taylor, March 5 , 1849 ; Millard Fillmore, July 
10 , 1850 ; Andrew Johnson, April 15 , 1865 ; R. B. Hayes, 
March 5 , 1877 . 

THE WHITE HOUSE. 

The residence of the President of the United States 
is officially known as the Executive Mansion, which 
means that it is the residence of the head of the Executive 
branch of the Government; but it is seldom called in 
ordinary talk, either by those who live in it, or by the 
American people in general, anything but the White 
House. This is a very unpretentious title, and it is 
interesting to note how the residence of the President, 
■hi a country which is full of w T hitc houses, came to bear 
this simple name as its special property. 

The explanation is easily found. The first Executive 
Mansion at Washington was occupied in 1800 . It was 
built of freestone, and was unpainted ; but in 1814 the 
British Army occupied Washington, and burned, with 
oth-r public buildings, the President’s house, leaving 
it a blackened ruin. 


The house was rebuilt on the same site, and the. same 
walls were used in its construction ; but trey ueT so 
discolored by smoke that, on the suggestion. of General 
Jackson, they were painted white, not o >x\y to improve 
their appearance, but in token of the successful de¬ 
fiance of British fire by the American Republic. 

The mansion soon became the “ White Hou c e ” ii 
the mouths of the people cn account of its dazzling 
color, and from that day to this it has been repainted 
white every ten years. Its name commemorates a 
patriotic feeling, therefore, as well as serves to describe 
the appearance of the mansion, for the original coat of 
white paint was a sort of protest against the vandalism 
of the British, and every subsequent coat has served to 
perpetuate the protest. 

INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT 

INGTON, D. C. 

The dome of the United States Capitol io ^ 87 ^ feet 
high. The w r eight of the iron alone in U.r* dome of 
the Capitol is 8 , 909,200 pounds. 

Of the domes to large buildings i a <che world the 
dome of the United States Capitol raxi&a fifth in height 
and fourth in diameter. 

It is said that the Capitol of the United States is un¬ 
questionably the finest and largest building of the kind 
on the face of the earth. 

The great bronze door of the east front entrance of 
the rotunda of the Capitol weighs 20,000 pounds anj 
cost $ 28 , 000 . 

The six large paintings on the walls of the rotunda 
of the Capitol cost $ 74 , 000 . Three of them cost $ 10,000 
each, one $ 12 , 000 , and the other four $8000 each. 

There are 51 ^ acres of ground around the Capitol, 
which are known as the “ Capitol Grounds,” and cost 
the government $ 684 , 199 . 

The Soldiers’ Home grounds, near Washington, em¬ 
brace 800 acres of land. 

The new State Department has 150 rooms and cost 
$ 5 , 000 , 000 . 

Washington’s tomb, at Mount Vernon, Virginia, is 
seventeen miles south of the Capitol. 

The Scott statue in Washington, which is made of 
bronze, weighs 12,000 pounds, and cost $ 20 , 000 . 

The District of Columbia comprises sixty-four square 
miles, and lies entirely within the State of Maryland. 

Pennsylvania avenue, from the Treasury Building to 
the Capitol is 160 feet wide and almost as smooth as an 
ice-pond. 

The statue of Gen. McPherson, located in McPherson 
Square in Washington city cost $ 23 , 500 , and weighs 
7000 pounds. 

The new War Department has 173 rooms and cost 
$ 2 , 500 , 000 . The building has 412 windows. 

The water used in the White House for drinking 
purposes is conveyed to the Mansion by pipes from a 
spring in Franklin Park, several squares distant. 






IMPORTANT FACTS FOR REFERENCE. 


C7D 


Originals of the New Testament. 

The New Testament was originally written in Greek. 
"It is not claimed that any of the manuscripts written 
by the Apostles themselves are in existence. 

The Bible Printed in 300 Tongues. 

The British and Foreign Bible Society reports that 
tne sacred Scriptures were last year translated into 
six fresh languages. The number of tongues in which 
this society now publishes the Bible is thus increased 
to 300 . Fifty years ago it was published in 150 tongues. 
The society distributed four million two hundred and 
:Six thousand volumes during the year. 


Curiosities of tlie Bible. 


The Bible contains 3 , 566,480 letters, 773,746 words, 
. 31,173 verses, 1,189 chapters, aud 66 books. The word 
“and ” occurs 46,277 times. The word “Ford ” occurs 
1,855 times. The w T ord “reverend” occurs but once, 
which is in the 9 th verse of the mth Psalm. The 
middle verse is the 8 th verse of the 118 th Psalm. The 
21 st verse of the 7 th chapter of Ezra contains all the 
letters of the alphabet except the letter J. The 19 th 
chapter of II Kings and the 37 th chapter of Isaiair are 
alike. The longest verse is the 9 th verse of the 8 th 
chapter of Esther. The shortest verse is the 35 th 
verse of the nth chapter of St. John. There are no 
words or names of more than six syllables. In the 
original Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament a 
division of the matter into paragraphs was early in¬ 
troduced for convenience in reading. Larger divisions 
into sections suitable for Sabbath readings were made 
about the middle of the fifteenth century. The gospels 
were divided into sections for a similar purpose as early 
as the third century. The present arrangement of the 
Scriptures into chapters, however, originated in the 
thirteenth century with Cardinal Hugo, who devised 
it wdiile making a Latin concordance. The division 
into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, 
Robert Stephens, in his Greek Testament ( 1551 ). aa d 

in his Latin Bible ( 1556 - 7 )* 

The -word “ heaven ” occurs the following number of 
times in each of the books of the New Testament. 


Book 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke . 

John. 

Acts. 

Romans. 

I Corinthians.. 

II Corinthians. 

Galatians. 

Ephesians 


Time 

....70 

....17 


• 3 ° 

.18 

.24 
. 2 
. 2 
. 2 
. 1 
• 3 


Book Time 

Philippians. 2 

Colossians. 5 

I Thessalonians. 2 

II Thessalonians. 1 

Hebrews. 5 

James. 2 

I Peter. 3 

II Peter. 1 

I John. I 

Revelation. 56 


The word “heaven” occurs several times with the 
meaning of sky, and in a similar sense, but the above 


list gives the number of times “heaven” is used aa 
meaning the abode of the blest or the immediate 
presence of the Lord. 

Valuable Bibles. 

A copy of the Mazarin Bible was recently sold at 
auction in London, and brought an even $ 10 , 000 . This 
is the fourth of these volumes which has been sold 
insiJe of sixteen years, and the price it brought was 
also lower than those of the other three. One sold for 
$ 19 , 500 , another for $ 13 , 450 , and the other for $ 13 , 250 . 
This edition of the Bible was the work of Gutenberg 
and Faust, and was the first book ever printed with 
movable types. As an artistic production, it is claimed 
to have never been surpassed. 

The Roman Catholic Bible. 

The translations of the Bible by the Protestants at 
the Reforation w ? ere soon followed by translations at 
the hands of Roman Catholic scholars, intended for 
those who still adhered to the Roman Church. Ac¬ 
cordingly the New Testament appeared at Rheims, in 
France, in 1582 ; and the Old Testament appeared at 
Douai in 1609 - 10 , although it had been prepared before 
the New' Testament. The first complete edition of the 
entire Bible, according to this recension was published 
at Rouen in 1633 - 35 . Says Dr. Schaff: “Its transla¬ 
tors w r ere good scholars, but were obliged to take the 
Latin Vulgate as the basis, and to adhere closely to it.” 
A revision w T as made about the middle of the last 
century. 

A Petrified Bible. 

While cleaning an old swamp, Mr. Martin Flush, 
living near Pleasant Valley, Ind., discovered quite a 
curiosity. Several feet beneath the leaves and muck 
he unearthed what appeared to be a stone book. Close 
inspection showed it to be a family Bible, bearing the 
date 1773 plainly lettered. It is now solid limestone. 
Those who have examined the book state that it was 
originally a real book and is now petrified. 

Discoveries and Settling’ of Countries. 

America discovered by Columbus, October n, 1492 . 

Andreanoffsy Isles, between Asia and America, dis¬ 
covered 1760 . 

Angola settled by Portugal, 1482 . 

Anguilla, in the Caribbees, first planted by England, 
1650 . 

Antigua settled by the English, 1632 . 

Archangel, passage to, discovered, 1553 . 

Aruba Isle, planted by Holland, 1634 . 

Azores Isles discovered by Portugal, 1419 . 

Baffin’s Bay discovered, 1622 . 

Bahama Isles, discovered, 1659 ; taken possession of 
by the English, December, 1718 . 

Barbadoes discovered and planted, 1614 . 

Barbuda Isle first planted by England, 1628 . 



























680 


ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VALUABLE INFORMATION. 


Barrington Isle one of the Gallapagos, explored, 
June, 1703 

Batavia, in the Island of Java, first fortified by Hol¬ 
land, 1618. 

Bermuda Isles discovered, 1527 ; settled, 1612. 

Boston, Mass., built, 1630. 

Botany Bay settlement first sailed from England, 
March 21, 1787. 

Bourbon (formerly Mascareen) Isle planted by 
France, 1672. 

Brazil discovered, i486 ; settled by the Spaniards, 
1515; settled by Holland, 1624; taken from Holland 
by Portugal, 1654. 

Britain discovered to be an island about 90. 

Caledonia, in America, settled, 1699. 

California discovered by Cortez, 1543. 

Canada discovered by Cabot, 1499 ; explored by the 
French, 1508, 1524 and 1534 ; settled, 1540; Quebec 
built, 1603; taken first by England, 1628. 

Canary Isles discovered, 1344, and granted Spain ; 
explored, 1393. 

Cape Blanco, on the coast cf Africa, discovered, 
1441. 

Cape Breton discovered by the English, 1584; 
yielded to France, 1632 ; taken by England, 1745; 
restored, 1748 ; again taken and kept, 1758. 

Cape de Verd Islands discovered, 1447. 

Cape of Good Hope discovered, 1487 ; planted by 
Holland, 1651. 

Cape Horn first sailed round, 1616. 

Carolina discovered, 1497 , planted, 1629. 

Caribbce Isles discovered, 1595. 

Cat Isle, one of the Bahamas, the first discovery in 
America by Columbus, 1492. 

Cayenne Isle first planted by France, 1635. 

Ceylon, the Isle of, discovered, 1506. 

Chatham Isle, one of the Gallapagos, explored, June, 

*793* 

Chili discovered by Spain, 1518; invaded by the 
Spaniards, 1540. 

China first visited by the Portuguese, 1517; conquered 
by the Eastern Tartars, 1635. 

Christopher’s, St., Isle of, discovered, 1595; settled 
by the English, 1626. 

Congou Kingdom discovered, 1482 ; settled by Port¬ 
ugal, i486. 

Crimea settled by Russia, 1784. 

Cuba discovered, 1492 ; settled in 1511. 

Curacoa settled by the Dutch, 1634. 

Darien settled, 1700. 

Davis’ Straits discovered, 1586. 

De la Plate, river, discovered, 1512. 

Deseada Isle was discovered by Columbus, 1494. 

Domingo, St., Isle of, discovered, 1492 ; city founded, 

1494 - 


Dominica discovered by Columbus, November 3. 

T 493 - 

Easter Isle discovered, 1722. 

East Indies discovered by the Portuguese, 1497 ; vis¬ 
ited overland by some English, 1591; first Dutch 
voyage, 1595 ; first voyage of the English company, 
1601; first from France, 1601; first voyage of the Danes, 
1612. 

Faulkland, Isles of, discovered, 1592. 

Florida discovered by Cabot, 1500 ; settled in 1763. 

Frobisher’s Straits discovered, 1578. 

Fox Island, in North Pacific Ocean, discovered 
1760. 

Galapagos Isles discovered, 1700 ; explored by Cap¬ 
tain James Colnett, 1793. 

Georgia colony erected by General Oglethorpe, 1739. 

Goree Isle, on the Guinea Coast, first planted by the 
Dutch, 1617. 

Granada Isle settled by France, 1652. 

Greenland was discovered in 1585; settled, 1721, 

I 73 I * 

Guadaloupe Isle discovered by Columbus, 1493; 
planted by France, 1635. 

Guinea Coast discovered by the Portuguese, 1482 ; 
slave trade commenced here by Captain Hawkins an 
Englishman, 1563. 

Helena, St., discovered, 1502; first possessed by 
England, 1600 ; settled by the English, 1651. 

Hood’s Isle, one of the Galapagos, in the Pacific 
Ocean, explored, June, 1793. 

Hudson Bay discovered by Captain Hudson, 1607. 

Iceland discovered by a Danish pirate in 860. 

Jamaica discovered by Columbus, 1494; settled by 
the Spaniards, 1509. 

Japan discovered, 154 2 I visited by the English, 1612, 

Kamtschatka discovered by the Russians, 1739. 

Padrone Isles discovered, 1521. 

Le Roach Island, near Faulkland’s Island, discov¬ 
ered, 1657. 

Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, discovered by 
the French, 1633 ; settled by them, 171S ; ceded to the 
United States, 1801. 

Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese, 1506. 

Madeira, Island of, discovered, 1344 and 1418. 

Magellan, Straits of, discovered, 1520. 

Marigalante Isle discovered, 1493. 

Maryland planted by Lord Baltimore, at the expense 
of ,£40,000, 1633. 

Mauritius Isle discovered, 1598 ; settled in 1721. 

Mexico conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez, 

1519-21. 

Montreal discovered, 1534; settled, 1029. 

Montserrat, in the West Indies, discovered by Col¬ 
umbus, 1493 ! planted by England, 1632. 

Nevis planted by England, 1628. 

New Caledonia discovered, 1774. 



IMPORTANT FACTS FOR REFERENCE. 


G81 


New England planted by the Puritans, 1620. 
Newfoundland discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; settled, 
1614. 

New Guinea discovered, 1699. 

New Holland discovered by the Dutch, 1627 ; settled 
by the English, 17S7. 

New Jersey planted by the Swedes, 1637. 

New Spain or Mexico, discovered, 1518. 

New Zealand discovered, 1660 ; explored in 1769. 
New Plymouth built and settled, 1620. 

New York settled, 1664. 

North-East passage to Russia discovered, 1553. 

Nova Scotia settled, 1622. 

Nova Zembla discovered, 1553. 

Otaheite, or George Ill’s Island, discovered June 18, 

1765- 

Owhy-he Island discovered, 1778; where Captain 
Cook was killed. 

Palmyra, ruins of In the Deserts of Syria, discov¬ 
ered, 1678. 

Panama settled, 1516. 

Paraguay discovered, 1525. 

Pennsylvania, Penn’s charter fc^ planting, 1680. 

Peru discovered, 1518. 

Philippine Isles discovered by the Spaniards, 1521. 
Pitt’s Straits in the West Indies, discovered, April 
lo, 1760. 

Porto Rico discovered, 1497. 

Saba planted by the Dutch, 1640. 

Salem, Mass., settled, 1628. 

Sandwich Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, discovered, 

1778 - 

Savannah settled, 1732. 

Sierra Leone Coast discovered, 1460. 

Society Isles, in the Pacific Ocean, discovered. 1765. 
Solomon Isles, in America, discovered, 1527. 

Somer’s Isles discovered, 1527. 

St. Eustatia Isle settled by Holland, 1632. 

St. Lawrence River discovered and explored by the 
French, 1508. 

St. Salvador, Guanihani, or Cat Island, was the 
first land discovered in the West Indies, or America, 
by Columbus, October 11, 1492. 

Suffolk Isles discovered, 1764 ; first produced sugar, 

1770. 

Surinam planted by England, 1640. 

Surat settled, 1603. 

Tate Islands, East Indies, discovered, June 29, 1795. 
Tobago planted by the Dutch, 1642. 

Terceras Isles discovered by the Spaniards, 1583. 
Terra Firma settled by the Spaniards, 1524- 
Trinidad, The Isle of, discovered, 149S. 

Ukraine settled by Russia, I 75 2 - 

Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh, 1584 > the 
settlement of the first permanent colony there, 1607, 
West Indies discovered by Columbus, 1492. 


The Political Divisions of the World, Ar¬ 
ranged According to Size. 


Sq miles. 

Russian Empire...7,862,568 
Chinese Empire...4,695,334 
British Empire...4,419,559 

United States.3,578,392 

British N. Am.3,523,083 

Brazil.3,231,047 

Australian Cont...2,945,2i9 
Turkish Empire...i,9i7,472 

India.1,552,028 

China (proper)....1,300,000 
Argentine Repub. 826,828 

Mexico. 773,144 

Egypt. 659,081 

Turkestan. 640,516 

Persia. 562,344 

Bolivia. 535,769 

Peru. 510,107 

Venezuela. 368,235 

U. S. of Colombia 357,179 

Tripoli. 344,423 

Morocco. 259,593 

Afghanistan. 258,530 

Texas. 247,356 

Austria,. 240,381 

Madagascar. 232,313 

Ecuador. 218,984 

France. 209,428 

Spain. 195,607 

California. 188,981 

Central America.. 178,869 

Sweden. 170,634 

Beloochistan. 165,830 

German Empire.. 160,207 

Abyssinia. 158,392 

Dakota. 152,000 

Japan. 149,399 

Montana. 143,776 

Prussia. 135,806 

Chili. 132,624 

Paraguay. 126,352 

New Mexico. 121,201 

Great Britain. 121,115 

Norway. 120,295 

Arizona. 113,916 

Nevada. 112,090 

Italy. 109,837 

Colorado. 104,500 

Oregon. 95, 2 74 

Idaho. 90,932 

Utah. 88,056 

Wyoming. 88,000 

Minnesota. 83,531 

Kansas. 81,318 

Transvaal Repub¬ 
lic. 77,964 


Sq. miles. 

Nebraska. 

• 75,995 

Washington. 

.69,994 

Indian Territory. 

.68,991 

Uruguay.. 

66,716 

Missouri.. 

•65,350 

Florida. 

59,268 

Georgia. 

.58,000 

Michigan...__ 

• 56,451 

Illinois. 

• 55 , 4 io 

Iowa. 

• 55,045 

Wisconsin. 

• 53 , 9 2 4 

Arkansas. 

.52,198 

Alabama. 

.50,722 

North Carolina. 

.50,704 

Orange Free State... 

.48,019 

Mississippi. 

• 47 U 56 

New York. 

.47,000 

Pennsylvania. 

.46,000 

Tunis. 

• 45 , 7 io 

Tennessee. 

.45,600 

Louisiana. 

• 4 L 346 

Ohio... 

• 39,964 

Virginia. 

• 38,352 

Portugal. 

• 37,977 

Kentucky. 

.37,68o 

Maine. 

.35,000 

South Carolina. 

.34,000 

Indiana. 

•33,809 

Bavaria... 

29-373 

West Virginia. 

.23,000 

Servia. 

.21,210 

Greece. 

• 19,353 

St. Domingo. 

.17,826 

Switzerland. 

•15,722 

Denmark. 

• 14,734 

Netherlands. 


Belgium. 

- 11,373 

Maryland. 

.11,124 

'^rmont. 


Hayti.. 

.10,205 

Liberia. 

• 9,567 

New Hampshire.... 


Fejee Islands. 

•• 8,033 

Massachusetts. 


Sandwich Islands... 

•• 7,633 

New Jersey. 

•• 7-570 

Wurtemburg. 

• 7,532 

Baden. 

•• 5 , 9 i 2 

Saxony. 

•• 5,779 

Mecklenburg-Schw 


erin. 

• • 5,190 

Connecticut. 

.. 4,674 

Papal States.. 

•• 4,552 

Hesse Darmstadt... 

•• 2,969 

Oldenburg. 

.. 2,469 


Wealth of Principal Nations. 


Argen. Rep..$i,66o,ooo,ooo 

Australia. 4,950,000,000 

Austria.18,060,000,000 

Belgium. 4,030,000,000 

Canada. 3,250,000,000 

Denmark. 1,830,000,000 

France.40,300,000,000 

Germany.31,615,000,000 

Great Britain ano 

Ireland..43,600,000,000 


Greece.$1,055,000,000 

Holland. 4,935,000,000 

Italy.12,755,000,000 

Mexico. 3,190,000,000 

Norway. 1,410,000,000 

Portugal. 1,855,000,000 

Spain. 7,965,000,000 

Sweden. 3,475,000,000 


Switzerland.. 1,620,000000 
U. States.47,475,000,000 



























































































































682 


ENCYLOPEDIA OF VALUABLE INFORMATION. 


Money. 

Money first mentioned as a medium of commerce in 
the twenty-third chapter of Genesis, when Abraham 
purchased a field as a sepulcher for Sarah, in the year 
of the world 2139; first made at Argos, 894 before 
Christ. Silver has increased 30 times its value since 
the Norman conquest, viz: a pound in that age was 
three times the quantity what it is at present, and ten 
times its value in purchasing any commodity; first 
coined in the United States, 1652 ; first paper money, 
1690. 

Weight of a Million Dollars. 

The United Slates gold dollar contains 25.8 troy 
grains. A troy pound contains 5760 troy grains, but 
the ordinary pound of currency, avoirdupois, weighs 
7000 troy grains. Therefore $1,000,000 in United States 
gold coin weigh 36S6.4 pounds avoirdupois. A United 
States standard silver dollar weighs 412.5 troy grains. 
$1,000,000 in United States silver coin of the present 
standard weigh 56,931 pounds avoirdupois, or nearly 
28X tons. 

Foundations of Fortunes. 

Senator Farwell began life as a surveyor. 

Cornelius Vanderbilt began life as a farmer. 

Wanamaker’s first salary was $1.25 a week. 

A. T. Stewart made his start as a school-teacher. 

Jim Keene drove a milk-wagon in a California town. 

Cyrus Field began life as a clerk in a New England 
•store. 

Pulitzer once acted as stoker on a Mississippi steam¬ 
boat. 

“ Lucky” Baldwin worked on his father’s farm in 
Indiana. 

Dave Sinton sold sugar over an Ohio counter for $1 
a week. 

Moses Taylor clerked in Water street, New York, 
at $2 a week. 

George W. Childs was an errand boy for a bookseller 
at $4 a month. 

J. C. Flood, the California millionaire, kept a saloon 
in San Francisco. 

P. T. Barnum earned a salary as bartender in Niblo’s 
Theatre New York. 

Jay Gould canvassed Delaware County, New York, 
selling maps at $1.50 apiece. 

C. P. Huntington sold butter and eggs for what he 
could get a pound and dozen. 

Andrew Carnegie did his first work in a Pittsburgh 
telegraph office at $3 a week. 

Whitelaw Reid did work as correspondent of a Cin¬ 
cinnati newspaper for $5 a week. 

Adam Forepaugh was a butcher in Philadelphia 
when he decided to go into the show business. 

Senator Brown made his first monsy by plowing his 
neighbor’s fields with a pair of bull calves. 


A Business Lesson. 

Peter Cooper was one of the most successful, careful, 
and prudent business men of his time. He was strongly 
opposed to the methods of many merchants who launch¬ 
ed out into extravagant enterprises on borrowed money, 
for which they paid exorbitant rate of interest. The 
following anecdote illustrates this point very forcibly: 

Once, while talking about a project with an acquaint¬ 
ance, the latter said he would have to borrow the money 
for six months, paying interest at the rate of 3 per cent, 
per month. 

“Why do you borrow for so short a time?” Mr. 
Cooper asked. 

“Because the brokers will not negotiate mils for 
longer.’' 

“ Well, if you wish,” said Mr. Cooper, “ I will dis¬ 
count your note at that rate for three years.” 

“Are you in earnest?” asked the would-be bor¬ 
rower. 

“Certainly, I am. I will discount your note for 
$10,000 for three years at that rate. Will you do it?” 

“ Of course I will,” said the merchant. 

“ Very well,” said Mr. Cooper ; “just sign this note 
for $10,000 payable in three years, and give your check 
for $800, and the transaction will be complete.” 

“But where is the money for me ?” askei the aston¬ 
ished merchant. 

“You don’t get any money,” was the reply. “Your 
interest for thirty-six months at three per centum per 
month amounts to 108 per centum, or $10,800; there¬ 
fore your check for $Soo just makes us even.” 

The force of this practical illustration of the folly of 
paying such an exorbitant price for the use of money 
was such that the merchant determined never to bor¬ 
row at such ruinous rates, and he frequently used to 
say that nothing could have so fully convinced him as 
this rather humorous proposal by Mr. Cooper. 

Avoid Debt. 

Every man who would get on in the world should, 
as far as possible, avoid debt. From the very outset of 
his career he should resolve to live within his ineome, 
however paltry it may be. The art of living easily as 
to money is very simple—pitch your scale of living one 
degree below your means. All the world’s wisdom on 
the subject is most tersely epitomized in the words of 
Dickens s Micawber: “ Annual income, twenty pounds; 
annual expenditure, nineteen six; result, happiness. 
Annual income, twenty pounds ; annual expenditure, 
twenty pounds naught and six ; result, misery.” Many 
a man dates his downfall from the day when he begav 
borrowing money. Avoid the first obligation, for, that 
incurred, others follow, one necessitating the other; 
every day the victim will get more entangled; then 
follow pretexts, excuses, lies, till all sense of shame is 
lost, the whole life becomes a makeshift, and the debtor 










G33 


IMPORTANT FACTS FOR REFERENCE. 


in despair finally resolves to live by indirect robbery 
and falsehood. 


Getting’ Rich by Small Inventions. 

The New Jersey man who hit upon the idea of attach¬ 
ing a rubber erasing tip to the end of the lead pencil i s 
worth $ 200 , 000 . 

The miner who invented a metal rivet or eyelet at 
each end of the mouth .of coat and trowsers pockets, 
to lesist the strain caused by the carriage of pieces of 
ore and heavy tools, has made more money from his 
letters patent than he w’ould have made had he struck 
a good vein of gold-bearing quartz. 

Every one has seen the metal plates that are used to 
protect the heels and soles of rough shoes, but every 
one doesn’t know that within ten years the man who 
hit upon the idea has made $250,000. 

As large a sum as was ever obtained for any inven¬ 
tion was enjoyed by the Yankee who invented the 
invented glass bell to hang over gas-jets to protect 
■aeiliugs from being blackened by smoke. 

The inventor of the roller skate has made $1,000,000, 
aotwithstanding the fact that his patent had nearly ex¬ 
pired before the value of it was ascertained in the craze 
for roller skating that spread over the country a few 
years ago. 

The gimlet-pointed screw has produced more wealth 
than most silver mines, and the Connecticut man who 
first thought of putting copper tips on the tees of 
children’s shoes is as well off as if he had inherited 
$1 ,000,000, for that’s the amount his idea has realized 
for him. 

The common needle threader which every one has 
seen for sale, and which every woman owns, was a boon 
to needle users. The man who invented it has an 
income of $10,000 a year from his invention. 

A minister in England made $50,000 by inventing an 
odd toy that danced by winding it with a string. 

The man who invented the return ball, an ordinary 
wooden Dali with a rubber string attached to pull it 
backj made $1,000,000 from it. 


Results of Saving Small Amounts of Money. 

The following show’s how easy it is to accumulate a 
fortune, provided proper steps are taken. The table 
shows what would be the result at the end of fifty 
years by saving a certain amount each day and putting 
it at interest at the rate of six per cent.: 


Daily Savings. The result. 


One cent.$ 95 ° 

Ten cents. 9 5°4 

Twenty cents. 19,006 

Thirty cents. 28,512 

Forty cents. 38, 01 5 

Fifty cents. 47 > 5 2 ° 


Daily Savings. The result. 


Sixty cents.....$57,024 

Seventy cents. 66,528 

Eighty cents. 76,032 

Ninetv cents......... 85,537 

One dollar. 95,041 

Five dollars.475,208 


Nearly every person wastes enough in twenty or 
thirtv years, which, if saved and carefully invested, 
would make a family quite independent; but the prin¬ 


ciple of small savings has been lost sight of in th.* 
general desire to become wealthy. 

Wliat a Dollar Saved Each Day Will Earn. 

One dollar per day saved in the cost of fuel amounts, 
with interest, on basis of 312 working days in a year, 
to following: 

Four Six Eight Ten 
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent* 

One Year. $324 48 $330 72 $336 96 $343 20 

Five Years. 1,757 50 1,86420 1,97680 2,0952s 

Ten Years.3,895 76 4,359 14 4,881 40 5,469 73 

Fifteen Years.. 6,479 24 7,69782 9,14918 10,90430 

Twenty Years.. 9,662 39 12,16572 15,41994 19,65678 

Value of Metals. 

Fully ninety-nine persons in every hundred, if asked 
to name the most precious metals, would mention 
gold as first, platinum as second, silver as third. If 
asked 1 to name others a few might add nickel, and a 
very few aluminum to the list. 

Let us see how near the truth they would be. Gold 
is worth about $240 per pound, troy • platinum $130, 
and silver about $12. Nickel would be quoted atabout 
60 cents and pure aluminum $8 to $9 to the troy pound. 

We w’ill now compare these prices with those of the 
rarer and less well known of the metals. To take them 
in alphabetical order, barium sells for $975 a pound, 
when it is sold at all, and calcium is worth $1,800 a 
pound, while cerium is a shade higher—its cost is $160 
an ounce, or $1,920 a pound. Chromium brings $200 ; 
cobalt falls to about half the price of silver, -while 
didymium is the same price as cerium, and cerium $10 
cheaper on the ounce than calcium, or just $1,680 per 
pound. 

If the wealth of the Vanderbilts be not overestimat¬ 
ed, it amounts to nearly $200,000,000. With this sum 
they could purchase 312 tons of gold and have some¬ 
thing left over, but they couldn’t buy two tons of gal¬ 
lium, that rare metal being worth $4,250 an ounce. 
With this metal the highest price is reached, and it 
may well be called the rarest and most precious of 
metals. 

Glucinum is worth $250 per ounce; indium, $158; 
irinium, $658 per pound ; lanthanium, $175, and lin- 
thium, $160 per ounce. Niobium costs $128 per ounce; 
asmium, paladium, platinum, potassium and rhodium 
bring respectively, $640, $400, $59, $32 and $512 per 
pound. Strontium costs $128 an ounce; tantium, 
$144 ; tellurium, $9 ; atliorium, $272 ; vanadium, $320; 
vitrium, $144, and ziconium, $250 an ounce. 

Barium is more than four times as valuable as gold, 
and gallium more than 162 times as costly, while many 
of the metals are twice and thrice as valuable. 

Aluminum, which now costs $8 to $9 a pound, will 
eventually be produced as cheap as steel. 





















684 


IMPORTANT FACTS FOR REFERENCE. 


Lightning conductors afford protection over a circle 
whose radius equals their height from the ground ; 
formerly considered twice. 


Average Annual Rainfall in the United 

S tates. 


fLACE Inches. 

Neah Bay, Wash. Ter...123 

Sitka, Alaska. 83 

Ft. Haskins, Oregon... 66 
Mt. Vernon, Alabama.. 66 

Baton Rouge, La. 60 

Meadow Valley, Cal.... 57 
Ft. Tonson, Indian Ter. 57 

Ft. Myers, Florida. 56 

Washington, Arkansas. 54 
Huntsville, Alabama... 54 
Natchez, Mississippi.... 53 

New Orleans, La. 51 

Savannah, Georgia. 48 

Springdale, Kentucky.. 48 
Fortress Monroe, Va... 47 
Memphis, Tennessee... 45 
Newark, New Jersey... 44 
Boston, Massachusetts.. 44 


Brunswick, Maine. 44 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 44 

New Haven, Conn. 44 

Philadelphia, Pa. 44 

Charleston, S. Carolina 43 
New York City, N. Y.. 43 

Gaston, N. Carolina. 43 

Richmond, Indiana. 43 

Marietta, Ohio. 43 

St. Louis, Mis iri. 43 

Muscatine, Iowa. 42 

Baltimore, Maryland... 41 

New Bedford, Mass. 41 

Providence, R. 1 . 41 

Ft. Smith, Arkansas_ 40 


place. Inches. 

Hanover, N. H.40 

Ft. Vancouver.38 

Cleveland, Ohio.37 

Pittsburgh, Pa.37 

Washington, D. C.37 

WhiteSulph’r Spgs.,Va-37 
Ft. Gibson, Indian Ten.36 

Key West, Florida.36 

Peoria, Illinois.35 

Burlington, Vermont....34 

Buffalo, New York.33 

Ft. Brown, Texas.33 

Ft. Leavenworth, Kan...31 

Detroit, Michigan.30 

Milwaukee, Wisconsin..30 
Penn Yan, New York...28 

Ft. Kearney.25 

Ft. Snelling, Minnesota25 
SaltLake City,Utah Ter.23 

Mackinac, Michigan.23 

San Francisco, Cal.21 

Dallas, Oregon.21 

Sacramento, California..2i 
Ft. Massachusetts, Col „ .17 
Ft. Marcy,New Mex. T.16 
Ft. Randall, Dakota T...16 
Ft. Defiance, Arizona.... 14 
Ft. Craig, New Mex. T. 11 
San Diego, California.... 9 
Ft. Colville, Wash. Ter.. 9 

Ft. Bliss, Texas. 9 

Ft. Bridger, Utah Ter... 6 
Ft. Garland, Colorado... 6 


Average Annual Temperature in United 

States. 


riace of Average 

Observation. Temperature. 

Tucson, Arizona.69 

Jacksonville, Florida.69 

New Orleans, La.69 

Austin, Texas.67 

Mobile, Alabama.66 

Jackson, Mississippi.64 

Little Rock, Arkansas...63 
Columbia, S. Carolina...62 
Ft. Gibson, Indian Ter..6o 
Raleigh, North Carolina59 

Atlanta, Georgia.58 

Nashville, Tennessee.58 

Richmond, Virginia.57 

Louisville, Kentucky....56 

San Francisco, Cal.55 

Washington, D. C.55 

St. Louis, Missouri.55 

Baltimore, Maryland.54 

Harrisburg, Pa.54 

Wilmington, Delaware-53 

Trenton, New Jersey.53 

Columbus, Ohio.53 

Portland, Oregon.53 

Ft. Boise, Idaho.52 


Place of Average 

Observation. Temperature. 

Salt Lake City, Utah.52 

Romney, West Virginia52 
Indianapolis, Indiana...51 
Leavenworth, Kansas,...51 
Sante Fe, NewMex.Ter.51 

Steilacoom. W. Ter.51 

Hartford, Connecticut...50 

Springfield, Illinois.50 

Camp Scott, Nevada.50 

Des Moines, Iowa.49 

Omaha, Nebraska.49 

Denver, Colorado.48 

Boston, Massachusetts...48 

Albany, New York.48 

Providence, R. 1 .48 

Detroit, Michigan.47 

Ft. Randall, Dakota Ter.47 

Sitka, Alaska.46 

Concord, N. H.46 

Augusta, Maine.45 

Madison, Wisconsin.45 

Helena, Montana Ter...43 
Montpelier, Vermont....43 
St. Paul, Minnesota.42 


The Derivations of the Names of the 

Months. 

January. —The Roman Janus presided over thebe** 
ginning of everything ; hence the first month of the 
year was called after him. 

February. —The Roman festival Februs was held 
on the 15th day of this month, in honor of Lupercus, 
the god of fertility. 

March. —Named from the Roman god of war,. 
Mars. 

Aprie. —Latin, Aprilis, probably derived from 
aperire, to open ; because spring generally begins and 
the buds open in this month. 

May. —Latin, Maius, probably derived from Maia, a 
femine divinity worshiped at Rome on the first day of 
this month. 

June. —Juno, a Roman divinity worshiped as the 
Queen of Heaven. 

Jury (Julius).—Julius Caesar was born in this 
month. 

August. —Named by the Emperor Augustus Caesar, 
B. C. 30, after himself, as he regarded it a fortunate 
month, being that in which he had gained several vic¬ 
tories. 

September. —Latin, septem or 7. September was 
the seventh month in the old Roman calendar. 

October. —Latin, octo. Eighth month of the old 
Roman year. 

November. —Latin, novem, or 9. November was 
the ninth mouth in the old Roman year. 

December. — Latin, decern, or 10. December was 
the tenth month of the early Roman year. About the 
21st of this month the sun enters the Tropic of Capri¬ 
corn, and forms the winter solstice. 

Days of the Week. 

Sunday.— Saxon, Sunnaudseg, da}' of the sun. 

Monday. —German, Montag, day of the moon. 

Tuesday. —Ang-Saxon, Tiwesdaeg, from Tw, the god 
of war. 

Wednesday. —Ang-Saxon, Wodnesdaeg, from Odin, 
the god of storms. 

Thursday. Danish, Thor, the god of thunder. 

Friday. Saxon, Frigedasg, day of Freya, goddess 
of marriage. 

Saturday. —Day of Saturn, the god of time. 

The names of the seven days of the week originated 
with the Egyptian astronomers. They gave them the 
names of the sun, moon and five planets : viz., Mars, 
Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. 

The Chinese and Thibetans have a week of five days 
natned after iron, wood, water, feathers and earth. 

Principal Exports of Various Countries. 

Arabia. Coffee, aloes, myrrh, frankincense, gum 
arabic. 










































































685 


ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VALUABLE INFORMATION. 


Belgium.—G rain, flax, hops, woolens, linens, laces, 
various manufactures. 

Brazil. —Cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, gold, dia¬ 
monds, wheat and dry goods. 

Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.— 
Flour, furs, lumber, fish. 

Cape Colony. —Brandy, wine, ostrich feathers, 
hides, tallow. 

Central America. —Logwood, mahogany, indigo, 
cocoa. 

Chili. —Silver, gold, copper, wheat, hemp, hides, 
sugar, cotton, fruits. 

China. —Tea, silks, nankeens, porcelain, opium, 
articles of ivory and pearl. 

Denmark. —Grain, horses, cattle, beef, pork, but¬ 
ter, cheese. 

Eastern, Western and Southern Africa.— 
Gold, ivory, ostrich feathers. 

Egypt.—R ice, grain, linseed, fruits, indigo, cotton, 
sugar. 

Ecuador and New Grenada.—C offee, cotton, 
indigo, cocoa, fruits, sugar. 

France —Silks, w ? ooiens, linens, cotton, wine, 
brandy, porcelain, toys. 

Germany. —Linen, grain, various manufactures of 
silver, copper, etc. 

Great Britain. —Woolens, cottons, linens, hard¬ 
ware, porcelain, etc. 

Greenland. —Whale oil, whale bone, seal skins. 

Hindoostan. —Cotton, silks, rice, sugar, coffee, 
opium, indigo. 

Holland. —Fine linens, woolens, butter, cheese, 
various manufactures. 

ITALY. —Silks, wine, oil, grain, fruits. 

Ireland. —Linens, beef, butter, tallow, hides, pota¬ 
toes, barley. 

Japan. —Silk and cotton goods, japanware, porce¬ 
lain. 

Mexico. —Gold, silver, logw r ood, cochineal, fruits. 

PERSIA. —Carpets, shawls, wine, silk, cotton, rice, 
rhubarb, guns, swords, etc. 

PERU. —Silver, gold, Peruvian bark, mercury, suga-, 
cotton, fruits. 

RUSSIA. —Hemp, iron, linen, grain, timber, furs, 
tallow, platina. 

Spain and Portugal. — Silks, w t oo1, wine, oil, 
fruits, salt. 

Sweden and Norway. —Iron, steel, copper, tim¬ 
ber, fish. 

Switzerland. —Watches, jewelry, paper, laces, 
linen, cotton and silk goods, etc. 

Turkey. —Gr^in, ffmits, cotton, oil, wines, carpets, 
muslin, swords. 

United States.— 

Eastern States -—Lumber, beef, pork, fish, cottons, 
woolens, etc. 


Middle States .—Flour, wheat, salt, coal, cottons, 
woolens. 

Souihern States. —Cotton, rice, tobacco, corn, lum- 
I ber, pitch, fruits. 

Western Stales. —Corn, wheat, lead, coal, iron, salt, 
lime, beef, pork. 

Venezuela. —Sugar, coffee, cocoa, cotton, indigo, 
fruits. 

West Indies. —Sugar, rum, molasses, coffee, spice, 
cotton, indigo, fruits. 

Salaries Paid to Heads of Governments. 

Various governments pay their chiefs as follows: 
The United States, $50,000 a year ; Persia, $30,000,000; 
Russia, $10,000,000; Siam, $10,000,000; Spain, 
$3,9 00 , 00 °; Italy, $3,000,000; Great Britain, $3,000,- 
000; Morocco, $2,500,000 ; Japan, $2,300,000; Egypt, 
$L 575 >°°°; Germany, $1,000,000; Saxony, $700,- 
000; Portugal, Sweden and Brazil, each $600,000; 
France, $200,000; Hayti, $240,000; Switzerland, 
$3,000. 

Sovereigns of England. 

“First William the Norman ; 

Then William, his son, 

Henry, Stephen and Henry, 

Then Richard and John ; 

Next, Henry the third, 

Edwards, one, two, three, 

And again, after Richard, 

Three Henrys we see. 

Two Edwards, third Richar-,' ' 

If rightly I guess ; 

Two Henrys, sixth Edward, 

Queen Mary, Queen Bess, 

Then Jamie, the Scotchman, 

Then Charles, whom they slew, 

Yet received after Cromwell 
Another Charles, too; 

Next James the second 
Ascended the throne ; 

Then good William and Mary 
Togetlier came on ; 

’Till Annie, Georges four 
And fourth William all past; 

God sent us Victoria, 

May she long be the last!’’ 

The Smallest Republic in Europe. 

The honor which was claimed for Gersau belongs to 
the independent hamlet of Foust. This pretty group of 
huts, situated a few hours distant from Oleron, in the 
department of the lower Pyrenees, belongs neither to 
France nor Spain. It has somewhat over 100 citizens. 
They have no mayor or other civil official. They have 
not even an established church or priest of their own, 
but attend at a neighboring village. The very weak¬ 
ness of this little republic preserves it in existence. 

What Royalty Costs England. 

As a sample of what royalty costs the people of 
Great Britain alone, Whitaker gives the following an¬ 
nuities to the royal family : 










C8G 


IMPORTANT FACTS FOR REFERENCE. 


Her Majesty— 

Privy purse. /6o,ooo 

Salaries of household.131,260 

Expenses of household.172,500 

Royal bounty, etc. 13,500 

Unappropriated. 8,540 


^385,800 


Prince of Wales. 40,000 

Princess of Wales. 10,000 

Prince Albert Victor. 10.000 

Crown Princess of Prussia. 8,000 

Duke of Edinburgh. 25,000 

Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. 6,oco 

Princess Louise (Marchioness of Lome). 6,000 

Duke of Connaught. 25,000 

Duke of Albany. 25.000 

Duke of Cambridge. 6,000 

Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 3,000 

Duke of Cambridge. 12,000 

Duchess of Teck. 5,000 


Total.^566,800 ©r 12,834,000 

Carlisle Tables of Mortality. 


How Human Life is Spent. 

According to a French statistician, taking tne mean 
of many accounts, a man of 50 years of age has slept 
6,000 days, worked 6,500 days, walked 800 days, amus¬ 
ed himself 4,000 days, was eating 1,500 days, was sick 
500 days, etc. He ate 17,000 pounds of bread, 16,000 
pounds of meat, 4,600 pounds of vegetables, eggs and 
fish, and drank 7,000 gallons of liquid, namely, watei. 
tea, coffee, beer, wine, etc., altogether. 

How to tell the Ag-e of any Person. 

There is a good deal of amusement in the following 
magical table of figures. It will enable you to tell how 
old the young ladies are. Just hand this table to a 
young lady, and request her to tell you in which col¬ 
umn or columns her age is contained, and add together 
the figures at the top of the columns in which her age 
is found, and you have the great secret. Thus, sup¬ 
pose her age to be 17, you will find that number in the 
first and fifth columns ; add the first figures of these 


Showing how many persons out of 10,000 will die 


annually, on the average until all are deceased, 
by Life Insurance Companies. 

Used 

Year. 

No. Alive. 

Deaths. 

Year. 

No. Alive. 

Deaths. 

At Birth. 

10,000 

8,461 

L539 

41 

5,009 

69 

I 

682 

42 

4,940 

71 

2 

7,779 

5°5 

43 

4,869 

71 

3 

7,274 

276 

44 

4,798 

71 

4 

6,998 

201 

45 

4,727 

70 

5 

6,797 

121 

46 

4,657 

69 

6 

6,670 

82 

47 

4,588 

67 

7 

6,594 

58 

48 

4,521 

63 

8 

6,536 

48 

49 

4,458 

6l 

9 

6,493 

33 

50 

4,397 

59 

10 

6,460 

29 

5i 

4,338 

62 

Ii 

6,43 t 

3i 

52 

4,276 

65 

12 

6,400 

32 

53 

4,211 

68 

13 

6,368 

33 

54 

4,i43 

70 

14 

6,335 

35 

55 

4,073 

73 

15 

6,300 

39 

56 

4,000 

76 

16 

6,261 

42 

57 

3,924 

82 

17 

6,219 

43 

58 

3,842 

93 

18 

6,176 

43 

59 

3,749 

106 

19 

6,133 

43 

60 

3,633 

122 

20 

6,090 

43 

61 

3,52i 

126 

21 

6,047 

42 

62 

3,395 

127 

22 

6,005 

42 

63 

3,268 

125 

23 

5,963 

42 

64 

3,M3 

125 

24 

5,92i 

42 

65 

3,018 

124 

25 

5,879 

43 

66 

2,894 

123 

26 

5,83 6 

43 

67 

2,771 

123 

27 

5-793 

45 

68 

2,648 

123 

28 

5,748 

5° 

69 

2,525 

124 

29 

5,698 

56 

70 

2,401 

124 

3° 

5,642 

57 

7i 

2,277 

134 

3 1 

5,585 

57 

72 

2,143 

146 

S 2 

5,5 2 8 

5 6 , 

73 

1.997 

156 

33 

5,472 

55 

74 

1,841 

166 

34 

5,4i7 

55 

75 

1,675 

160 

35 

5,362 

55 

76 

L515 

156 

3 6 

5,307 

56 

77 

i,359 

146 

„ 37 

5,251 

57 

78 

1,213 

132 

38 

5,194 

58 

79 

1,081 

128 

1 39 .i., 

5,136 

. 61 

80 

953 

116 

40 

5,075 

66 

81 

U 8 37 . 

112 


two columns. 


Here is the magic table : 


1 

2 

4 

8 

16 

32 

3 

3 

5 

9 

17 

33 

5 

6 

6 

10 

18 

34 

7 

7 

7 

11 

19 

35 

9 

10 

12 

12 

20 

36 

:i 

11 

13 

13 

21 

37 

13 

14 

14 

14 

22 

38 

15 

15 

15 

15 

23 

39 

17 

18 

20 

24 

24 

40 

19 

19 

21 

25 

25 

4i 

21 

22 

22 

26 

26 

42 

23 

23 

23 

27 

27 

43 

25 

26 

28 

28 

28 

44 

27 

27 

29 

29 

29 

45 

29 

30 

30 

30 

30 

46 

31 

3i 

3i 

3i 

3i 

*7 

33 

34 

36 

40 

48 

48 

35 

35 

37 

4i 

49 

49 

37 

38 

38 

42 

50 

50 

39 

39 

39 

43 

5i 

51 

4i 

42 

44 

44 

52 

52 

43 

45 

43 

46 

45 

46 

45 

46 

53 

54 

53 

54 

47 

47 

47 

47 

55 

55 

49 

50 

52 

56 

56 

56 

5i 

5i 

53 

57 

57 

57 

53 

54 

54 

58 

58 

58 

55 

55 

55 

59 

59 

59 

57 

58 

60 

60 

60 

60 

59 

59 

61 

61 

61 

61 

61 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

63 

63 

63 

63 

6 3 

63 


Another NLctliod of Telling^ .Any One's Age 


Girls of a marriageable age do not like to tell how 
old they are, but you can find out by following sub¬ 
joined instructions, the young lady doing the figuring. 
Tell her to put down the number of the month in which 
she was born ; then to multiply it by two ; then to add 
five ; then to multiply it by 50; then to add her age; 
then to subtract 365 ; then to add 115 ; then tell her to 



























csr 


ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VALUABLE INFORMATION. 


tell you the amount she has left. The two figures to 
the right will denote her age, and the remainder the 
month of her birth. For example, the amount is 822, 
she is twenty-two years old, and was born in the eighth 
month (August). Try it. 

A Lady’s Chance of Marrying 

Every woman has some chance to marry ; it may be 
one to fifty, or it may be ten to one that she will. Re¬ 
presenting her entire chance at one hundred at certain 
points of her progress in time, it is found to be in the 


following ratio: 

Between the ages of 15 and 20 years.14 y 2 per cent. 

Between the ages of 20 and 25 years. 52 per cent. 

Between the ages of 25 and 30 years. 18 per cent. 

Between the ages of 30 and 35 years.15 per cent. 

Between the ages of 35 and 40 years. 3^ per cent. 

Between the ages of 40 and 45 years. 2per cent. 


Between the ages of 45 and 50 years... of 1 per cent. 
Between the ages of 50 and 56 years...of 1 per cent. 

After sixty it is one-tenth of one per cent, or one 
chance in a thousand. A pretty slender figure—but 
FIGURES are often SLENDER at that age. 

Mode of Execution in Every Country. 


Country. 

Mode. 

Publicity. 

Austria. 

..Gallows. 


Bavaria. 

..Guillotine. 


Belgium. 

..Guillotine. 


Brunswick. 

..Ax. 


China. 

..Sword or cord. 


Denmark. 

..Guillotine. 


Ecuador.:. 

..Musket. 

.Public. 

France. 

..Guillotine. 


Great Britain. 

.Gallows. 


Hanover. 

.Guillotine.. 


Italy. 

.Sword or gallows"' 

.Public. 

Netherlands.. 

..Gallows. 


Oldenberg. 

.Musket. 


Portugal. 

.Gallows. 


Prussia. 

.Sword. 


Russia. 

.Musket,gallows, or 

sword Public. 

Saxony. 

Guillotine. 


Spain. 

..Garrote. 


Switzerland- 
Fifteen cantons. 

..Sword. 


Two cantons. 

..Guillotine. 


Two cantons. 

..Guillotine. 


United States (other 
than New York).... 

..Gallows. 

f Mostly 

New York. 

...Electricity. 



*Capital punishment abolished in 1876. 

Antidotes for Pois* ns. 

In cases where the other articles to be used as anti¬ 
dotes are not in the house, give two tablespoonfuls of 


mustard mixed in a pint of warm water. Also give 
large draughts of warm milk or water mixed with oil, 
butter or lard. If possible give as follows . 


For Bed-Bug Poison, 
Blue Vitrioe, 
Corrosive Sublimate, 
Read Water, 
Saltpetre, 

Sugar of Lead, 
Sulphate of Zinc, 

Red Precipitate, 
Vermilion, 

For Fowler’s Solution, 
White Precipitate, 
Arsenic, 


For Antimonial Wine, 
Tartar Emetic, 


For Oil Vitriol, 

Aqua Fortis, 
Bi-Carbonate Potass a, 
Muriatic Acid, 

Oxalic Acid 

For Caustic Soda, 
Caustic Potash, 
Volatile Alkali, 


j- Give Milk or White of 
Eggs, in large quantities. 


Give prompt Emetic of' 
Mustard and Salt—tabic- 
-spoonful of each; follow 
with Sweet Oil, Butter 01 
. Milk. 

Drink warm water to en¬ 
courage vomiting. If 
• vomiting does not stop, 
give a Grain of Opium 
in water. 

Magnesia or Soap, dis- 
- solved in water, every 
two minutes. 


Drink freely of water with 
Vinegar or Lemon Juice in. 
it. 


For Carbolic Acid 


) Give Flour and Water or Glu.^ 
J tinous drinks. 


For Chloral Hydrate, 
Chloroform, 


Pour cold water over the 
head and face, with arti¬ 
ficial respiration, Galvanic' 
Battery. 


For Carbonate of Soda, 
Copperas, 

Cobalt, 


Prompt Emetic ; Soap or 
Mucilaginous drinks. 


For Laudanum, 
Morphine, 
Opium, 


Strong Coffee, followed by Ground 
Mustard, or Grease in warm water 
to produce vomiting. Keep in mo¬ 
tion. 


For Nitrite of Silver —Give common Salt in water. 


For Strychnine, ) Emetic of Mustard or Sulphate of 
Tinct. nux vomica / Zinc, aided by warm water. 


Powers of Locomotion of Animals, and 


Average Velocities of Various Bodies. 


A man walks. 

Per hour 

or 

Per Sec. 
4 feet. 

A horse trots. 

7 

<< 

or 

10 “ 

A horse runs. 


4 < 

or 

29 “ 

Steamboat runs. 

18 

( 4 

or 

26 “ 

Sailing vessel runs. 


( k 

or 

14 “ 

Slow rivers flow. 

3 

< 4 

or 

4 “ 

Rapid rivers flow. 

7 

4 < 

or 

10 “ 

A moderate wind blows.. 

7 

4 < 

or 

IO “ 

A storm moves. 

36 

4 4 

or 

32 “ 

A hurricane moves. 


( 4 

or 

117 “ 

A rifle ball moves. 


4 4 

or 

1,466 “ 

Sound moves. 

743 

(4 

or 

1,142 “ 

Light moves. 


miles per second. 


Electricity moves.,,,,,,.288,000 miles per second. 














































































688 


IMPORTANT FACTS FOR REFERENCE. 


The Pulse. 


The natural rate of the pulse varies at different ages 
as follows: 


Beats per Minute. 


At birth. 130—140 

One year.. 115—130 

Two years.. 100—115 

Three years... 95—105 

Four to seven years. 85— 95 

Seven to fourteen years. 80— 90 

Fourteen to twenty-one years. 75-- 85 

Twenty-one to sixty years. 70— 75 

Old age. 75— 85 


Periods of Digestion. 

SUBSTANCE. 

Rice, boiled. 

Eggs, whipped, raw. 

Trout, fresh, fried. 

Soup, barley, boiled. 

Apples, sweet, mellow, raw. 

Venison steak, broiled... 

Sago, boiled. 

Tapioca, boiled. 

Barley, boiled. 

Milk, boiled. 

Liver, beef, fresh, broiled. 

Eggs, fresh, raw.*. 

Apples, sour, mellow, raw. 

Cabbage, with vinegar, raw. 

Milk, raw. 

Eggs, fresh, roasted. 

Turkey, domestic, roasted. 

Goose, wild, roasted. 

Cake, sponge, baked. 

Hash, warmed. 

Beans, pod, boiled. 

Parsnips, boiled. 

Potatoes, Irish, baked. 

Cabbage, head, raw. 

Custard, baked. 

Apples, sour, hard, raw. 

Oysters, fresh, raw. 

Eggs, fresh, soft boiled. 

Beefsteak, broiled. 

Mutton, fresh, broiled. 

Mutton, fresh, boiled. 

Soup, bean, boiled. 

Chicken soup, boiled. 

Dumpling, apple, boiled. 

Oysters, fresh, roasted. 

Pork, salted, broiled. 

Porksteak, broiled. 

Mutton, fresh, roasted. 

Bread, corn, baked. 

Carrot, orange, boiled. 

Sausage, fresh, broiled. 


H. M. 
I 

• I 30 

I 30 
I 30 
I 30 
I 45 

1 45 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 15 
2 15 

2 3 ° 
2 3 ° 
2 3 ° 
2 3 ° 
2 3 ° 
2 30 
2 3 ° 
2 30 
2 <5 

2 50 

2 55 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 

3 15 
3 15 
3 15 
3 15 
3 15 
3 15 
3 20 


Oysters, fresh, stewed. 3 30 

Butter, melted.. 3 30 

Cheese, old, raw. 3 3 ° 

Oyster soup, boiled. 3 30 

Bread, wheat, fresh, baked. 3 30 

Turnips, flat, boiled. 3 30 

Potatoes, Irish, boiled. 3 30 

Eggs, fresh, hard boiled. 3 30 

Eggs, fresh, fried. 3 30 

Green corn and beans, boiled. 3 45 

Beets, boiled. 3 45 

Salmon, salted, boiled. 4 

Beef, fried. 4 

Veal, fresh, broiled. 4 

Fowls, domestic, boiled. 4 

Beef, old, salted, boiled. 4 1^ 

Pork, salted, fried. 4 15 

Pork, salted, boiled. 4 30 

Veal, fresh, fried. 4 30 

Cabbage, boiled. 4 30 

Pork, roasted. 5 15 

Suet, beef, boiled. 5 30 


Percentage of Nutrition in Various Articles 

of Food. 


Raw Cucumbers. 2 

Raw Melons. 3 

Boiled Turnips. 4*-^ 

Milk. 7 

Cabbage. 7^ 

Apples.10 

Currants.10 

Whipped Eggs.13 

Beets.14 

Apples.16 

Peaches.20 

Boiled Codfish.21 

Broiled Venison.22 

Potatoes.22^ 

Fried Veal.24 

Roast Pork.24 

Percentage of Alcoln 

Scotch Whisky. 54*53 

Irish Whisky.51.a 

Rum.53-68 

Gin.51.6 

Brandy. 53-39 

Burgundy. 14-57 

Cape Muscat.18.25 

Champagne (still).13.80 

Champagne (sp’rkl’g) 12.61 


Constantia.19-75 

Gooseberry Wine.11.48 


Roast Poultry...26 

Raw Beef..26 

Raw Grapes.27 

Raw Plums.29 

Broiled Mutton.30 

Oatmeal Porridge.75 

Rye Bread.79 

Boiled Beans._.87 

Boiled Rice...88 

Barley Bread.88 

Wheat Bread.90 

Baked Corn Bread.91 

Boiled Barley.92 

Butter.92 

Boiled Peas.93 

Raw Oils.95 

1 in Various Liquors, 

Currant Wine.20.50 

Port.22.90 

Madeira.22.27 

Teneriffe.19.79 

Sherry.19*17 

Claret.15.1 

Elder. 8.79 

Ale. 6.87 

Porter. 4.02 

Malaga.17.26 

Rhenish. 12.8 

Small Beer. 1.28 


Weight of Eggs. 

The following table of the weight of eggs per pound 
of various breeds of fowls and the number of eggs laid 
in a year is approximately fair, though it may vary 
under exceptionally adverse or favorable conditions i 




































































































































ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VALUABLE INFORMATION. 


639 


Varieties. Eggs 

„ . , Per lb - 

Light Brahmas. 7 

Dark Brahmas. 8 

Partridge Cochins. 7 

Black, White, Buff Cochins. 7 

Plymouth Rocks. 8 

Houdaus..-. 8 

La Fleche. 7 

Creve Cceurs. 8 

Black Spanish. 8 

Leghorns. 8 

Hamburgs. 9 

Dominiques. 8 

Games. 9 

Bantams. 16 


No. Eggs 
Per Year. 
130 

I30 

130 

120 

150 

155 

135 

145 

155 

l6o 

150 

135 

140 

90 


Food in an Egg. 

An egg contains as much nourishment as a pound 
and an ounce of cherries, a pound and a quarter of 
grapes, a pound and a half of russet apples, two pounds 
of gooseberries and four pounds of pears; and 114 
pounds of grapes, 127 pounds of russet apples, 192 
pounds of pears, and 327 pounds of plums are equal 
in nourishment to 100 pounds of potatoes. 

Rules for tlie Management of Poultry. 

I. Good dry houses, well ventilated but void of 
drafts. 

2 0 Keep your hen houses clean and the floor covered 
with ashes. 

3. Whitewash inside monthly from March 1st to 
October 1st. 

4. Feed regularly, but never overfeed ; cease feeding 
when the fowls cease to run for it. 

5. Scatter the food on the ground when the weather 
will permit. 

6. Feed mixed grain, or alternate, as corn one day, 
oats nexi, wheat next, etc. 

7. Allow adult fowls freedom as early in the morn¬ 
ing as they desire. 

8. Keep hens with chicks in small coops (well cov¬ 
ered and dry) until the chicks are three weeks old. 

9. Feed chicks morning, noon and afternoon. 

10. Mix ground black pepper with the morning 
food. 

II. Grease the hens well under the wings, breast and 
fluff feathers as soon as the chicks are taken off, with 
ointment made of lard and carbolic acid ; one table¬ 
spoonful of lard to ten drops of acid. 

Box Measures. 


Farmers and market gardeners will find a series of 
box measures very useful, and they can readily be made 
by anyone who understands the two-foot rule and can 
handle the saw and hammer. The following measure¬ 
ments, it will be seen, vary slightly from the United 
States bushel adopted tey some of the States, but are 
sufficiently accurate for aA ordinary purposes: 

44 


A box 16 by i6p£ inches square and 8 inches deep 
will contain a bushel, or 2150.4 cubic inches, each inch 
in depth holding one gallon. 

A box 24 by 11.2 inches square and 8 inches deep 
will also contain a bushel, or 2150.4 cubic inches, each 
in depth holding 1 gallon. A box 12 by 11.2 inches 
square and 8 inches deep will contain half a bushel, or 
1075.2 cubic inches, each inch in depth holding half a 
gallon. 

A box 8 by 8.4 inches square and 8 inches deep will 
contain half a peck, or 298.8 cubic inches. The gal¬ 
lon, dry measure. 

A box 4 by 4 inches square and 4.2 inches deep will 
contain 1 quart, or 67.2 cubic inches. 

How to Drive Flies from Stables. 

Scatter chloride of lime on a board in a stable, to 
remove all kinds of flies, but more especially biting 
flies. Sprinkling beds of vegetables with even a weak 
solution, effectually preserves them from caterpillars, 
slugs, etc. A paste of one part powdered chloride of 
lime, and a half part of some fatty matter placed in a 
narrow band round the trunk of the tree, prevents 
insects from creeping Lip it. Even rats, mice, cock¬ 
roaches and crickets flee from it. 

How to Keep Flies from Horses. 

Procure a bunch of smartweed and bruise it to cause 
the juice to exude. Rub the animal thoroughly with 
the bunch of bruised weed, especially on the legs, neck 
and ears. Neither flies or other insects will trouble 
him for twenty-four hours. The process should be 
repeated every day. A very convenient way of using 
it is, to make a strong infusion by boiling the weed a 
few minutes in water. When cold it can be conveni¬ 
ently applied with a sponge or brush. Smartweed is 
found growing in every section of the country, usually 
on wet ground near highways. 

A Rule for Determining’ tlie Weight of 
Live Cattle by Measurement. 

There are many rules for estimating the weight of 
cattle by measurement, but one of the authorities on 
the subject says that “There is no rule that comes 
nearer than good guessing,” and that no two animals 
will weigh alike according to measurement. The 
same authority further remarks that a rule, as good as 
any, is to find the superficial feet by multiplying the 
girth, just behind the shoulder-blade, by the length 
from the fore part of the shoulder-blade to the root of 
the tail. Thus an ox girthing seven feet nine inches, 
and measuring six feet in length, would contain seven 
and three-fourtlis times six or 46^ superficial feet. 
For cattle, grass fed, the following is given as the 
weight per superficial foot: Girth less than 3 feet, 11 
pounds ; girth 3 to 5 feet, 16 pounds ; girth 5 to 7 feet, 
23 pounds ; girth 7 to 9 feet, 31 pounds. 





















(ff/ r 


m 



ss 


ffl 


Popdlatiorj of tf^e United States 

•$■ During tpe I^iijeteer^tlj Century •$• 


w 


ft 


1 


m 


i 


m 


States and 
Territories. 

1810 

1820 

1830 

1840 

1850 

i860 

Alabama. 


127,901 

309,527 

590,756 

771,623 

064,201 

Arizona. 


Arkansas. 


14,255 

30,388 

97,574 

209,897 

92,597 

435,450 

379-994 

34,277 

460,147 

4,837 

112,216 

75,o8o 

140,424 

1,057,286 

California. 


Colorado. 





Connecticut-.... . 
Dakota. 

261,942 

275,148 

297,675 

309,978 

370,792 

Delaware. 

72,674 

24,523 

72,749 

32,039 

76,748 

39,834 

34,730 

516,823 

78,085 

43,712 

54,477 

691,392 

9 I , 53 2 

51,687 

87,445 

906,185 

District of 

Columbia 
Florida. 

Georgia . 

252,433 

340,985 

Idaho. 

Illinois. 

12,282 

24,520 

55,162 

147,178 

157,445 

343,031 

476,183 

685,866 

43 ,H 2 

851,470 

988,416 

192,214 

i, 7 n, 95 T 

1,350,428 

674,913 
107,206 
1,155,684 
708,002 
628,279 
687,049 
1,23 r,066 

749 ,H 3 

172,023 

79 L 305 

1,182,012 

Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 




Kentucky. 

406,511 

76,556 

228,705 

380,546 

472,040 

4,762 

564,135 
152,923 

298,169 

407,350 

523,159 

8,765 

687,917 

215,739 

399,455 

447,040 

610,408 

3L659 

779,828 

352 , 4 H 

5 oi ,793 

470.019 

737,699 

212,267 

982,405 

517,762 

583,169 

583,034 

994,514 

397,654 

7,077 

606,526 

682,044 

Louisiana. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts... 
Michigan. 

Minnesota ..... 

Mississippi. 

Missouri.. 

40,352 

20,845 

75,448 

66,557 

136,621 

140,455 

375,651 

383,702 

Montana. 

Nebraska. 






28,841 

6,857 

326,073 

672,035 

93,516 

3,880,735 

992,622 

Nevada. 






New Hampshire 

New Jersey. 

New Mexico. 

214,460 

245,562 

244,022 

277,426 

269,328 

320,823 

284,574 

373,306 

317,976 

489,555 

6 i ,547 

3 ,° 97,394 

869,039 

New York. 

North Carolina.. 
North Dakota.... 

959,049 

555,500 

1,372,111 

638,829 

1,918,608 

707,987 

2,428,921 

753,419 

Ohio.. 

230,760 

581,295 

937,903 

1,519,467 

1,980,329 

2 , 339 , 5 H 

Oklahoma. 

Oregon. 





13,294 

2,311,786 

147,545 

668,507 

52,465 

2,906,215 

174,620 

703,708 

Pennsylvania.... 
Rhode Island.... 
South Carolina.. 
South Dakota.... 

810,091 

76,931 

4 i 5 ,n 5 

1,047,507 

83,015 

502,741 

1,348,233 

97,199 
581,185 

1,724,033 

108,830 

594,398 

Tennessee. 

Tpyas 

261,727 

422,771 

681,904 

829,210 

1,002,717 

212,592 

11,380 

314,120 

1,421,661 

1,109,801 

604,215 

40,273 

315,098 

L 596 , 3 i 8 

n ,594 

Utah .. 





Vermont. 

217,895 

974,600 

235,966 

1,065,116 

280,652 

1,211,405 

291,948 

1 , 239,797 

Virginia. 

Wn<ihi n o'tnn 

West Virginia . 










30,945 

305,391 

775 ,88r 

Wvnminof __ 



Total... 



1 



7,239,881 

9,633,822 12,866,020! 17,069,453 

2 3,i9i,876'3i,443,22i 


690 


1870 


996.992 

9.658 

484,471 

560,247 

39.864 

537.454 

14,181 

125.015 

131,700 
187,748 
1,184,109 
14.999 
2 , 539.89 
1,680,637 
1,194,02,) 

364,399 

1,321,01 j 

726.915 

626.915 
780,894 

1 , 457 , 35 ' 

1,184,059 

439 , 7 o 6 

827,922 

1,721,295 

20,595 

122.993 
42,491 

3 i 8 , 3 °° 

906,096 

91,874 

4 , 382,759 

1,071,361 


90,923 

3 , 521,951 

217,353 

705,606 


1,258,520 

818,579 

86,786 

330,551 

1,225,163 

23,955 
442,014 
1,054,670 
9. t 18 


38,558,371 


1,262,505 
40,440 
802,525 
864,694 
194,327 
622,700 

135,177 

146,608 

177,62; 

269,493 

1,542,180 

32,610 

3,077,871 

1,978,3m 

1,624,615 

996,096 

1,648,690 

939,946 

648,936 

° 34.943 

1 783,085 

1,036,937 

780,773 

i,i 3 i ,597 

2,168,380 

39,159 
452,402 
62,266 

346,991 

1,131,116 

119,565 

5,082,871 

1 , 399,750 


174,768 

4,282,819 

276,53 1 

995,577 


1 , 542,359 

i, 59 i ,749 

143,963 

332,286 

1,512,565 

75 ,h 6 

618,457 

1 , 315,497 

20,789 


1S90 


1,513,017 

59,620 

1,128,179 

1,208,130 

419,198 

746,258 


168,493 

230,392 

391.422 

1, 837,353 

84,385 

3,826,351 
2,192,404 
1,911,896 
1,427,096 
1,858,635 
1,118,587 
66 r, 086 
1,042,390 
2,238,943 
2,093,889 
1,301,826 
1,289,600 
2,679,184 

132,159 

1,058,910 

45 , 76 i 

376,530 

1 , 444,933 

153,593 

5 , 997,853 

1,617,947 

182,719 

3,672,316 

61,834 

313,767 

5,258,014 

345,506 

1,151,149 

328,808 

1,767,518 

2,235,523 

207,905 

332.422 
1,655,980 

349,390 

762,704 

1,686,880 

60,705 


50,155,78362,622,250 


2,665,260 


3,198,062 


/ 




































































































































































































§ X/angei&ge: and Jcnlimenf of lowers 





^mmmmmm 


HE flower world is linked with all the 
finer sympathies of our nature. The 
sweet blossoms that cover the green 
wood are the delight of our childhood; a 
bouquet is the best ornament of girlish beau- ( 
ty: the meetest offering from young and 
timid love. Flowers deck the chamber of 
old age, and are the last sad gift of sorrow 
to the dead. 

It was from the Bast that we obtained a 
language of perfume and beauty which be¬ 
stows a meaning on buds and blossoms, 
though the Turkish and Arabic flower- 
language does not much resemble ours. It 
is formed, not by an idea or sentiment orig¬ 
inating in the flower itself, but by its capa¬ 
city for rhyming with another word ; that 
is, the word with which the flower rhymes 
becomes its signification. 

La Mottraie, the companion of Charles 
XII., brought the Bastern language of 
flowers to Burope ; but it was the gifted 
Lady Mary Wortley Montague who first 
told the Bnglish-speaking world how the 
fair maidens of the Bast had lent a mute 
speech to flowers, and could send a letter by 
a bouquet. Here is part of a Turkish love- 
letter sent by her in a purse to a friend. She 
says, speaking of it: “ There is no color, no 
flower, no weed, no fruit, herb, pebble, or 
feather, that has not a verse belonging to it; 
and you may quarrel, reproach, or send let¬ 
ters of passion, friendship, or civility, or 
even of news, without even inking your 
fingers.” 

in the letter the following flowers are em¬ 
ployed * 


Jonquil,.—H ave pity on my passion. 
Rose.—M ay you be pleaced, and all youi 
sorrows be mine. 

A Straw.— Suffer me to be your slave. 
The European flower-language was util¬ 
ized, and almost formed, by Aime Martin ; 
and the earlier works on the subject were 
only translations or adaptations from the 
French: but English writers have ? good 
deal altered and modified it since; and as 
new flowers come yearly to us from other 
lands, every fresh vocabulary many contain 
additional words or sentences, even as our 
own tongue grows by grafts from other 
languages. 

The vocabulary which is given below i.; 
believed to be complete in every respect. 

The Flower-Language. 

A very interesting correspondence may be main¬ 
tained by means of bouquets. We give below severai 
examples of this. The message is given and then the 
names of the flowers needed in the bouquet. 

1. 

May maternal love protect your early youth in inno 
cence and joy! 

Flowers needed. 

Moss. Maternal love « 

Bearded Crepis... Protect. 

Primroses. . Early Youth. 

Daisy.• . Innocence. 

Wood Sorrel. Joy. 

2. 

Your humility and amiability have won my love 
Flowers needed. 

Broom. Humility. 

White Jasmine. AmioM'ity. 

Myrtle... Love 

3 * 

Let the bonds of marriage unite us>. 

Flowers needed. 

Blue Convolvulus. Bonds. 

Xyy. Marriage, 

A few whole straws. Unite us. 



C01 



























092 


THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 


4- 

A Fareweee. 

Farewell !* give me good wishes. Forget me not. 
Flowers needed. 

Sprig of Spruce Fir. Farewell. 

Sweet Basil. Give me your good 

wishes. 

Forget-Me-Not. Forget me not. 

5 - 

Your patriotism, courage, and fidelity merit ever¬ 
lasting remembrance. 

Flowers needed. 


Nasturtium... 

..Patriotism 

Oak leaves. 

..Courage. 

Heliotrope. 

..Fidelity. 

Everlasting, or Immortelles.. 

...Everlasting remem- 


brance. 

6 . 


A Red Rose. 

...I love you. 

7 - 



An Impertinence. 

Your insincerity and avarice make me hate you. 
Flowers needed. 

Cherry Blossom, or Foxglo vz...Insincerity. 


Scarlet Auricula. Avarice. 

Turk’s Cap. Hatred. 


8 . 

A Warning. 

Beware of deceit. Danger is near. Depart. 
Flowers needed. 

Oleander. Beware. 

White Flytrap. Deceit. 

Rhododendron. Danger is near. 

Sweet Pea. Depart. 

9 - 

A Rebuke. 

Your frivolity and malevolence will cause you to be 
forsaken by all. 

Flowers needed , 

London Pride. Frivolity. 

Lobelia. Malevolence. 

Laburnum. Forsaken. 

10. 

Be assured of my sympathy. May you find conso¬ 
lation ! 

Flowers needed. 

Thrift. ....Be assured of my sym¬ 

pathy. 

Red Poppy..... Consolation. 

11. 

By foresight you will surmount your difficulties. 
Flowers needed. 


Holly. Foresight. 

Mistletoe.,. You will surmount your 

difficulties , 


Modifications of the Flower Language. 

If a flower be given reversed ,, its original 
signification is understood to be contradicted, 
and the opposite meaning to be implied. 

A rosebud divested of its thorns, but re¬ 
taining its leaves, convey the sentiment, “ I 
fear no longer; I hope; ” thorns signify fears, 
and leaves hopes. 

Stripped of leaves and thorns, the bud, 
signifies, “There is nothing to hope or fear.” 

The expression of flowers is also varied by 
changing their positions. Place a marigold 
on the head, and it signifies “Mental anguish;” 
on the bosom, “Indifference.” 

When a flower is given, the pronoun / is 
understood by bending it to the right hand ; 
thou , by inclining it to the left. 

“Yes,” is implied by touching the flower 
given with the lips. 

“ No,” by pinching off a petal and cast¬ 
ing it away. 

“I am,” is expressed by a laurel-leaf twisted 
round the bouquet. 

“ I have,” by an ivy-leaf folded together^ 

“ I offer you,” by a leaf of the Virginian 


creeper. 


THE VOCABULARY. 

Abecedary. 


Abatina. 


Acacia. 


Acacia, Rose or White. 


Acacia, Yellow. 


Acanthus. 


Acalia. 


Achillea Millefolia. 

. War . 

Achimenes Cupreata. 


Aconite (Wolfsbane). 


Aconite, Crowfoot. 


Adonis, Flos. 


African Marigold. 


Agnus Castus. 


Agrimony. 



tude . 

Almond (Common). 


Almond (Flowering). 


Almond, Laurel. 


Alispice. 















































MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


CO 3 


Aloe... Grief. Religious su 

perstition. 

Aithaea Frutex (Syrian Mallow) Persuasion. 

Alyssum (Sweet). Worth beyond beauty. 

Amaranth (Globe). Immortality. Unfad¬ 

ing love. 

Amaranth (Cockscomb). Foppery. Affectation. 

Amaryllis. Pride. Timidity. Splen¬ 

did beauty. 

Ambrosia... Love returned. 

American Cowslip. Divine beauty. 

American Elm. Patriotism. 

American Linden. Matrimony. 

American Starwort. Welcome to a stranger. 

Cheerfulness in old 
age. 

Amethyst. Admiration. 

Andromeda. Self-sacrifice. 

Anemone (Zephyr Flower). Sickness. Expectation. 

Anemone (Garden). Forsaken. 

Angelica. Inspiration , or magic. 

Angrec. Royalty. 

Apricot (Blossom). Doubt. 

Apple. Temptation. 

Apple (Blossom). Preference. Fame 

speaks him great and 
good. 

Appie, Thorn. Deceitful charms. 

Apocynum (Dogsbane). Deceit. 

Arbor Vitae. Unchanging friend¬ 

ship. Live for me. 

Arum (Wake Robin). Ardor. Zeal. 

Ash-leaved Trumpet Flower ....Separation. 

Ash Mountain. Prudence , or With me 

you are safe. 

Ash Tree. Grandeur. 

Aspen Tree. Lamentation , or fear. 

Aster (China). ..Variety. Afterthought. 

Asphodel. My regrets follow you 

to the grave. 

Auricula. Painting. 

Auricula, Scarlet... Avarice. 

Austurtium.. Splendor. 

Azalea. Temperance. 

Bachelor’siButtons. ..Celibacy. 

Balm. Sympathy. 

Balm, Gentle. Pleasantry. 

Balm of Gilead. Cure. Relief. 

Balsam, Red. Touch me not. Impa¬ 

tient resolves. 

Balsam, Yellow. Impatience. 

Barberry,,... Sharpness of temper. 

Basil. Hatred. 

Bay Leaf.. I change but in death . 

Bay (F/'se) Rhododendron. .....Danger% Bcwqyc* 


Bay Tree... Glory. 

Bay Wreath... Reward of merit 

Bearded Crepis. Protection. 

Beech Tree. Prosperity. 

Bee Orchis... Industry. 

Bee Ophrys. Error. 

Begonia. Deformity. 

Belladonna. Silence. Hush I 

Bell Flower, Pyramidal. Constancy. 

Bell Flower (small white). Gratitude. 

Belvedere. I declare against you 

Betony. Surprise. 

Bilberry... Treachery. 

Bindweed, Great. Insinuation, 

tunity. 

Bindweed, Small... Humility. 

Birch.... Meekness. 

Birdsfoot, Trefoil. Revenge. 

Bittersweet; Nightshade. Truth. 

Black Poplar. Courage. 

Blackthorn. Difficulty. 

Bladder Nut Tree... Frivolity. Amusement. 

Bluebottle (Centaury). Delicacy. 

Bluebell. Constancy. Sorrowful 

regret. 

Blue-flowered Greek Yaler\a.n.. Rupture. 

Bonus Henricus. Goodness. 

Borage. Bluntness. 

Box Tree..... Stoicism. 

Bramble. Lowliness. Envy. Re¬ 

morse. 

Branch of Currants. ....You please all. 

Branch of Thorns. Severity. Rigor. 

Bridal Rose. Happy love. 

Broom. Humility. Neatness. 

Browallia Jamisonii. Could you bear poverty? 

Buckbean. .Calm repose. 

Bud of White Rose. Heart ignorance of love. 

Buglos,. Falsehood. 

Bulrush..'. Indiscretion. Docility. 

Bundle of Reeds, with their 

Panicles. Music. 

Burdock. Importunity. Touch 

me not. 

Bur. Rudeness. You weary 

me. 

Buttercup (Kinkcup). Ingratitude. Childish¬ 

ness. 

Butterfly Orchis.... Gayety. 

Butterfly Weed. Let me go. 

Cabbage. Profit. 

Cacalia. Adulation. 

Cactus. Warmth. 

Calla ^Ethiopica... Magnificent beauty . 






























































































694 


the language and sentiment of flowers. 


Calceolaria... 

.../ offer you pecuniary 
assistance , or I offer 
you my fortune . 

Cal yean thus . 

....Benevolence. 

Camelia Japonica, Red . 

... Gnpretending excel- 
lence. 

Camelia Japonica, White . 

...Perfected Loveliness. 

Camomile. . .. 

...Energy in adversity . 

Campanula Pyramida. 

...Aspiring. 

Canary Grass. 

...Perseverance. 

Candytuft. 

...Indifference. 

Canterbury Bell. 

...Acknowledgment. 

Cape Jasmine. 

...lam too happy. 

Cardamine. 

...Paternal error. 

Carnation, Deep Red. 

....Alas! for my poor 
heart. 

Carnation, Striped. 

....Refusal. 

Carnation, Yellow . 

...Disdain. 

Cardinal Flower . 

...Distinction. 

Catchfly . 

...Snare. 

Catchfly. Red . 

... Youthful Love . 

Catchfly, White . . 

,.. .Betrayed. 

Cattleya . 

....Mature charms. 

Cattleya Pineli . 

... Matronly grace. 

Cedar. ... 

....Strength. 

Cedar of Lebanon . 

...Incorruptible. 

Cedar Leaf ... 

...I live for thee. 

Celandine (Lesser) . 

.. Joys to come. 

Cereus (Creeping) . 

... Modest gen ins. 

Centaury . 

... Delicacy. 

Champignon. 

...Suspicion. 

Chequered Fritillary. 

....Persecution. 

Cherry Tree, White.. 

...Good education. 

Cherry Tree, White. 

...Deception. 

Chestnut Tree ... 

...Do me justice. • 

Chinese Primrose. 

...Lasting love. 

Chickweed. 

...Rendezvous. 

Chicory. 

....Frugality. 

China Aster... 

. .. Variety. 

China Aster, Double . 

...1 partake your senti- 
ments. 

China Aster, Single . 

.../ will think of it. 

China or Indian Pink . 

...Aversion. 

China Rose . 

...Beauty always new. 

Chinese Chrysanthemum . 

....Cheerfulness under ad- 
versity. 

Chorozema Varium . 

...You have many lovers. 

Christmas Rose . 

...Relieve my anxiety. 

Chrysanthemum, Red . 

...I love. 

Chrysanthemum, White . 

... Truth. 

Chrysanthemum, Yellow . 

....Slighted love. 

Cineraria . 

...Always delightful. 

Cinquefoil .. 

...Maternal affection. 

Circsea . 

...Spell. 

Cistus, or Rock Rose . 

...Popular favors 


Cistus, Gum. ....Ishall die to-morrow. 

Citron.. Ill-natured beauty- 

Clarkia. The variety of your 

conversation delights 
me. 

Clematis. Mental beauty. 

Clematis, Evergreen.. Poverty. 

Clianthus. Worldliness , Self-seek- 

ing. 

Clotbur... Rudeness. Pertinacity. 

Cloves. Dignity. 

Clover, Four-leaved. Be mine. 

Clover, Red. Industry. 

Clover, White. Think of me. 

Cobaea. Gossip. 

Cockscomb, Amaranth. Foppery. Affectation. 

Singularity. 

Colchicum, or Meadow Saffron .My best days are past. 

Coltsfoot. .Justice shall be done. 

Columbine. Folly. 

Columbine, Purple. Resolved to win. 

Columbine. Red. Anxious and trem¬ 

bling. 

Convolvulus... Bonds. 

Convolvulus, Blue (Minor). Repose. Night. 

Convolvulus, Major. F.xtinguished hopes. 

Convolvulus, Pink. Worth sustained by ju¬ 

dicious and tender 
affection. 

Corchorus. Impatient of absence. 

Coreopsis. Always cheerful. 

Coreopsis Arkansa. Love at first sight. 

Coriander. Hidden worth. 

Corn. Riches. 

Corn, Broken. Quarrel. 

Corn Straw. Agreement. 

Corn Bottle. Delicacy. 

Corn Cockle. Gentility , 

Cornel Tree. Duration. 

Coronella... Success crown your 

wishes. 

Cosmelia Subra. The charm of a blush. 

Cowslip. Pern i veness. Win ning 

grace. 

Cowslip, American. Divine beauty. 

Crab (Blossom). Ill-nature. 

Cranberry. Cure for heartache „ 

Creeping Cereus. Horror. 

Cress. Stability. Power. 

Crocus ... Abuse not. 

Crocus, Spring. Youthful gladness. 

Crocus, Saffron... Mirth. 

Crown, Imperial. Majesty. Power. 

Crowsbill. Envy. 

Crowfoot..... Ingratitude. 


































































































605 


MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


Crowfoot (Aconite-leaved) . 

. Lustre. 

Cuckoo Plant. 


Cudweed, American... 

brance. 

Currant. 


Cuscuta. 


Cyclamen.. 


Cypress. 


Daffodil........ 


Dahlia. 


Daisy. 


Daisy, Garden. 


Daisy, Michaelmas. 

thought. 

Daisy, Party-colored. 


Daisy, Wild. 


Damask Rose. 


Dandelion... 


Daphne. 

.... Glory. Ini mortality. 

Daphne Odora. 

....Painting the lily . 

Darnel.. 

.... Vice. 

Dead Leaves... 

....Sadness. 

Deadly Night-shade. 

....Falsehood. 

Dew Plant. 

....A serenade. 

Dianthus. 

....Make haste. 

Diosma....... 

,...Your simple elegance 
charms me. 

Dipteracanthus Spectabilis... 

...Fortitude. 

Diplademia Crassinoda. 

....You are too bold. 

Dittany of Crete. 

....Birth. 

Dittany of Crete, White. 

...Passion. 

Dock. 

...Patience. 

Dodder of Thyme... 

...Baseness. 

Dogsbane . 

... Deceit. Falsehood. 

Dogwood... 

...Durability. 

Dragon Plant,. 

...Snare. 

Dragon wort. 

... Horror. 

Dried Flax. 

....Utility. 

Ebony Tree... 

...Blackness. 

Echites Atropurpurea. 

.. .Be warned in time. 

Eglantine (Sweetbriar). 

...Poetry. I wound heal. 

Elder. 

...Zealousness. 

Elm. 

...Dignity. 

Enchanters’ Night-shade. 

...IVricher aft. Sorcery. 

Endive. 

...Frugality. 

Escholzia. 

...Do not refuse me. 

Eupatorium. 

...Delay. 

Everflowing Candvtuft. 

...Indifference. 

Evergreen Clematis. 

...Poverty. 

Evergreen Thorn. 

..Solace in adversity. 

Everlasting.... 

...Never-ceasing remem- 
brance. 

Everlasting Pea...... 

..Lasting pleasure. 

Fennel....... .. 

.. IVor thy all praise. 

Strength , 


Fern..... 

Sincerity. 

Ficoides, Ice Plant. 


Fig... 


Fig Marigold. 


Fig Tree.. 


Filbert . 


Fir. 

. lime. 

Fir Tree. 


Flax . 


Flax-leaved Goldenlocks. 


Fleur-de-lis. 


Fleur-de-Luce. 


Flowering Fern. 


Flowering Reed..... 


Flower-of-an-Hour. 

....Delicate beauty. 

Fly Orchis.. 

....Error. 

Flytrap. 

....Deceit , 

Fool’s Parsley. 

... .Silliness. 

Forget-Me-Not. 

....True love. 

Foxglove.. 

....Insincerity. 

Foxtail Grass. 

...Sporting. 

Franciscea Latifolia. 

... Beware of falsefriends. 

French Honeysuckle. 

...Rustic beauty. 

French Marigold. 

... .Jealousy. 

French Willow. 

...Bravery and humanity . 

Frog Ophrys. 

...Disgust. 

Fuller’s Teasel. 

...M isanthrofy. 

Fumitory. 

...Spleen. 

Fuchsia, Scarlet. 

... Taste. 

Furze, or Gorse. 

... Love for all seasons „ 

Garden Anemone. 

...Forsaken. 

Garden Chervil. 

...Sincerity. 

Garden Daisy. 

...1 partake your senti « 
ments. 

Garden Marigold. 

...Uneasiness. 

Garden Ranunculus.. 

... You are rich in altraC' 
tions. 

Garden Sage. 

...Esteem. 

Garland of Roses. 

...Reward of virtue. 

Gardenia... 

..Refinement. 

Germander Speedwell. 

..Facility. 

Geranium, Dark. 

...Melancholy. 

Geranium, Horse-shoe-leaf..., 

...Stupidity. 

Geranium Ivy. 

...Bridal favor. 

Geranium, Lemon. 

...Unexpected meeting. 

Geranium, Nutmeg.. 

...Expected meeting. 

Geranium, Oak-leaved. 

... True Friendship 

Geranium, Pencilled. 

...Ingenuity. 

Geranium, Rose-scented. 

...Preference. 

Geranium, Searlet. 

... Comforting. 

Geranium, Silver-leaved. 

..Recall. 

Geranium, Wild. 

...Steadfast Piety. 

Gillyflower. 

...Bonds of affection. 

Gladioli. 

..Ready armed . 














































































































GOG 


THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 


Glory Flower. Glorious beauty. 

Goat’s Rue. Reason. 

Golden Rod. Precaution. 

Gooseberry. Anticipation. 

Gourd..... Extent. Bulk. 

Grammanthus Chloraflora. Your temper is too 

hasty. 

Grape, Wild. Charity. 

Grass. Submission. Utility. 

Guelder Rose. Winter. Age. 

Hand Flower Tree. Warning. 

Harebell. Submission. Grief. 

Hawkweed. Quicksightedness. 

Hawthorn. Hope. 

Hazel. Reconciliation. 

Heartsease, or Pansy. Thoughts. 

H eath. Solitude. 

Helenium. Tears. 

Heliotrope.. Devotion , or I turn 

thee. 

Hellebore. Scandal. Calumny. 

Helmet Flower (Monkshood). .Knight-errantry. 

Hemlock. You will be my death. 

Hemp. Fate. 

Henbane... Imperfection. 

Hepatica.„....... Confi dence. 

Hibiscus. Delicate Flower. 

Holly. Foresight. 

Holly Herb. ....Enchantment. 

Hollyhock. Ambition. Fecundity. 

Honesty. Honesty. Fascination. 

Honey Flower. Love sweet and secret. 

Honeysuckle. Devoted. Affection. 

Honeysuckle (Coral). The color of my fate. 

Honeysuckle (French). Rustic beauty. 

Hop. Injustice. 

Hornbeam. Ornament. 

Horse Chestnut. Luxury. 

Hortensia... You are cold. 

Houseleek.. Vivacity. Domestic In¬ 

dustry. 

Houstonia. Content. 

Hoya... Sculpture. 

Hoyabella. Contentment. 

Humble Plant..-.. Despondency. 

Hundred-leaved Rose. Dignity of mind. 

Hyacinth. Sport. Game. Play. 

Hyacinth, Purple. Sorrowful. 

Hyacinth, White. Unobtrusive lovliness. 

Hydrangea. A boaster. 

Hyssop..... .. Cleanliness. 

Iceland Moss.. Health. 

Ice Plant. Your looks freeze me. 

Imbricata..... Uprightness. Senti¬ 

ments of honro. 


Imperial Montague. 

. Power. 

Indian Cress. 


Indian Jesmine (Ipomcea)... 

....Attachment. 

Indian Pink (Double). 

....Always Lovely. 

Indian Plum. 

....Privation. 

Iris. 

....Message. 

Iris, German. 

....Flame. 

Ivy . 

.... Friendship. Fidelity 

Marriage 

Ivy, Sprig of, with Tendrils. 

....Assiduous to please. 

Jacob’s Ladder. 

....Come down. 

Japan Rose. 

...Beauty is your only at' 
traction. 

Jasmine. 

....Amiability. 

Jasmine, Cape. 

... Transport of joy. 

Jasmine, Carolina. 

...Separation. 

Jasmine, Indian. 

...I attach myself to you. 

Jasmine, Spanish. 

...Sensuality. 

Jasmine, Yellow. 

...Grace and elegance . 

Jonquil. 

../ desire a ?eturn of af- 
fection. 

Judas Tree. 

...Unbel ief. Betray a l. 

Juniper. 

...Succor. Protection. 

Justicia. 

.. The perfection of female 
loveliness. 

Kennedia. 

..Mental beauty. 

King-cups... 

...Desire of riches. 

Laburnum. 

..Forsaken. Pensive 
beauty. 

Lady’s Slipper. 

..Capricious beauty. Win 
me and wear me. 

Lagerstraemia, Indian.. 

..Eloquence. 

Lantana. 

..Rigor. 

Lapageria Rosea. 

..There is no unalloyed 
good. 

Larch. 

..Au dac i ty. Boldness. 

Larkspur. 

.. L ig fitness. Levity. 

Larkspur, Pink. 

..Fickleness. 

Larkspur, Purple. 

..Ha ugh t iness. 

Laurel. 

..Glory. 

Laurel, Common, in flower... 

..Perfidy. 

Laurel, Ground.... 

. .Perseverance. 

Laurel, Mountain. 

..Ambition. 

Laurel-leaved Magnolia. 

..Dignity. 

Laurestina. 

..A token. 

Lavender. 

.Distrust. 

Leaves (dead). 

..Melancholy. 

Lemon. 

.Zest. 

Lemon Blossoms. 

..Fidelity in love. 

Leschenaultia Splendens. 

..You are charming ; 

Lettuce. 

. Cold-heartedness. 

Lichen. 

.Dejection. Solitude. 

Lilac, Field. 

.Humility. 

Lilac, Purple.. 

. First emotions of love • 









































































































MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


C97 


Lilac, White.. 


Lily, Day. 


Lily, Imperial. 


Lilv, White.. 


Lily, Yellow.. 


Lily of the Valley. 

Unconscious sweet¬ 
ness. 

Linden or Lime Trees. 


Lint. 


Live Oak... 


Liverwort. 


Liquorice, Wild.. 


Lobelia.. 


Locust Tree. 


Locust Tree (Green). 

grave. 

London Pride. 


Lote Tree. 


Lotus. 


Lotus Flower. 


Lotus Leaf. 


Love in a Mist. 


Love lies Bleeding. 


Lucern. 


Lupine. 


Madder. 


Magnolia. 


Magnolia, Swamp. 


Mallow. 

.... Mildness 

Mallow, Marsh. 


Mallow, Svrian. 


Mallow, Venetian. 


Mallow Creeana.. 

.... Will you share my for- 
tunes? 

Manchineal Tree.. 

....Falsehood. 

Mandrake. 

....Horror. 

Maple. 

....Reserve. 

Marianthus.-. 

....Hopefor better days. 

Marigold. 

....Grief. 

Marigold, African. 

.... Vulgar Minds. 

Marigold, French.. 

... .Jealousy. 

Marigold, Prophetic. 

....Prediction. 

Marigold and Cypress. 

....Despair. 

Marjoram. 

....Blushes. 

Marvel of Peru. 

....Timidity. 

Meadow Lychnis. 

....Wit. 

Meadow Saffron. 

....My best days are past. 

Meadowsweet. 

.... Uselessness. 

Mercury. 

.... Goodness. 

* 

Mesembryanthemum. 

....Idleness. 

Mezereon. 

....Desire to please. 

Michaelmas Daisy. 

.. .Afterthought. 

Mignonette. 

.... Your qualities surbass 
your charms . 


Milfoil. War. 

Milkvetch. Your presence softims 

my pains. 

Milkwort.. Hermitage. 

Mimosa (Sensitive Plant). Sensitiveness. 

Mint. Virtue. 

Mistletoe. I surmount difficulties. 

Mitraria Coccinea. Indolence. Dulness. 

Mock Orange. Counterfeit 

Monarda Amplexic&ulis. Your whims are quite 

unbearable. 

Monkshood. A deadly foe is near. 

Monkshood (Helmet Ylosvzr)..Chivalry. 

Moon wort. Forgetfulness . 

Morning Glory. Affectation. 

Moschatel. Weakness. 

Moss. Maternal love. 

Mosses. Ennui 

Mossy Saxifrage. Affection. 

Motherwort. Concealed love. 

Mountain Ash. Prudence. 

Mourning Bride. Unfortunate at t ach- 

ment. I have lost all. 

Mouse-eared Chickweed. Ingenuous simplicity. 

Mouse-eared Scorpion grass. Forget me not. 

Moving Plant. Agitation. 

Mudwort. Happiness. Tranquil¬ 

ity. 

Mulberry Tree (Black). I shall not survive you. 

Mulberry Tree (White). Wisdom. 

Mushroom.. Suspicion , or I can't 

entirely trust you. 

Musk Plant.- Weakness. 

Mustard Seed. Indifference. 

Myrobalan. Privation. 

Myrrh. Gladness. 

Myrtle. Love. 

N arcissus. Eg otism. 

Nasturtium. Patriotism 

Nemophila. Success everywhere. 

Nettle, Common Stinging. You are spiteful. 

Nettle, Burning. Slander. 

Nettle Tree. Conceit. 

Night-blooming Cere us. Transient beauty. 

Night Convolvulus. Night. 

Nightshade. Falsehood. 


Oak Leaves. 

Oak Tree. 

Oak (White). 

Oats. 

Oleander. 

Olive. 

Orange Blossoms 


Bravery. 

Hospitality. 

Independence. 

The witching soul of 
music. 

.Beware. 

Peace. 

Your purity equals youi 
loveliness* 






































































































THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 


698 


Orange Flowers. 

tivities. 

Orange Tree.. 


Orchis. 


Osier. 


Osmunda. 


Ox eye. 


Palm. 


Pansy. 


Parsley. 


Pasque Flower. 


Passion Flower. 



When the flower is 
reversed , or Faith if 
erect. 


Patience Dock. 


Pea, Everlasting. 

Lasting pleasure. 

Pea, Sweet. 


Peach. 

your charms , are 
unequalled. 

Peach Blossom. 


Pear. 


Pear Tree... 


Penstemon Azureum. 


Pennyroyal. 


Peony.. ... 


Peppermint. 


Periwinkle, Blue. 


Periwinkle, White. 


Persicaria. 


Persimmon.. 

...... Bury me amid Na¬ 
ture's beauties. 

Peruvian Heliotrope. 


Petunia.. . 

me. 

Pheasant’s Eye.. 


Phlox. 


Pigeon Berry. 


Pimpernel. 


Pine. . 


Pine-apple. 


Pine, Pitch . 


Pine, Spruce. 

. Hope in adversity. 

Pink. 


Pink, Carnation. 


Pink, Indian, Double. 


Pink, Indian, Single. 

. Aversion. 

Pink, Mountain. 


Pink, Red, Double. 

. Pure and ardent love. 

Pink, Single.. 


Pink, Variegated. 


Pink, White. 

. Ingenious ness. Talent. 

Plantain... 



Plane Tree. 

...Genius. 

Plum, Indian. 

....Privation. 

Plum Tree. 

...Fidelity. 

Plum, Wild. 

.. .Independence. 

Plumbago Larpenta. 

...Lloly wishes. 

Polyanthus.... 

,.. .Pride of riches. 

Polyanthus, Crimson.... 

.... The heart's mystery. 

Polyanthus, Lilac. 

.... Confidence. 

Pomegranate. 

....Foolishness. 

Pomegranate Flower. 

....Mature elegance. 

Poor Robin.. 

.... Compensation , or its 
equivalent. 

Poplar, Black. 

.... Courage. 

Poplar, White. 

...Time. 

Poppy, Red... 

. .Consolation. 

Poppy, Scarlet. 

. Fa nt as tic extrava - 

gance. 

Poppy, White. 


Potato.. 

...Benevolence. 

Potentilla.. 

esteem. 

Prickly Pear. 


Pride of China.. 

_ Dissension. 

Primrose... .... 

. Early youth and sad - 

ness. 

Primrose, Evening... 


Primrose, Red. 


Privet. 


Purple Clover.. 


Pyrus Japonica. 


Ouaking-grass. 


Ouamoclit. 


Queen’s Rocket. 

coquettes. Fashion. 

Quince.. 


Ragged-robin... 

. Wit. 

Ranunculus. 

charms. 

Ranunculus, Garden. 

tractions. 

Ranunculus, Wild. 


Raspberry. 


Ray Grass. 


Red Catchfly. 

. Youthful love. 

Reed. 


Reed, Split. .. 


Rhododendron (Rosebay)... 

. Danger. Beware. 

Rhubarb. 



Rocket. . Rivalry. 

Rose. Love. 

Rose, Austrian. Thou art all that u 

lovely. 

Rose, Bridal. Happy love. 

Rose, Burgundy. Unconscious beauty. 


































































































MANUAL OF PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


699 


Rose, Cabbage. 


Rose, Campion. 


Rose, Carolina. 


Rose, China. 


Rose, Christmas... 

iety. 

Rose, Daily. 


Rose, Damask. 


Rose, Deep Red. 


Rose, Dog... 


Rose, Guelder. 


Rose, Hundred-leaved. 


Rose, Japan. 

traction. 

Rose, Maiden Blush. 

find it out. 

Rose, Montiflora. 


Rose Mundi. 


Rose, Musk. 


Rose Musk, Cluster. 


Rose, Single. 


Rose, Thornless. 


Rose, Unique. 


Rose, White. 


Rose, White (withered'!. 


Rose, Yellow. 

ousy. 

Rose, York and Lancaster. 


Rose, Full-blown placed over 

two Buds . 


Rose, White and Red together. Unity. 

Roses, Ciownof.. 


Rosebud, Red. 


Rosebud, White. 


Rosebud, Moss. 


Rosebud, (Rhododendron).. 

. Beware. Danger. 

Rosemary. 

. Remembrance. 

Rudbackia. 


Rue. 

.... Disdain. 

Rush. 

.... Docility. 

Rye Grass. 

.... Changeable disposition. 

Saffron... 

....Beware of excess. 

Saffron Crocus. 


Saffron, Meadow.. 

. My happiest days are 

past. 

Sage. 

.... Domestic virtue. 

Sage, Garden. 

....Esteem. 

Sainfoin. 

....Agitation. 

Saint John’s Wort. 

....Animosity. 

Salvia, Blue. .. 

.... Wisdom. 

Salvia, Red. 

. Energy. 

Saxifrage, Mossy. 

....Affection. 

Scabious. 

.... Unfortunate love. 

Scabious, Sweet. 

.... Widowhood. 

Scarlet Lychnis..... 

,...Sunbeaming eyes . 


Schinus. 

Scotch Fir. 

Sensitive Plant 


Shamrock. 

Shepherd’s Purse. 

Siphocampylos. 

Snakesfoot. 

Snapdragon. 

Snowball. 

Snowdrop.. 

Sorrel. 

Sorrel, Wild. 

Sorrel, Wood. 

Southernwood. 

Spanish Jasmine. 

Spearmint. 

Speedwell. 

Speedwell, Germander, 

Speedwell, Spiked. 

Spider Ophrys. 

Spiderwort. 

Spiked Willow Herb.... 
Spindle Tree. 

Star of Bethlehem. 

Starwort.. 

Starwort, American. 

Stephan otis. 

Stock. 

Stock, Ten Week. 

Stonecrop. 

Straw, Broken. 

Straw, Whole. 

Strawberry Blossoms... 

Strawberry Tree. 

Sultan Lilac. 

Sultan, White. 

Sultan, Yellow. 

Sumach, Venice..... 

Sunflower, Dwarf. 

Sunflower, Tall. 

Swallow-wort. 

Sweet Basil. 

Sweetbriar, American... 
Sweetbriar, European... 

Sweetbriar, Yellow. 

Sweet Pea. 

Sweet Sultan. 

Sweet William.. 

Sycamore. 

Syringa. 

Syringa, Carolina. 


....Religious enthusiasm. 

...Elevation. 

...Sensibility. 

... Indifference. 

... L ight-heartedness. 

...I offer you my all. 
..Resolvedto be noticed. 
..Horror. 

...Presumption alsti 
“No.” 

..Bound. 

...Hope. 

...Affection. 

... Wit ill-timed. 

..Joy. 

, .Jest. Bantering. 
..Sensuality. 

...Warmth of sentiment . 
..Female fidelity. 
.Facility. 

.Semblance. 

.Adroitness. 

..Esteem, not love. 

..Pi ' 3 tension. 

. T our charms are ei 
graven on my hear 
..Purity. 

.Afterthought. 

. Cheerfulness in old age, 

.. Will you accompany 
me to the East? 

.Lasting beauty. 
.Promptness. 

. Tranquillity. 

.Rupture of a contract. 
.Union. 

.Foresight. 

. Esteem , not love. 

./ forgive you. 

. Sweetness. 

. Contempt. 

.Splendor. 

..Adoration. 
.Haughtiness. 

. Cure for heartache 
.Good wishes. 

.Simplicity. 

.1 wound to heal. 
Decrease of love. 
.Delicate pleasure <. 
.Felicity. 

, Gallantry. 

.Curiosity. 

.Memory. 

Disappointment 












































































































700 


THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 


Tamarisk. 

,.. Crime. 

Tansy (Wild). 

.../ declare war against 
you. 

Teasel. 

. ..Misanthropy. 

Tendrils of Climbing Plants.. 

... Ties. 

Thistle, Common. 

..Austerity. 

Thistle, Fuller’s. 

.. .Misanthropy. 

Thistle, Scotch. 

...Retaliation. 

Thorn, Apple. 

..Deceitful charms. 

Thorn, Branch of.. 

...Severity. 

Thrift. 

..Sympathy. 

Throatwort. 

..Neglected beauty. 

Thyme. 

..Activity or courage. 

Tiger Flower. 

...For once may pride be- 
friend me. 

Traveller’s Joy. 

... Safety. 

Tree of Fife. 

...Old age. 

Trefoil. 

...Revenge. 

Tremella Nestoc.. 

..Resistance. 

Trillium Pictum. 

...Modest beauty. 

Triptillium Spinosum. 

...Be prudent. 

Truffle. 

..Surprise. 

Trumpet Flower. 

...Fame. 

Tuberose. 

..Dangerous pleasures. 

Tulip, Red. 

...Declaration of love. 

Tulip, Variegated. 

..Beautiful eyes. 

Tulip, Yellow. 

..Hopeless love. 

Turnip.. 

...Charity. 

Tussilage (Sweet-scented). 

.Justice shall be done 
you. 

Valerian. 

..A71 accommodating 

disposition. 

Valerian, Greek. 

...Rupture. 

Venice, Sumach. 

.. In telle dual excellence. 
Splendor. 

Venus’ Car. 

..Fly with me . 

Venus’ Pooking-glass. 

..Flattery. 

Venus’ Trap. 

..Deceit. 

Verbena, Pink. 

..Family union. 

Verbena, Scarlet. 

..Unite against evil, or 
Church unity. 

Verbena, White. 

..Pray for me. 

Vernal Grass. 

..Poor, but happy. 

Veronica. 

..Fidelity. 

Veronica Speciosa. 

..Keep this for my sake. 

Vervain.. 

.. Enchantment. 

Vine.. 

.. Intoxication. 


Violet, Blue . 

. Faithfulness. 

Violet, Dame . 

. Watchfulness. 

Violet, Sweet . 

. . Modesty. 

Violet, Yellow . 

. Rural happiness. 

Virginia Creeper . 

. I cluig to you both in 

sunshine and shade. 

Virgin’s Bower . 

. Filial love. 

Viscaria Oculata . 

.. Will you dance with 

me ? 

Volkamenia . 

. May you be happy ! 

Walnut .. 

. Intellect. Stratagem. 

Wall-flower . 

.. Fidelity in adversity. 

Watcher by the Wayside . 

.. Never despair. 

Water Lily . 


Water Melon . 

. Bulkiness. 

Wax Plant . 


Wheat Stalk . 


Whin . 

. Anger. 

White Jasmine ... 


White Fily . 

.. Purity and modesty. 

White Mullein . 

. Good nature. 

White Oak . 

. Independence. 

White Pink . 

. Talent. 

White Poplar . 

. Time. 

White Rose (dried) . 

of innocence. 

Whortleberrv .. 


Willow, Creeping . . 


Willow, Water . 


Willow, Weeping . 

. Mourning. 

Willow Herb . 


Willow, French. 

. Bravery and humanity. 

Winter Cherry. 


Wisteria. 


Witch Hazel. 


Woodbine. 


Wood Sorrel. 

....foy. Maternal tender- 
ness. 

Wormwood. 


Xanthium. 


Xerantemum . 

versity. 

Yew.. 


Zephyr Flower. 


Zinnia. 

friends. 






















































































| LIQUID AIR. | 

^ THE COLDEST SUBSTANCE KNOWN TO MAN. THE MOST MAR- *£ 
V VELOUS DISCOVERY IN THE REALM OF SCIENCE. ^ 

* 4 

^■4*4*4*4*4*4*4*44*^*^4*4*4*4*4*444**^4*444*4*4*4*4*443* 


NE of the most interesting dis¬ 
coveries in the realm of sci¬ 
ence in late years has been 
that of liquid air. It was 
long ago observed that when a gas was 
compressed so as greatly to reduce its 
volume, it became hot. This was called 
the heat of compression, and, strangely 
enough, was thought to be generated by 
the act of compression. It is now under¬ 
stood, however, that the rise in temper¬ 
ature is not caused by an increase in heat, 
but rather by the concentration of the 
manifest heat of a large volume into a 
small space. Experiments that proved 
this also suggested that the discovery 
could be turned to profit by cooling the 
heated gas down while under pressure, 
and then allowing it again to expand to 
its original volume, which would make it 
fall greatly in temperature. It was soon 
learned that gas could be compressed and 
then cooled and allowed to expand until 
its temperature dropped 200 degrees. 

For some time it had been held by scien¬ 
tists that air was a permanent gas, and 
could not be changed in its form, but 
gradually with experiments the idea arose 
that if air could be brought to a suffi¬ 
ciently low temperature it could be lique¬ 
fied. All means known were used 
without success until, in 1877, Raoul 
Pictet submitted oxygen gas to an enor¬ 
mous pressure combined with intense 
cold. The result was a few drops of 


clear, bluish liquid that bubbled violently 
for a few moments, and then evaporated 
into the air again. In 1892, a Polander 
named Olzewski succeeded in performing 
a similar experiment with nitrogen, the 
other constituent of air. And about the 
same time Professor Dewar, of England, 
not only performed both of these experi¬ 
ments, but also succeeded in producing a 
small quantity of air in a mushy form— 
in fact, air-ice. 

The Cost 

of this first ounce of liquid air was more 
than $3,000. While being a very in¬ 
teresting discovery for laboratory use, 
such a production and at such an ex¬ 
pense was out of the question for com¬ 
mercial purposes. So it remained for 
Charles E. Tripler, of New York City, to 
invent a method whereby this wonderful 
agent can be brought forth with ease and 
at the cost of about 20 cents a gallon. 
He saw at once, upon the discovery that 
air could be liquefied, that it might be a 
great power generator, and accordingly 
commenced experiments to simplify the 
method for procuring it. He investigated 
the various means by which refrigeration 
was developed, such as the immense 
ammonia plants used in breweries and 
the like. The principle of cooling by 
expansion, he learned, was the basis to 
work upon, and the result of his studies 
was the following system: 



701 











702 


LIQUID AIR. 


At present a fifty-horse power plant 
operating an air compressor, and a barrel¬ 
like arrangement about fifteen feet high, 
full of small pipes and valves, and pro¬ 
tected by wrappings so as to keep out the 
heat, are the machines by means of which 
this new discovery is brought forth. 
Tripler uses compressed air to cool the 
other air that he is liquefying. Lender 
the very principle that expanding air 
grows cooler, if he could so arrange his 



ALCOHOL FROZEN IN A GLASS OF 
LIQUID AIR. 


apparatus that air which was rapidly 
growing cooler could pass about pipes 
containing his working material, he would 
have his problem solved. And so it is. 

Air under a pressure of 2,500 pounds 
to the square inch, and cooled to about 
50 degrees Fahrenheit by being passed in 
pipes through a bath of running water 
while thus compressed, is carried through 
coils of pipe to the large felt-and-canvas- 
covered tube or receiver spoken of. Two 
sets of pipes lead from the compressor to 
the receiver: one contains the air to be 


liquefied, the other the air that does the 
work of liquefying, but both are under 
the same heavy pressure. By turning a 
tap in the receiver, the air that does the 
work rushes forth and up the sides and 
around the pipes in the chimney-like 
space of the receiver. This reduces the 
pressure, and since air in expanding takes 
up heat wherever it can be found, the air 
confined in the pipes is coolec^. As the 
released air now grows warmer and 
climbs to the top of the receiver, it gradu¬ 
ally returns to the compressor. Here it 
is again brought under pressure and 
cooled again, only to be released once 
more in the receiver to lick up more 
warmth from the air in the pipes. Since 
the temperature of the air under treat¬ 
ment is going down in jumps of 100 de¬ 
grees every time it is treated to this 
chilling process, it takes but about fifteen 
minutes till a tap at the bottom may be 
turned, and drops of liquid air at the 
temperature of 312 degrees below zero 
drip out from the pipes in the receiver. 
These at once evaporate in great billowy 
clouds of vapor. 

But it is not intended that such an 
operation shall be devoid of results, so 
devices have been invented for holding 
the air after its production. One of these 
receptacles is the 

Dewar Bulb. 

It consists of two vessels of glass, one 
within the other, having a high vacuum 
between the walls, and joined in a common 
neck at the top. The vacuum prevents the 
passage of heat, so that the evaporation of 
the liquid in the inner tube is reduced to 
a minimum. The neck of the bulb is left 
open, for liquid air is of such an expand¬ 
ing nature that it would otherwise 
explode. The cold, heavy mist of evap¬ 
oration that is always present at the 
mouth of the bulb acts, however, as a 















LIQUID AIR. 


703 


shield to some extent. Lately, Dewar 
tried putting a few drops of mercury be¬ 
tween the walls of the two bottles, with 
the result that in a vacuum the mercury 
vaporized and spread itself over the walls 
of the bottles. This acted as a mirror, 
and still more effectually kept out the 
heat. Tripler has arranged a set of cans 
of similar nature, which are covered with 
felt and canvas so that the liquid air may 
be shipped. The mouth of the can is also 
covered with felt, but this is safe, as it 
allows the gases to escape somewhat. Air 
thus packed loses less than one-third in a 
nine hours’ ride. 

The Uses and Experiments 

to which this wonderful discovery may be 
placed are as odd and interesting as the 
method of its production. The following 
are a few of its uses: 

It is eleven and one-half times as power¬ 
ful as compressed air, and may be carried 
in a pasteboard box, while as much energy 
in compressed air would need the strong¬ 
est steel cans. It may supplant some 
forms of fuel, for, when mixed with any 
form of carbon, it burns rapidly or ex¬ 
plodes. Thus it may be used in interior 
combustion engines—for instance, the gas 
engine. When a proper motor has been 
developed, it will no doubt be used to 
help solve the question of aerial naviga¬ 
tion, for something that combines great 
power with lightness seems to be the only 
reason why air-ships are not a complete 
reality. The same may be said of sub¬ 
marine navigation. Here liquid air would 
supply the motive power, and the air 
for the crew to breathe as well, for a 
small quantity contains as much air as 
can be compressed into many great tanks. 
An automobile is now being made to run 
by this power. Deep-sea diving would 
also be aided by the use of casks of this 
air attached to the diving apparatus of the 


diver, thus doing away in a great measure 
with the pumps. In mines where water 
is likely to rush in at any time, it might 
be used to freeze the surrounding earth, 
thus preventing great catastrophes. In 
making such vacuum bulbs as those used 
for electric lights, liquid air would be very 
useful. After the air has been pumped 
out as much as possible, the remainder 
can be frozen into a solid drop at one 



LIQUID AIR BOILING ON A BLOCK 
OF ICE. 

The temperature of Liquid Air being 312 0 below 
zero and the Ice 32 0 above, the latter is like a fur¬ 
nace in comparison. 

• 

end, and then the bulb may be closed 
above it by an ordinary blow-pipe, thus 
giving an absolute vacuum. The most 
frightful explosives can be produced with 
the combination of combustibles and 
liquid air, for oxygen is necessary to 
combustion, and this air contains it in 
vast quantities. Of late months, physi¬ 
cians and surgeons are singing the praises 
of this discovery, for by its aid a wound 
may be cauterized, or an excrescence 
“burned” away entirely. Odd experi¬ 
ments, such as freezing a rose in all its 
color and loveliness, or reducing an egg to 
a frozen solid that when handled will 
break up into a thousand fragments and 
the yolk scatter as the pollen of a flower, 
show what may be done in the laboratory. 






704 


LIQUID AIR. 


When a potato is frozen it becomes as 
hard as stone, and when fractured shows 
as beautiful a surface as ivory. Frozen 
butter may be pounded in a mortar until 
it is as fine as powder, and a raw beef¬ 
steak becomes pale and then breaks like 
petrified wood. 

We have generally considered mercury 
and alcohol non-freezable, but when 
brought into contact with this queer 
liquid, mercury becomes as hard as rock, 
and alcohol a white, stringy substance 
like molasses candy. Steel in bars may 
be readily reduced to flame by dipping it 
in a glass of this air and lighting it. 

Tripler has already succeeded in perfect¬ 
ing a machine by which he makes liquid 


air produce itself. And though it is 
scoffed at by scientists, who say some¬ 
thing cannot be made from nothing, yet 
Tripler maintains that when his machine 
has once been cooled down he can make 
almost ten gallons of fresh supply with 
the use of but three gallons. If this be 
so, ere long we shall have steamships and 
locomotives running themselves from 
nothing but air—in fact, almost perpetual 
motion. However, just as it is this new 
property is a marvel, and to see Trip- 
ler’s engine running without a vestige of 
heat, in fact, with ice on her firebox, and 
yet the wheels revolving and producing 
power, is, to say the least, weird and awe¬ 
inspiring. 



THE HORSELESS AGE. 

AUTOMOBILES, MOTO-CARS AND OTHER 

AUTOMATIC VEHICLES. 



The speed of an average railroad train made possible, with only good roads 
and clear right of way necessary. A vehicle that is destined to take the 
place, to a great extent, of horses, electric and cable cars, and 
cheapen as well as add comfort to conveyances. 


HOUGH the manufacture 
and use of self-propelling 
vehicles are yet in their 
infancy, the industry is 
growing to such an enor¬ 
mous size that it is tak¬ 
ing in half the carriage and wagon 
factories in this country. For many years 
attempts have been made to solve the 
problem of propelling wagons, carriages 
and other vehicles along the highways 
without the use of rails to run upon, and 
by some such motive power as steam, 
compressed air or electricity. Five j^ears 
ago a few very expensive locomotive-like 
affairs had been turned out that operated 
with great fuss and feather, but were suc¬ 
cessful to the extent that large manufac¬ 
turers employed skilled inventors to work 
out new ideas. Now we have the 
industry growing to great size, and such 
self-moving cars, wagons, trucks and car¬ 
riages being used universally in the large 
cities, with the prospect of their invading 
the realm of the horse in the country 
before many years. 

France at present leads in the use of 
these contrivances, and has a fashionable 
automobile club numbering 1,700. Re¬ 
cently an exposition was held in which 
1,100 vehicles were shown, representing 


every sort and kind from a fashionable 
brougham to a milk-peddler’s cart. The 
motive power in most of these machines 
is gasoline or naphtha, while those Eng¬ 
land has been putting out run mostly by 
steam. It has been left to America, as in 
most other things, to bring forth the per¬ 
fect electric carriage. And this latter 
kind seems to give better satisfaction than 
any other, by reason of its safety, endur¬ 
ance and speed, extensive orders from 
Europe being proof of acceptance of the 
American models abroad. 

To be worthy of consideration, the 
modern motor vehicle, no matter what its 
method of propulsion, should be odorless, 
almost noiseless, and free from jolting. 
Methods that are likely to result in ex¬ 
plosions are being cast aside, and the 
weight of the motor, which is at present 
rather great, is being reduced as much as 
possible. Most of the carriages look odd 
to one seeing them for the first time, for, 
having no shafts or poles, they appear 
“bobbed” off in front. They are also 
rather too high for self-propelled vehicles, 
but soon they will have more graceful 
outlines and by having smaller wheels and 
less gearing the body of the vehicle will 
be nearer the ground. Of course, when a 
horse was attached to draw the wagon, it 



45 


705 



TOG 


THE HORvSELESS AGE 


was necessary that the wheels be high 
enough so that the rider could see over 
the horse’s back. And when these new 
methods for travel were first attempted, 
the carriage as it had been was made 


have been applied with success; the others 
are in their infancy, while the new power 
generator, liquid air, is expected to bring 
forth great power ere long, in a compact 
and very light form. The 









'■ 


■ ■ \ 









j imS i• £ < 








AN ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE ON 

use of without much change in appear¬ 
ance. 

In America, altogether there are six 
motive powers employed: electricity, 
steam, gasoline, compressed air, carbonic- 
acid gas and alcohol. The hist three 


ONE OF OUR CITY STREETS. 

Electric Mobile 

is the one in most common use in this 
country, and possibly has the combined 
qualities of being more rapid, cleaner, 
and more nearly ‘Tool-proof” than any 
other. The method employed for its con- 

















THE HORSELESS AGE. 


707 


struction is similar to that used on any 
electrically-driven apparatus: namely, a 
strong motor attached to the wheels, and 
propelled by electricity from storage bat¬ 
teries carried on the vehicle. Such a 
motor is odorless, almost without vibra¬ 
tion, and is practically noiseless. It can 
run with great speed and climb almost 
any hill road so long as it is smooth. Of 
course, it is very heavy, owing to the use 
of storage batteries, and it can run only a 
ceitain distance without being recharged 
with electricity. These batteries weigh 
from 500 to 1,500 pounds each, the vehicle 
weighing from 900 to 4,000 pounds. An 
ordinary lady’s phaeton weighs about a 
ton, and carries a battery of 900 pounds. 
When the battery is empty it may be 
recharged again at electrical stations 
maintained for the purpose, after which 
the carriage is ready for its journey once 
more. The current not only operates the 
motor at the wheels, but also lights the 
lamps, rings the alarm gong, and, in cabs, 
actuates a push-button bell for communi¬ 
cation between the passenger and driver. 

Aside from the device for supplying 
power to the wheels, there are numerous 
others for guiding and controlling the 
machine when it is under way. Near the 
seat of the driver are a number of 
switches and levers, which to one just 
learning how they operate are rather 
bewildering. In fact, schools are main¬ 
tained where persons are taught how to 
manage these roadsters. In France a 
special highway is prepared with dummy 
figures in the path where the beginner is 
learning, the object being to become so 
proficient that none will be knocked down 
by the carriage running away. The 
driver must keep his eyes wide open and 
both his feet and hands busy. With his 
left hand he grasps the power lever which 
controls the speed, while with the right 
he manages the steering lever. He has 


one heel all the time on an emergency 
switch that cuts off the current, and at the 
same time must ring a gong to warn 
people of the approach of his pneumatic- 
tired conveyance. With the other foot 
he manages a reversing-switch that will 
back the carriage, while with his toes he 
applies a quick brake. When he wishes 
to turn on the lights he presses a button 
under the seat. So it may be seen that he 
is rather busy, and can never go to sleep 
and let the old horse carry him home. 

In all the large cities lines of these elec¬ 
tric cabs are being established. Most of 
them run from twenty to thirty miles 
without new current. It is a simple 
matter to recharge 

The Storage Batteries, 

it being necessary only to put in a plug 
connecting it with the generator, some¬ 
what after the fashion of a bicycle pump. 
This may be done at almost any electrical 
plant, and in some places, Belgium for 
instance, regular posting stations are 
being established, while coin-in-the-slot 
“pumps” will soon be arranged on the 
corners of city streets where a broken- 
down battery may be refilled. 

The gasoline motors are in some ways 
inferior to those run by electricity; though 
all the long-distance races in Europe 
have been made in vehicles thus pro¬ 
pelled. This motor is lighter than the 
other kind and needs no recharging sta¬ 
tion, gasoline being procurable at any 
crossroads at a small price. On the 
other hand, these engines are not self¬ 
starting, a push on the piston rod being 
necessary, and then the carriage throbs 
under the motion of the machinery. The 
ins and outs of all the machinery must be 
thoroughly learned, and one really be¬ 
comes an experienced engineer before he 
masters the art of guiding this sort of 
automobile. When one has learned, how- 





708 


THE HORSELESS AGE. 



ever, he is master of the sit¬ 
uation, for he may travel up 
to fifty miles an hour on 
smooth roads, and through 
mud and other difficulties at 
less speed, with the aid only 
of a can of gasoline 

The process of 

Power Generation by 
Gasoline 

is very simple. It is known 
that this liquid mixed with 
certain quantities of air and 
confined will, when ignited, 
explode with violence. A 
cylinder is devised which ad¬ 
mits this combination at one 
end, the gas is exploded at 
the proper time and drives 
out the piston red, which in 
turn causes the fly-wheel to 
revolve, drawing the piston 
back to its old place once 
more, after which the opera¬ 
tion is repeated. Most of 
these engines operate under 
four cycles or impulses. 
During the first the vapor 
is drawn into the cylinder; 
during the second it is com¬ 
pressed by the return piston; 
during the third it is ex¬ 
ploded, and in the fourth 
the products of the explosion 
are driven out, and the cyl¬ 
inder is ready for the new 
charge. In most engines 
the explosion is caused by 
an electric spark, there be¬ 
ing no fire on the vehicle. 
Owing to the heat generated 
by the explosions going on 
all the time, the machinery 
must be kept cool by being 
cased in water jackets. In 





















THE HORSELESS AGE. 


709 


some cases the spark is done away with by 
having - the compression of the gasoline so 
great that it explodes of its own heat. 
Different devices are made for mixing the 
proper quantities of gasoline and air, and 
many improvements are going on in gen¬ 
eral to do away with odors, vibrations and 
the like. 

The cost of owning and operating auto¬ 
mobiles for a period of several years is 
really considerably less than that of 
horses and carriage, and especially is this 
true of the gasoline kind. Many of the 
gasoline vehicles will run ioo miles on a 
half-dollar’s worth of liquid. 

Steam engines have been used to some 
extent for both trucks and pleasure 
vehicles with success. For the latter, how¬ 
ever, they are not as yet in the stage 
where they are desirable, there being a 
great deal of complicated machinery to 
run which requires a regularly licensed 
engineer; and then there is generally a 
puffing sound and escaping steam at the 
exhaust pipe. However, for traction 
engines, trucks, fire-engines and omni¬ 
buses, they have proved eminently suc¬ 
cessful, because of the ease with which 
fuel and water may be had. As yet, 

Compressed Air 

is rather cumbersome to handle. One 
truck has been constructed which has a 
set of cylinders operated by this method 
somewhat after the style of steam. The 
compressed air is held in huge steel 
storage bottles or tubes, which are carried 
under the wagon. Difficulty has been 
had from the freezing of the valves when 
the air is turned on and escapes rapidly. 
This is because of the great reduction 
of the temperature about the pipes when 
the air expands and sucks up latent heat. 
To avoid this a system of hot-water pipes 
heated by a gasoline flame is arranged, 
that keeps the valves from cooling too 


much. Because of the great weight of 
these trucks they are as yet not much 
used. However, improvements are being 
made daily. One inventor has arranged 
a small gasoline engine that generates 
electricity in the front of a truck and 
stores it in batteries at the back. From 
these storage batteries the current is 
drawn which runs an electrical motor. 
This truck weighs, however, over 9,000 
pounds, and when loaded about 25,000 
pounds, making it a serious question for 
good pavements. 

The Uses 

to which automobiles are being put are 
numerous and varied. All sorts of pleas¬ 
ure vehicles are already in use, together 
with cab and omnibus lines in competition 
with street-car lines. A railway hand-car 
has recently been put in use, of the gas¬ 
oline velocipede type, capable of carrying 
three persons at the rate of thiity-two 
miles an hour. The Parisian fire depart¬ 
ment uses an electric automobile the bat¬ 
tery of which is only one-fifth the weight of 
the whole apparatus including the crew. 
It is capable of traveling four or five 
hours at the rate of twelve miles an hour. 
In other fire departments many of the 
light buggies of the chiefs and marshals 
are driven by electricity, and run from 
forty to fifty miles per day. The post 
offices of several of the larger cities are 
now using autowagons for delivering and 
picking up mail, while nearly all the 
great department stores use electric 
wagons exclusively in their delivery 
business. The War Department at 
Washington has recently taken official 
cognizance of the automobile by ordering 
several wagons for the Signal Corps, and 
soon it is expected ambulance and ammu¬ 
nition wagons will be ordered of the 
same kind. 

It may readily be imagined what will be 




710 


THE HORSELESS AGE. 


the outcome of these marvelous strides in 
perfecting self-propelling vehicles. It 
means better pavements and roads all 
over the country, and in the city before 
long the noises from the harsh rumbling 
of wheels and the crash of the horses’ 


have become necessary for their regula¬ 
tion. In France they must be licensed, 
and the driver must have a certificate of 
proficiency. Speed must not exceed 
miles an hour in open country, or 12 y 2 
miles in passing houses, while in narrow 



(Courtesy of the Woods Motor Vehicle Co.) 


A TRIP INTO THE COUNTRY IN AN AUTOMOBILE OF THE ENGLISH 

TRAP DESIGN. 


hoofs will be replaced by the rapid swish 
of the pneumatic tires. 

Already capital to the amount of $400,- 
000,000 has been invested in the manufac¬ 
ture of these vehicles in New York, 
Chicago, Boston and Philadelphia. Laws 


thoroughfares it must be reduced to walk- 
ing pace. All sorts of names are being pro¬ 
posed for this style of vehicle, from “horse¬ 
less wagon” to “self-propeller” and “auto¬ 
car.” It seems, however, that the French 
“automobile” has come to stay. 




















MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY. 

GREAT WEBS OF STEEL BRIDGING VAST CONTINENTS, 

Giving the North the fruits of the tropics fresh from the trees and vines, the 
South the grains and other products of the colder climes. Uniting 
the East and West by shortening the time, making travel 
a luxury and lessening expense. 


m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 




to 1850 progress in rail¬ 
way building was very slow, 
but shortly after came a great 
“boom” in stocks, and the 
years succeeding 1865 were noted for 
their vast strides in railway improvements 
and construction. Seventy years ago 
there were not twenty-five miles of rail in 
the whole country; to-day the total mile¬ 
age of the United States 
is 184,000. This is 
about half the number 
of miles in the whole 
world. 

In 1850 nearly all the 

roads were confined to 

the North Atlantic 

States, but in the next 

decade a number of 

lines were pushed west 

to the Mississippi, and 

shortlv after came the 
■/ 

first great transconti¬ 
nental system to the 
Pacific. The railroads 


guard to keep off the attacks of the 
Indians, it was not to be expected that 
construction would be other than cheap. 
Towns did not have to be consulted as to 
rights-of-way, for towns followed rather 
than preceded the railroad. As years 
went on, however, this cheap method of 
building was thrown out for new and 
modern improvements, and to-day every- 


built in the west were 
necessarily forerunners 
of civilization, and 
where the engine had (Courtesy of c., b. & Q. Ry.) 

to o-o under armed MODERN A LA CARTE DINING CAR. 


711 

























712 


MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY. 


where old wooden culverts are being re¬ 
placed by steel bridges, secure rock bal¬ 
last is taking the place of the bedding 
that was formerly so easily washed out, 
and heavy and continuous steel rails now 
form even and smooth tracks, instead of 
the old warped iron affairs. Curves have 
been straightened, steep and dangerous 
grades have been abandoned for cuts and 
tunnels, and instead of the murderous 


grade-crossings we are now being supplied 
with elevated systems and block signals. 
All this takes enormous wealth, but the 
roads are constantly increasing in that 
direction. It is true that many improve¬ 
ments are yet to be expected, even with 
our “lightning flyers,’’ ere travel will be¬ 
come perfect, but these improvements will 
be along the lines of the already existing 
roads, rather than along new lines yet to 
be laid out. 

If construction in the number of miles 


laid out has been great, even greater has 
been the development in the 

Luxury and Ease of Traveling. 

Some forty years ago the continuous steel 
rail had not been invented, and the link- 
connected cars clattered along over the 
disjointed rails with a rattle and bang 
that was nerve destroying. The only con¬ 
veniences then provided for, even on the 
“through trains’’ across the country, were 

a few telegraph blanks, 
a separate s m ok i n g 
apartment, and, in some 
cases, a buffet from 
which were served food 
and drink of poor qual¬ 
ity and enormous price. 
The night train was a 
thing unheard of and 
the Pullman sleeper 
had not yet made its 
appearance. To-day 
one journeying from 
coast to coast need 
hardly give a thought 
as to his comforts after 
he has boarded the 
modern cross - country 
“flyer.’’ Trains are 
now really almost 
smooth - running, and 
are equipped with every 
device for comfort that 
man can imagine. 
Drawing-room, observation, dining, and 
sleeping cars arranged with an eye to 
artistic effect as well as to luxurious com¬ 
fort, are ever being improved upon by the 
companies, while electric and gas lights, 
vestibules between cars to keep out noise 
and dust, barber shops, buffet smoking 
cars, card rooms, and libraries and music 
rooms, with waiters and porters at every 
turn, are daily adding to the ease of 
travel, as well as to the pocketbooks of 
the railway magnates. 



(.By Courtesy of the “Burlington Route.") 


A GENTLEMEN’S CLUB ON WHEELS. 
Interior view of a modern buffet and smoking car. 







MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY. 


713 


Now Construction. 

To think, then, that all these devices 
will soon be applied to trains of cars run¬ 
ning’ regularly across every continent on 
the globe is to wonder what will be the 
limit of man’s power. To-day there are 
in course of construction two marvelous 
lines: one, the Trans-Siberian route, 
being laid by the Russian government 
from St. Petersburg, Russia, to Port 
Arthur, China, thus taking in all the 
resources of unknown Siberia and China; 


running along the gulf coast to Guate¬ 
mala, then along the border and down 
through the South American states to the 
Pacific coast, thus making a thread line 
from North to South America. 

Trans-Siberian and Chinese Eastern 

Railways. 

Had Russia imagined in 1867 that she 
could ever have accomplished such a work 
of engineering skill as that of the con¬ 
struction of the Trans-Siberian and the 
Chinese Eastern Railways, she never 



St. Petersburg 


Moscow, 


PERM 


Cheliai 


Samara 


KRASNOYARSK 


lAKEi! Baikal 


IISHRlUOINSK 


JVofeA'ACOVESCi'.ENSK 


M /jSfHETINSKi 

U 9 jA 

fK. Chita .»«m*£, 

JpSOYAGA ! [/'.—■ 


iMABAROVKA, 


I'.IRKUTllO 


"•.JSITSIKAR A 


Harbin / * 


LA01V0ST0K 


Mukden 


Newchwai 


PEKIN 


'Port Arthur 


A MAP OF THE TRANS-SIBERIAN AND CHINESE EASTERN RAILWAY, 

Showing the entire route from Port Arthur to St. Petersburg. The dotted line marks the course 

where work is not yet completed. 


the other, the “Cape to Cairo” route, as 
yet only partly built and partly on paper, 
but a marvel in imagination, extending 
from the Cape of Good Hope, at the most 
southern extremity of Africa, up through 
unknown savage lands to its northern 
terminal at the old capital of the Pharaohs, 
Cairo, Egypt. Besides these two great 
undertakings, there is one of similar 
nature being promoted by .American cap¬ 
ital that is to be called the Interconti¬ 
nental Railway, or the Pan-American 
Road. At the expense of $25,000,000 
it is to connect this country with the 
South American states, starting from 
Matamoras, on the Rio Grande border, 


would have sold to the United States for 
the paltry sum of of $7,000,000 the great 
territory of Alaska. Instead she would 
have been our neighbor, with a sea¬ 
port at Fort Wrangell, almost at our 
doors on Puget Sound, and England, with 
ever-watchful eyes, would turn from 
Russia at the gate of Herat to Russia 
within a day’s march of Vancouver. * But 
•the first work of building this great thread 
across a continent full of superstitious 
semi-savages was not commenced till May 
30, 1891, when the present Emperor, then 
Czarovitch, on his way around the 
world, visited Vladivostok and drove the 
first spike. It was then thought that the 













714 


MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY. 


Trans-Siberian could not be completed 
till 1905 or 1907. That was before the 
Chino-Japanese War, and a route had 
already been mapped out along the south¬ 
ern border of Siberia to Vladivostok, a 
port on the Pacific just north of Korea 
that is ice-bound all winter. This port 
was practically the only outlet for Russia 
on the Pacific, and accordingly great out¬ 
lay was made for piers, ice-breakers, etc. 
But after Russia's aid to the Chinese in 
the war with Japan, China felt very grate¬ 
ful, and as a mark of esteem gave her 
benefactor great privileges in Manchuria, 
among which were the rights to build the 
Chinese Eastern Railway and to lease 
Port Arthur as its eastern terminus. 
This port is open the year round, so 
Russia at once gave up her other surveys 
along the Amur River, and instead began 
to throw out a line of roads to the south¬ 
east through the most fertile part of 
China, to end at Port Arthur, and with 
branches to Pekin and Vladivostok. 

The Trans-Siberian Road 

itself is practically complete, and after an 
expenditure of $150,000,000 has a through 
line from Irkutsk, on Lake Baikal, ex¬ 
tending 4,000 miles to St. Petersburg. 
Across the lake to Missoyaga trains are 
being carried on great steel barges or fer¬ 
ryboats. Beyond this point the road runs 
in more or less complete state in an east¬ 
erly direction to Stretinsk, and from the 
port at Vladivostok directly northward to 
Khabarovka. The country lying between 
this latter point and Stretinsk was to have 
been covered by a line that would have 
directly connected St. Petersburg with 
Vladivostok. But with the donation from 
China, as said before, this line was aban¬ 
doned, and now the eastern terminus of 
the Trans-Siberian route is at Stretinsk, 
while a little to the south and west of this 
point, at Kidalova, the main Russian line 


is tapped by the Chinese Eastern Railway. 
The work across Siberia was full of 
difficulties, much of the land never hav¬ 
ing been traversed by white men before. 
Convict labor has been used to a great 
extent, thereby cutting down expense. 
Expense has not been spared in the least, 
however, to give good construction, and 
above all else is considered safety. 
Bridges that are marvels in civil engi¬ 
neering span numerous rivers between 
Stretinsk and St. Petersburg, twenty mil¬ 
lions having been expended in this line 
alone. The largest and most costly of 
these is the great iron and stone affair 
that spans a distance of 3,150 feet over 
the Yenisei at Krasnoyarsk. It stands on 
five colossal circular stone piers, with 
matching stone abutments, and is thrown 
over the river in five spans. The cost 
was $2,300,000; the work was designed 
by Knorre, once a German, but now a 
naturalized Russian. Another great 
bridge, costing $2,000,000, extends over 
the Obi River at Kolivan. During the 
winter, when the rivers are deeply frozen, 
such parts of the road as yet have no 
bridges are strung temporarily across on 
the thick ice, and later are replaced by 
steel culverts. 

The work of most interest at present, 
however, is that upon the 

Chinese Eastern Railway. 

which, though in direct conjunction with 
the Trans-Siberian road, is yet kept 
entirely separate in its finances and out¬ 
ward dealings with the public. In 1896 
Russia contracted with China to build a 
road through Manchuria, guaranteeingthat 
the president should be a Chinaman, and 
that at the end of eighty years the entire 
ownership of the road was to pass to China 
upon payment. The route was at once 
mapped out, and for rapidity of construc¬ 
tion this line holds the record. The work 





MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY. 


715 


is being done by both Siberian convicts 
and Chinese coolies, while almost every 
tool and modern means of equipment 
is of American manufacture. The 
guards along the route are mainly Cos¬ 
sacks, and they dress half in Chinese and 
half in Russian costume. The flag of the 
company is likewise half of one country 
and half of the other. Of course, the en¬ 
terprise is wholly Rus¬ 
sian ; and the result of 
this enterprise is start¬ 
ling. Cities have 
grown up all along the 
country that was for¬ 
merly wilderness. To 
think of the wonderful 
civilizing effect of this 
railway is startling. 

The road covers like a 
hand 400,000 square 
miles of rich Chinese 
territory. The main 
line extends southwest 
from Kidalova to Vladi¬ 
vostok, while about mid¬ 
way it is tapped by a di¬ 
rectly southern branch 
at a new town called 
Habin. From this point 
it runs to Port Arthur 
and to Pekin. 

Work on the new 
route is continued 
throughout the winter, aided by the use 
of American tools and supplies. Euro¬ 
pean methods are in the main crude along 
engineering lines, and American enter¬ 
prise supplies this work with nearly 
everything from steel for bridges to pick- 
axes and cross-ties. Rock drills caused a 
great deal of trouble, however, among the 
native Chinese and also to some extent 
among the convicts. It was impossible 
for these ignorant people to understand 
the workings of such an engine without 


visible motive power, and they at once 
came to the conclusion that the work was 
done by the white man’s “slave devil.” 
The result was that 10,000 workmen 
struck, and it was only with the greatest 
difficulty that they were induced to re¬ 
turn to work. Eventually they became 
amused at the workings of the machines, 
though they still think them controlled 


by evil spirits. What has already been 
accomplished by the construction of such 
a great railway may be shown by noting 
that Habin, the junction of the two great 
railways, as well as headquarters of their 
officers, was not on the map at the close 
of 1899, and yet it is destined to be the 
Chicago of northern Asia, Already in 
this city are magnificent office buildings 
and dwellings, and broad and electrically 
lighted streets are to-day being paved in 
the most improved methods. Palatial 



A CONVICT CAMP ON THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY. 

A Cossack guard is about to conduct a body of convict laborers to 
their daily task. This class of labor was largely used in the construc¬ 
tion of the Trans-Siberian Railway. 






716 


MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY 



LATEST MAP OF THE ROUTE OF THE 
“CAPE TO CAIRO” RAILWAY, 

Showing also southern countries now involved 
in war with Great Britain. 


steamships arrive and depart daily, and 
machine shops, banks, ice-factories and 
other enterprises are numerous. To sum 
up the gigantic effort,, a trip of 10,000 
miles, or nearly half-way round the world, 
can soon be made without changing cars! 

The Cape to Cairo Railway. 

Were English capital being invested for 
the building of the Trans-Siberian and 
Chinese Eastern railways, we might see 
the value of the speculation, for it is only 
that nation that has colonies scattered all 
over the globe that will greatly benefit by 
easy means of communication between 
them. Russia, however, is not building 
these great distance-bridging webs of 
steel for the money there is in it; rather 
for the purpose of bringing her great 
domains together. But if Russia is out¬ 
laying millions of capital in a costly 
venture, England is risking still more in 
the scheme to build a railway throughout 
the length of Africa from the Cape of 
Good Hope to Cairo, Cecil Rhodes, 
the genius of South Africa, promulgated 
the idea, and though capital has been 
scarce for the purpose, yet the time is not 
more than ten years off when the most 
gigantic of all daring feats will have been 
completed. From point to point the 
distance to be covered is about 6,600 
miles. Of this over 3,000 miles is already 
constructed, but the remaining portion, 
3,200 miles, is yet to be strung across the 
most difficult stretches of land in all 
Africa. The total cost of the whole 
enterprise is estimated at $125,000,000, but 
as the northern and southern extremities 
are already laid, it will need only about 
$75,000,000 more. 

And there really seems no reason for 
building this middle section now either. 
In the south from Cape Town to Bula¬ 
wayo, and on the southeastern coast from 
Durban, Delagoa Bay, and Beira into the 




























MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY. 


717 


interior where the lines have already 
been built, there was some reason for an 
outlay of capital, because of the great 
resources of the country, especially the 
gold and diamond fields. Likewise on 
the north it has been necessary to run 
lines to the south because of their value 
for the military in subduing the Mahdi. 
But from Khartum or Berber south along 
the White Nile and through the malarious 
lake regions, where the underbrush has 
yet no trail of the white man, it seems 
folly thus to put up a road over which 
there is no likelihood of traffic. At the 
best, the time of travel from Cape Town 
to Cairo and then by water to London, 
will take fourteen or fifteen days, at a 
heavy expense and with discomfort across 
the deserts, while the whole trip can now 
be made cheaply by steamer around the 
west coast of Africa in but two days more. 
However, the road is being built, and as 
such merits admiration. 

The English government is not the 
pusher in this enterprise; whatever ma¬ 
tures of the marvelous scheme will be due 
to the domineering pluck of 

Cecil Rhodes. 

When he first conceived the idea he 
figured on making a forerunner of a tele¬ 
graph line. This had money in it, and 
though set upon by great obstacles, 
Rhodes has the line well under way and 
is endangering the revenues of the sub¬ 
marine cable lines to the Cape. The only 
place that he had great difficulty in secur¬ 
ing right of way for the telegraph was 
through German East Africa. Here, for 
the privilege of running his own wires, he 
must also at his own expense run other 
wires for the German government, which 
they will keep up at his expense for forty 
years, and then they go to Germany 
without compensation. 

From a point on the Zambesi River in 


Rhodesia it is planned to run the railroad 
north to Abercorn, then along Lake Tan¬ 
ganyika to Ujiji. From this point it will 
cross to Mengo in British East Africa, and 
then probably skirt the western edge of 
Abyssinia, avoiding as much as possible 
the malarious districts. Completed roads 
to Assuan in Egypt existed before the 
recent trouble with the Mahdi, and when 
General, now Lord, Kitchener, Sirdar of 
the Egyptian army, started from Wady 
Haifa towards Khartum, other lines were 
thrown out to transport the army and its 
supplies. As it is, completed lines now 
practically cover the district to Berber, 
and a road is being run to Khartum. 

January 20, 1909, is set as the day for 
the laying of the last rail in this great 
stretch of track. This gigantic enterprise 
is likely to add greatly to the domain of 
Great Britain in that part of the world. 

Ninety Miles an Hour. 

Speed on railway trains has been 
developed to at least ninety miles an hour 
between stops on level road. This has 
been done in actual work of carrying 
mails, and was the outcome of a race 
against time that took place January 
1, 1899, on both the C., B. & Q. and the 
Northwestern railways on their respect¬ 
ive lines running from Chicago to Omaha. 
With our new possessions in the Pacific 
Ocean any time saved on the way to the 
coast is of importance, and it was to 
secure mail contracts to these points that 
such speed was shown. It is no uncom¬ 
mon event to-day to travel at the rate of 
over fifty miles an hour, including stops, 
but extremely high rates of speed are not 
usually developed on passenger trains. 
When ninety miles are whizzing past in 
sixty minutes it taxes to the utmost the 
nerves of the engineer. All sorts of 
sights and noises are magnified in the 
night, and even if engines are improved 




718 


MARVELS OF THE RAILWAY. 



(Courtesy of C < B. & Q. Ry .) 

NINETY MILES AN HOUR. 
“Burlington Route,” Denver Limited Express Train. 


before he would be a physical wreck. 
With the improved headlights shadows 
are increased, and though the long stream 
of light aids in detecting breaks on the 
track at night, such a thing as a small fly 


miles an hour from an opposite direction 
passes by, the two are coming together 
at the rate of 180 miles an hour. With all 
these strains, the engineer wishes to re¬ 
duce rather than to increase the speed. 


to fly at the rate of 150 miles an hour,— 
which it is said will before long be pos¬ 
sible,—the driver of the engine would be 
able to run his train only a few years 


traveling over the face of the lamp is 
enlarged to great size in a shadow on the 
track. The wind whizzes by, and when 
another train at an equal speed of ninety 

















\tr 
tr 
f 

<• 

f 
f 

f 
f 

rt* 


4j 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 

4J . . 

^^TTYTYTTft11T " v fY^f^TTYV4 


Wireless Telegraphy. 

MESSAGES SENT ACROSS SPACE, OVER WATER AND THROUGH 
MOUNTAINS WITHOUT THE AID OF WIRES. 

Bridling one of the most delicate forces of nature, and making it do marvels 

in the service of man. 



,INCE the perfection of the 
telegraph and telephone 
for commercial purposes, 
and the laying of cables 
across the ocean for the transmission 
of messages, electrical experts have been 
studying the problem of transmission of 
electrical energy for messages without 
wires. Gray devised a method of send¬ 
ing signals along light waves, and others 
tried transmitting telegrams to moving 
trains by means of the rails. These 
methods, however, were not successful 
in the main, and it was left for 


M. Guiglielmo Marconi, 

a Florentine yet in his twenties, to dis¬ 
cover that Hertzian waves could be 
generated from electricity and sent across 
space without the means of intervening 
wires. 

In 1895, while yet quite young, Mar¬ 
coni made experiments across his father s 
fields in Bologna, Italy, and by the use of 
tin boxes, called “capacities,” set upon 
poles of varying height, and connected to 
separate instruments by insulated wires, 
he sent and received by a crude trans¬ 
mitter and receiver electrical signals with¬ 
out the aid of intervening wires. He soon 
learned that certain distances could be 


covered only by having the poles for his 
boxes of certain height, and the height of 
the poles had to be increased with the dis¬ 
tance. He experimented with the aid of 
several other scientists for some time, and 
then the world was startled early in 1899 by 
the news that messages had been sent by 
this wireless method across the English 
Channel from Dover to Boulogne. Little 
had been known up to that time of the 
process, but enthusiasm was now ex¬ 
pressed everywhere, and when, in October 
of the same year, the young wizard came 
across to America to report the great 
international yacht races between the 
Columbia and the Shamrock, for the New 
York papers, and succeeded so admirably 
that messages were flashed across space 
when both yachts and sending ship were 
enveloped by fogs and out of sight of 
land, it was manifest that another epoch- 
making discovery had been made. 

The method employed by Marconi 
seems quite simple when it is known. 

Hertzian Waves 

are strange undulations generated by 
electric impulse that travel through the 
atmosphere and have the peculiar prop¬ 
erty of jumping from the Marconi trans¬ 
mitter and fleeing through space at the 
speed of light, or seven times around the 

719 







720 


WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 


earth in a second. When Marconi under¬ 
stood that these beams could be sent and 
received by his first crude method, he at 


sending and one at the receiving station. 
From these poles are supported sprits, 
alono; each of which runs an ordinary 

o 


M. GUIGLIELMO MARCONI 
Discoverer and inventor of the Wireless 


Telegraph. 



once set to work on improvements, and 
the following system has been the result: 
Two tall poles are erected, one at the 


copper wire extending vertically from the 
telegraph instruments into the air. The 
upper portion of the wire is bare, so that 






WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 


721 


the waves of energy may leap off into 
space as they are sent up the wire by the 
operation of the instrument below. This 
instrument is simply a large induction 
coil connected with a strong battery. To 
the coil are also attached two brass knobs 
(some distance apart), from the space be¬ 
tween which, when the current is on, 
leaps a stream of sparks, the same as 
those produced in experiments with the 
X-ray. Now, when a 
message is being sent, 
the transmitting wire 
is charged with a cur¬ 
rent of electricity at 
high tension, which nat¬ 
urally rushes toward 
the earth. This dis¬ 
charge causes a rapid 
oscillation in the wire 
as long as the current 
continues. This oscil¬ 
lation must have an 
outlet, and, according¬ 
ly, leaves the wire for 
its journey across space. 

This agitation, when it 
reaches the receiving 
instrument, produces an 
opening and closing of 
the circuit accordingly 
as the waves are con¬ 
tinuous or cut short. 

To use a simple exam¬ 
ple, let us suppose we have a string hang¬ 
ing loose from the ceiling. Now take a 
fan and wave the air. The result is the 
string is blown back. Make several mo¬ 
tions with the fan at short intervals, and 
the string will respond to the air waves. 
This is similar to what occurs in Marconi’s 
telegraphing process. He has a switch 
connected with the sending instrument, 
and as he opens or closes this a stream of 
electrical sparks follows. It may readily 
be seen, then, that as these sparks impart 
46 


the waves to the transmitting wire, a short 
one would send a short wave across to the 
receiver, and a long stream would produce 
a long set of waves. That is just what 
happens. 

When this much of the system was per¬ 
fected, it was necessary to arrange some 
device whereby the gentle oscillations 
might be received and interpreted into 
messages. Here was a hard task, but it 


was successfully wrought out. In a 
metal box, that keeps out to a great ex¬ 
tent the Hertzian waves, is a relay instru¬ 
ment, two devices called a “coherer” and 
a “tapper,” and a Morse instrument for 
printing dots and dashes connected to a 
home battery. The 

‘Coherer” 

is the principal and most delicate of all 
these instruments, and upon its actions 
depends the success of the sending opera- 



A WIRELESS TELEGRAPH STATION. 


Showing operator in the act of sending a message. The large box on 
the table near the operator contains receiving instrument; the adjoining 
cylinder with the two rods ending in knobs is the sender; while in upper 
right-hand corner is the copper reflector used for directing the waves. 











WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 


722 

tion. It consists of a tiny glass tube 
about as thick as that of a thermometer 
and two inches long. In either end is a 
small plug of silver, attached to the aerial 
wire on the pole outside and to a wire 
connected with the relay instrument. It 
must be understood that a wave so deli- 



EXTERIOR VIEW OF A WIRELESS TEL¬ 
EGRAPH STATION. 


From the sprit at the top of the mast is suspended 
the copper reflector which sends the Hertzian waves 
shooting across space. The wires attached to the 
mast are only for support in heavy winds. 

cate in its impulse would not be able to 
operate a machine of itself; it is only 
strong enough to give the impulse that 
Will complete the circuit of the home 
battery, and the latter then works the 
writing machine. 

But how can this impulse be given in 
dots and dashes of the Morse telegraph 


code? Simply enough, when one knows 
how; and here came in Marconi’s great¬ 
est discovery. He learned that nickel 
and silver were alternately good and bad 
conductors of the Hertzian waves: good 
when welded together by a continuous 
current, but bad when severed into par¬ 
ticles by a blow from his little “tapper.” 
Hence, he contrived an arrangement of 
very tiny particles of nickel and silver 
dust,—siftings through silk,—and placed 
them between the silver plugs of his 
“coherer.” Now, when a wave impelled 
by a single spark from the transmitter is 
received by the vertical wire hanging in 
space from the pole of the receiving sta¬ 
tion, it comes down through the “co¬ 
herer,” and the tiny particles of nickel 
and silver cohere (hence the name), the 
current is imparted to the battery that 
sets the Morse instrument to printing a dot. 

To explain more clearly just the uses of 
the “coherer” and the “tapper,” we must 
remember that the power of the Hertzian 
wave is very slight; in fact, it could create 
no electrical disturbance were it not for 
its property of welding together the 
nickel and silver filings in the “coherer.” 
What it can do, however, is to complete 
the circuit that will operate the relay 
instrument. Let us imagine the circuit 
of the relay is like an electric door-bell. 
Well, the coherer is in the place of the 
push-button. As long as the filings are 
separate there is no sound, for the circuit 
is not complete. But let a Hertzian wave 
strike the coherer and the filings are 
welded together, the circuit is completed, 
and the relay instrument gives the suffi¬ 
cient electrical energy to operate the 
writing machine or ticker. But so long 
as the filings in the coherer are in cohe¬ 
sion the instrument will keep up one con¬ 
tinuous buzz; hence no intelligible signals 
could be sent. Here is where Marconi 
made use of his 









WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 


Decoherer or “Tapper.” 

It is no more than a little hammer 
attached to an electro-magnet, which, 
when operated by electricity, will tap 
against the coherer the same as the tap¬ 
per of an electric bell; and this blow 
decoheres the filings. Now, when the 
Hertzian wave reaches the receiving sta¬ 
tion it rushes down to the coherer, the 
filings are welded together, the circuit is 
completed, and the instrument ticks off 
its dot. At this instant the relay instru¬ 
ment has also sent a current to the elec¬ 
tro-magnet of the tapper. The magnet 
draws back the little hammer and lets it 
strike the coherer, the filings are sepa¬ 
rated, and the station is ready to receive 
the next flash. 

Each succession of waves produces 
the same effect, and the operation is 
repeated, the result being an intelligi¬ 
ble series of dots and dashes which 
are readily translated into their proper 
meaning. 

Messages by wireless telegraphy have 
already been sent with accuracy up to 
no miles, of which sixty were over water 
and the rest over land. Messages are 
not lost by the curvature of the earth, 
which is about 1,000 feet in eighty miles, 
and they work all right from a wire 130 
feet high. Weather conditions cannot 
interfere, nor can the messages be stolen, 
for the reason that the transmitters and 
receivers must be. in “tune,”—that is, 
they must work in harmony. This makes 
it almost impossible for the receiver to 
take a message not intended for him. 
The electric waves do not seem to be im¬ 
peded by buildings or hills in the inter¬ 
vening space, for experiments have shown 
that messages sent to given destina¬ 
tions, between which and the sender 
were high hills, buildings, etc., have 
been accurately received. Whether the 
Hertzian waves go through or around 


"/23 

the intercepting object has not yet been 
ascertained. 

The Principal Cost 

of installing a wireless telegraph plant is 
that of the poles, the receivers costing 
only about $60. The expense of main¬ 
taining the electrical current is nominal. 
Each station has both a sending and a 
receiving instrument, one being turned 
off when the other is in operation. Mes¬ 
sages can now be sent at the rate of 
twenty-five words a minute, so it may 
readily be seen that when the system is 
still more perfect, it may threaten the 
established telegraph lines. Imagine 
another Eiffel tower on this side of the 
Atlantic, with sending and receiving sta¬ 
tions here and at Paris. The expense of 
laying and operating the great submarine 
cables would be entirely done away with. 

Already the system is in use on light¬ 
ships, connecting them with the life-sav¬ 
ing stations on shore, and many lives and 
much property have been saved by its 
use. What, then, if every ship or train 
had these instruments? Accidents might 
be avoided, news imparted without stop¬ 
ping, directions given for war vessels’ 
manoeuvres, and countless other similar 
uses. Marconi thinks some of the great¬ 
est improvements in this line are yet to 
come. He has already devised a sort of 
reflector that concentrates the waves and 
shoots them in one direction, like a 
search-light, so that they may be directed 
at will, and only to certain spots. He 
is also working upon an arrangement that 
will tell from what direction a message 
comes. He speaks of possibly arranging 
a set of senders and receivers and so 
manipulating them for subscribers that 

The News of the Day 

can be telegraphed all over the country, 
thus doing away with newspapers. 



modern wonders of l|e Electrical worn 

RAPID TELEGRAPHY, PICTURES BY WIRE, STIMULATING THE 
GROWTH OF PLANTS BY ELECTRICITY, ETC. 

The marvelous strides taken by American genius in the perfection of new devices 
and inventions which harness this weird fluid of the air and 
make it do service in the aid of man. 


SIDE from such marvelous 
discoveries as the wireless 
telegraph, the X-rays and 
the uses to which electricity. 
has been put as a motive 
power, there are many minor experiments 
that are daily being made which are 
rapidly bringing this weird fluid nearer 
and nearer to our daily life, both for com¬ 
fort and for money-making. A directory 
recently published gives the names of 
25,464 firms carrying on electrical busi¬ 
ness throughout the world. The United 
States, as in most other things, is taking 
the lead in this important work. Daily 
we are shipping to Europe and the Orient 
motors and electrical storage outfits in 
great numbers. 

While in many instances the American 
trolley system for street cars has proved 
dangerous, it is, nevertheless, being 
rapidly taken up in Europe. Electrical 
plows are being installed on the larger 
farms, and lighting by electricity is now 
almost universal. The success of using 
water power at Niagara and elsewhere 
for generating this force is remarkable, 
and the use of the tides about Manhattan 
Island, upon which New York City is situ¬ 
ated, for this purpose has been advanced 
as tenable 

Telegraphing 100,000 Words 
an Hour. 

In telegraphing many improvements 
have been made, among others being one 
724 


system whereby the wires are attached to 
a sort of electrical typewriter, which, 
upon being operated, sets in motion a 
similar machine at the other end. The 
benefit of this system is that the operator 
does not need to be acquainted with any 
particular method, any one who is able to 
spell being competent to work the ma¬ 
chine. Another recent invention in this 
line is a method of perforating strips of 
paper with a machine similar to a type¬ 
writer, and then placing these strips into 
the sending device, which transmits the 
messages at the rate of 100,000 words an 
hour. This is a marvelous speed, and 
where the time is saved is that a number 
of men can be set to work at one time 
perforating the strips before using the 
wire for sending. The benefit to be 
derived from such a system is that thei e 
would be a great saving in laying addi¬ 
tional lines, for once the strips are pre¬ 
pared the sending occupies the line but a 
few moments. 

Picture Telegraphy. 

Sending pictures by wire has at last 
come so near to perfection that it is being 
used to some extent in detective work. 
The method used is called telepan- 
tography. By it an engraving or artist’s 
sketch may be sent over almost any dis¬ 
tance by common telegraph communica¬ 
tion. If a picture is to be transmitted it 
must first be treated to a process similar 
to that for a half-tone engraving. A 








INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPH OF AN ELECTRIC \ L DISCHARGE DURING A THUNDERSTORM 

THIS IS CONVINCING EVIDENCE THAT THE ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE DOES NOT MOVE IN A STRAIGHT LINE BUT TAKES A VERY IRREGULAR 

COURSE, FOLLOWING THE LINE OF LEAST RESISTANCE 


















































■ 















. 
















































' 





. 























































































































MODERN WONDERS OF THE ELECTRICAL WORLD. 


725 


metal plate is made, very thin so that it 
may be bent round like the cylinder of a 
phonograph. The plate is slipped on the 
transmitting machine, and a tiny needle 
on this device traces over all the lines in 
the metal plate, in this way sending im¬ 
pressions to a cylinder at the other end of 
the line, about which is wrapped a coil of 
paper. An inked needle at the receiving 
end traces the lines as they are tele¬ 
graphed, and a complete reproduction of 
the original picture is the result. The 
device is yet rather crude, but practical 
results have been obtained. 

Electrical Plant Growth. 

The qualities of electricity, though 
when in the form of lightning and strong 
direct currents readily take life, are such 
that in other forms as readily give life. 
Recently experiments have been made on 
seeds, and in one-half the time it takes 
Nature to turn out her work by ordinary 
processes, the application of electricity has 
brought out mature plants. 

The first experiment was made on an 
egg that was being hatched. An electric 
current strong enough to kill a fowl did 
not destroy the germ of vitality, but the 
chicken when hatched was of most abnor¬ 
mal size and monstrous in shape. This 
proved, however, what might be done 
with this marvelous agent. 

In plant stimulation the apparatus con¬ 
sists of two glass cylinders, a larger one 
about two inches in diameter for the 
larger seeds, and one about three-fourths 
of an inch for those of less size. Within 
these receptacles the seeds are placed, 
thoroughly moistened, and the openings 
closed with copper disks having wires 
attached. By these wires the disks are 
connected with the poles of an induction 
coil, and then the current is passed 


through the moist seeds, which are good 
conductors. After this treatment the 
seeds are placed in germinating pans. 
These consist of two plates one within 
the other, the inner being of porous clay. 
The seeds are sown between two sheets 
of filter paper, and water passing through 
the porous plate is absorbed by the paper, 
thus keeping the seeds moist at all times. 
The temperature is kept at about 48 de¬ 
grees all the time by aid of electrical 
devices, and the growth of the plants is 
30 per cent quicker by this method than 
otherwise, while, at the same time, many 
seeds not perfect enough to grow under 
ordinary climatic conditions are saved by 
this electrical treatment. 

Wireless Light. 

Nikola Tesla, one of the greatest of 
electrical wizards, has been at work some 
time perfecting several devices by means 
of which he can send wave impulses at 
great distances through the ether, but in 
different manner from the Marconi sys¬ 
tem. He has made the assertion that if 
Mars is inhabited he can create a great 
enough current to be felt there. He is 
also at work on wireless light. But both 
these inventions are as yet void of com¬ 
mercial value. Some time ago, at an 
exhibition in Chicago, he conducted a 
series of experiments in throwing his 
waves across space and directing minia¬ 
ture war vessels in a tank of water with¬ 
out the aid of connecting wires. Waves 
were sent across to a receiver, which 
opened currents that turned switches and 
set in motion the machinery. It is 
claimed for these inventions that, when 
perfected, torpedo boats can be more 
effectually directed toward the enemy’s 
vessels. 







* 

* 

<1 

« 


New Studies of the Starry Skies. 

ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS AND RECENT DISCOVERIES. 

THE WORLD'S GREATEST TELESCOPE. 


& 

* 

#> 

* 


£t||L Achievements of the world’s greatest star-gazers, and the latest and most delicate 
devices used by them, giving to the student new facts concerning orbits, 

seasons, atmospheres, and climatic and general conditions *11* 

existing on the planets, moons and suns. 




ROF. SIMON NEWCOMB, the 
well-known astronomer, uses 
a very startling method of 
comparing the size of the uni¬ 
verse, so that we may judge its size by 
things earthy. Imagine the United 
States as the extent of the whole known 
creation, and compare to it a lady’s fin¬ 
ger-ring as the earth’s orbit around the 
sun. The nearest fixed star would then 
be about a mile and a half away from the 
ring, and all the space from the Atlantic 
to the Mississippi would be studded with 
other stars, planets and constellations. It 
has recently been learned that the whole 
solar system, with the sun, earth and all 
the other planets, is traveling toward the 
constellation Lyra at the rate of three 
hundred millions of miles a year. When 
we think of this constellation as being 
about ten miles away from the finger-ring 
spoken of, we can readily see what enor¬ 
mous distances we are traveling, and little 
wonder is it that great minds are trying 
to solve the problem of where and when 
this vast and furious race began, and 
where it will end. An astronomer who 
might watch the heavens for ten thousand 
years might gain some faint suggestion 
of the answer to the riddle. But our sun 
72fi 


and its system are not the only moving 
bodies in the universe. 

Thousands Upon Millions 

of other stars like our sun are traveling in 
some direction, and with greater or less 
force. A greater question, then, is what 
means the motion of all these other 
bodies, and where will they end? Some 
astronomers suggest that each system ; s 
shooting off on a curve that thousands 
of centuries will complete into orbits. 
Others say that if the laws of motion bt 
true for all space and all time, it may be 
that each moving star will go on in an 
unbending career forever, unless attracted 
aside by others. In that case, after ab¬ 
sorbing many smaller stars, a few of the 
larger bodies would gradually drift apart, 
and the inhabitants of each would then 
behold only black and starless skies. All 
this is amazing in its proportions and 
grandeur, but as yet theories only exist, 
for with millions of bodies flying in 
different directions and at such frightful 
speed as 200 miles a second, calculations 
are at best but weak. 

Another problem that presents itself to 
star-gazers is that of the 
















NEW STUDIES OF THE STARRY SKIES. 


727 


Size of the Whole Universe. 

With the latest improved telescopes we 
are able to see only what is considered a 
very small portion of the vast extent of 
star-filled space. We 
are able at present to 
count, by means of pho- 
tographic telescopes, 
some hundred millions 
of these bodies, but it 
is not supposed that we 
have reached anywhere 
near the edge of the 
limits of their confines. 

In fact, astronomers 
hardly think they will 
be able ever to know 
when they have found 
a limit, for even then 
there might be a great 
intervening empty 
space, but farther on 
possibly another vast 
field full of these spark¬ 
ling lights. It is said 
that it is not probable 
that these stellar sys¬ 
tems go on infinitely, 
for mathematicians 
have figured out that if 
such were the case, the 
light thrown off from 
such a number of lumi¬ 
nous bodies would light 
up the whole heavens 
as brightly as at noon¬ 
day. What the solu¬ 
tion of this question is 
must remain in doubt, 
it seems, forever. 

Following close upon 
this comes the thought, 

Whence Comes the Heat 

from the sun and other stars? and where 
does it go? We have decided quite accur¬ 


ately that meteors and other falling stars 
do not start out on their voyage through 
space on fire, but rather are solid bodies 
which, when they pass so rapidly through 


the air, are burned up by the heat of 
friction. Similarly it is thought that the 
contraction of the bodies of these stars 
through the gravitation of their parts 



A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE MILKY WAY. 


Showing a portion of the myriads of nebulous bodies that make up that 

great path through the heavens. 










728 


NEW STUDIES OF THE STARRY SKIES. 


creates heat so great that combustion is 
the result, and when the bodies finally 
become dense as the earth they grow 
cold. This theory is pretty well founded 
upon observations of the sun, and while 
the conclusion is that this is the proper 
solution of the problem, yet the process 
is very slow,—so slow that it would have 
to go on for thousands of years before 
astronomers could find by comparing 
sizes that it had grown any smaller 



AN ECLIPSE OF THE SUN. 

Caused by the passage of the moon between 
the sun and the earth. 


Though this problem is solved to an 
extent, where does the heat vanish? is 
altogether a harder question. What be¬ 
comes of the flood of heat and light that 
has gone on at the rate of 180,000 miles a 
second since the dawn of creation? Sci¬ 
ence of to-day might say that it continues 
through space forever. But at such a 
marvelous velocity it seems that in a few 
thousand years it should have reached 
the confines of space, if there be any, and 


there is no reason why it should stop 
there. There is a law of conservation of 
energy that maintains that nothing is 
lost here on earth: no gas that escapes 
but that it returns to nature in some form. 
May it not be true that the heat so long 
thrown off from our burning worlds may 
return? We cannot say; it remains a 
problem unanswered. 

If there are these greater questions 
relative to the whole universe, there are 
still as interesting ones regarding the 
worlds we can behold. The question of 
whether there are inhabitants on any of 
the planets is still indeed doubtful. We 
are not sure yet what bodies have atmos¬ 
pheres about them such as that which 
makes a part of our earth. The moon has 
been well studied and with many good 
results, though they cannot apply to the 
planets and stars. We can see that she 
has no atmosphere and that there are 
traces of mountains and craters of extinct 
volcanoes, but the largest telescopes made 
will hardly ever be able to aid us suffi¬ 
ciently to discern these qualities with ac¬ 
curacy on the farther planets. It is said 
that Mars is inhabited, that Venus turns 
on an axis and has an atmosphere, though 
cloudy and not transparent like ours. 
Mars was for a long time thought to re¬ 
semble the earth very closely, but after 
years of study, the only resemblance 
thought to be accurate is what is sup¬ 
posed to be a cap of snow that appears to 
form over one of its poles in the Martian 
winter. 

The Sun. 

With the sun there are still many ques¬ 
tions about which the astronomers are 
worrying themselves. We know a great 
deal about this body, but when it comes 
down to facts, the study is still full of 
wonders. We should like to know what 
is the cause and what the nature of the 
spots on the sun; why the sun seems so 







NEW STUDIES OF THE STARRY SKIES. 


729 


calm when the raging fire that is consum¬ 
ing it is beyond our thought. What is 
the corona, and has it magnetic proper¬ 
ties? And is the hazy patch of light in 
the sky that follows the counterglow of 
the sun at its setting in the western 


horizon the tail of the earth, the same as 
that to a comet? 

It seems wonderful that the astronomers 
can map out so well the time of the occur¬ 
rence for eclipses and showers of meteors 
and the like, and to the one not versed in 
the wisdom of the science it seems as 
though there were but little more to 
learn, but such is far from the case. All 
calculations are not exact: the earth does 


not always perform its rotations in the 
same time; sometimes it is faster, some¬ 
times a little slower, though very slight. 
For half a century the moon will jump 
ahead of her regular rate, and then again 
she will drop behind. 


Forces Are At Work 

here and there that we cannot under¬ 
stand, pulling this planet toward another 
and vice versa. In all it is a science the 
most exact and beautiful, but far from 
finished. 

Recent photographs of the moon, taken 
by means of the elbow telescope at the 
Paris observatory, have led scientists to 
believe that the moon has still about it 









730 


NEW STUDIES OF THE STARRY SKIES. 


the remains of what was once an atmos¬ 
phere. Faint traces of this can be found, 
and when the shape of the moon shows 
such a similarity to the earth in the for¬ 


mation of its mountains and craters, 
ocean-beds and streams of lava, it is 
thought by some that very likely the same 
conditions once existed there as do at 
present upon the earth: hence that the 


moon was once inhabited. Among the 
recent discoveries in astronomy the novel 
assertion is made by Professor See that 
the color of a star varies with its age, 
being yellow in its youth, and in 
its old age blue, the tint being a 
matter of temperature. The bluer 
it becomes the hotter it is, be¬ 
cause great heat causes blue light¬ 
waves. Thus, Sirius is a very 
blue star, and gives out about one 
hundred times as much heat as 
the sun, though only perhaps four 
times as big. When the sun be¬ 
comes hotter with age, it is argued, 
it will be bluer, and we shall have 
blue instead of nearly white light. 

The Largest Known Meteor. 

Lieutenant Peary, the great arc¬ 
tic explorer, in tramping through 
Greenland recently found the 
largest known meteor, which, in 
honor of his voyage north, he 
called the “Northward.” It 
contains much iron, and from this 
substance the native Esquimaux 
made many knives and fishing im¬ 
plements. It is many times as 
large as a man, and weighs one 
hundred tons. 

Yerkes* Great Telescope. 

With all the studies that are 
being conducted in astronomy, let 
us look at a monster telescope by 
means of which we are brought 
nearer the starry skies. Charles T. 
Yerkes, the street-railway king of 
Chicago and New York, recently 
gave to the University of Chicago 
the newest of the great telescopes. In its 
observatory on the shores of Lake 
Geneva, near Williams Bay, Wis., it 
gives to students the opportunity of mak¬ 
ing the best examinations of the stellar 



YERKES’ TELESCOPE: THE LARGEST AND MOST 
POWERFUL INSTRUMENT IN THE WORLD. 

(Tube sixty-five feet long; lens forty inches wide.) 

Interior view of Yerkes Observatory, showing the great 
“lifting-floor” at its lowest point. By means of electric motors 
this floor can be brought up even with the eye-piece of the 
instrument; electric motors also turn the tube and the observa¬ 
tory dome in any desired direction. 


























NEW STUDIES OF THE STARRY SKIES. 


731 


systems possible. The huge forty-inch 
lens of the great refractor is the largest in 
existence, and it probably marks the limit 
of size to be attained in the manufacture 
of the instruments, because any larger 
size might not give so distinct visions, 
besides being of such great weight that 
the large steel tube which holds the sev¬ 
eral lenses would very likely sag and not 
be accurately steady. The large glasses 
in the lenses of this telescope were ground 
by Alvan Clark, who came from a family 
of lens makers. The glass proper is com¬ 
posed of two lenses, one of crown glass, 
the other of flint glass, ranging in thick¬ 
ness from three-quarters of an inch to 
two inches, and placed eight inches 
apart. They weigh 500 pounds, and 
were four years in polishing, the final 
touches being done by the maker’s finger¬ 
tips. Contrary to common thought, dust 
does not hinder in the use of the tele¬ 
scope, and no protection from it is placed 
over the glass. Even a small scratch 
would not greatly hurt the glass, though 
of course this is avoided with as much 
care as possible. 

The length of the great tube is sixty- 
five feet, its weight twenty tons, yet the 
whole instrument is so evenly poised that 
it can with ease be moved to any angle or 
position by the hand. Under the ninety- 
foot dome, where this monster eye is 
housed, is a large lifting floor of forty tons 
weight, that can be brought, by means 
of electric motors, up to a height even 
with the eye-piece of the telescope. The 
great dome is also movable, being placed 
on car wheels which rest on a circular 
track, and at the will of the operator the 
whole affair may be revolved about so 
that the large opening in the roof may be 
brought opposite any star. The motive 
power for the dome is electricity, as it 
also is for the great sliding shutters for 
the roof of the dome. Inside the base of 


the tube is a clock-like arrangement that 
adjusts various parts of its workings, as 
well as keeps it moving steadily in the 
path of the star being studied. The total 
cost of the huge glass and observatory 
was a half million dollars, but the outlay 
produced the most perfect seeing appa¬ 
ratus yet devised by man. 

A peculiar incident about the history 
of the glass is that after Alvan Clark, the 
maker, had superintended the setting of 
the lens, he returned to his home in 
Massachusetts and died the next day. 

With this instrument many interesting 
facts are being learned. It has been 
learned that a layer of carbon, hitherto 
unknown, surrounds the sun; the fifth 
satellite of Jupiter, discovered with the 
Lick telescope, has now been measured 
by means of the small spider webs drawn 
across the eye-piece of this new glass. 
It has also been ascertained that the earth 
receives a small amount of heat from the 
stars. Excellent photographs of the moon 
have been made, and at frequent intervals 
scientists assemble there from all over 
the world to make special observations. 

Arrangements for photographing with 
this gigantic camera are numerous. One 
of the oddest to the uninitiated is that of 
a set of lenses attached to the outside of 
the great tube and about forty feet apart. 
It is naturally supposed that light must 
be shut off from between the glasses, but 
such is not the case this time, for all that 
is wished to be photographed is the 
object that appears at the focussing point 
on the eye-piece. Therefore, the only 
place the light shutter is used is at the end 
nearest the sky. 

A word might be well about the dainty 
little spider webs used in making meas¬ 
urements with such a telescope. Spiders 
are kept for the purpose, and in little 
boxes arranged like lantern slides the 
webs are strung before the eye-piece, so 


i 




732 


NEW STUDIES OF THE STARRY SKIES. 


that when a star is brought into view a 
delicate shadow is thrown across its image 
by these film-like threads. Knowing the 
space between the meshes of the webs 
and the distance of the stars, their sizes 
are computed. These webs are used in 
preference to any threads that might be 
manufactured, because of their extremely 
delicate nature. Another arrangement of 


interest is a series of colored lights that 
may be thrown on these webs for telling 
what the stars are made of. It is well 
known that certain minerals burn with a 
certain color, so that by turning on a 
given light, the light that still shows up 
from the star can readily be classified and 
the make-up of the body under observa¬ 
tion easily decided. 









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i The Great Canals of the World. I 

PANAMA, NICARAGUA, KEIL, CHICAGO DRAINAGE. 

Artificial waterways that will save millions of dollars and make it possible for 
gigantic ocean vessels to make direct voyages to inland cities 
and towns which have heretofore been beyond 
the limits of navigation. 



R nearly a century after the 
discovery of America, explor¬ 
ations were made to find the 
straits that were supposed to 
exist between the northern and southern 
halves of the continent. At last, when 
the Isthmus of Panama was found, en¬ 
gineers at once began to dream of an 
artificial waterway to link the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans. The canal routes 
that have received the most publicity are 
those of Panama and Nicaragua. Both 
of these are under way, though the 
Panama has expended the more money 
and is nearer completion. The United 
States government has interested itself 
in the Nicaragua plan, and has authorized 
an expenditure of $115,000,000 on that 
route. 

The Panama Route 

is already cut two-fifths of the way across 
the Isthmus from Colon on the Atlantic 
side to Panama on the Pacific, and the 
cost of completing it will be about $102,- 
000,000. The route at first lay over 
twenty-five miles of river, eight miles of 
the Cordilleras mountains that had to be 
cut down from 100 to 325 feet, and a 
great part in bottom lands. Great floods 
of the Chagres River and the opening up 
of the damp soil causing sickness necessi¬ 


tated the change of route. Estimates 
now show $87,000,000 to be necessary for 
completion, and eight or ten years’ time 
in which to do the work. The route as 
now laid out is forty-six miles long with 
the same ports as before, only the Cha¬ 
gres River is not used and in its place 
canals are to be dug. From Colon fifteen 
miles is straight cut canal; after that 
comes a dam which by controlling the 
waters of the Chagres will flood the 
country for 1^/2 miles, with an artificial 
lake. This lake is to be used as a chan¬ 
nel of the canal, and at the other end 
follows a section of canal five miles long 
which is the highest of the whole route, 
sixty-eight feet above the sea. Six 
locks altogether control the water be¬ 
tween the sections, while another arti¬ 
ficial lake nine miles north of the main 
route, caused by another dam, will supply 
water in dry season. 

The Nicaragua Canal, 

while well indorsed, is a great deal more 
difficult task than the Panama, and but a 
small part of the work has been done. 
It is to extend from Greytown on the 
Atlantic, to Brito on the Pacific, using as 
main channels Lake Nicaragua and the 
San Tuan River. Six locks control the 

733 
















734 


THE GREAT CANALS OF THE WORLD. 


water, and the hardest part of the plan is 
to build a series of dams, some of them 
6,000 feet long, to check the flow of the 
San Juan River so that the whole valley 
will be flooded and make an immense 
artificial stream connecting with the lake. 
Short and steep canals are built at each 
end of the route and connect the lake 


and river with the oceans. The route 
is 169 miles long as compared to forty- 
six on the Panama, while the summit 
level, or highest point, is 154 miles long, 
with one end but thirteen miles and the 
other two miles from the oceans. Should 
a break occur in one of the Nicaragua 
locks, half this stretch would be emptied 


of water and the vessels in transport would 
be stranded. With both these routes 
in construction a waterway across the 
Isthmus is assured before 1910. 

The Keil Ship Canal. 

The great ship canal which is des¬ 
tined to connect the Baltic with the 

Black Sea, work on 

which was begun in 

1898 by the Russian 
government, is being 
pushed forward with 
the greatest zeal and at 
the same time with a 
quietness amounting 
almost to secrecy. 
When finished, the 
work, on account of its 
immensity and the al¬ 
most insuperable diffi¬ 
culties to be overcome, 
will be worthy of a 
place beside such mod¬ 
ern wonders as the St. 
Gothard Tunnel and the 
Suez Canal. 

The route unites the 
River Dnieper, which 
flows into the Black 
Sea, with the Dwina, 
which empties into the 
Baltic Sea at Riga. It 
starts at Riga, follow¬ 
ing the course of the 
Duna River as far as 
Duneberg, where it is 
united to the Beresina 
by means of an immense course cut right 
through the country. The Beresina and 
the Dnieper are then used to complete 
the connection. The total length of the 
line is 1,600 kilometers, or about 1,000 
English miles, 200 kilometers of the en¬ 
tire distance being artificially cut through 
the land. The work is to be finished in 



OUTLET OF A MODERN CANAL LOCK. 

Here is controlled and put to use the enormous power developed by the 

flow of these great artificial streams. 














THE GREAT CANALS OF THE WORLD. 


five years, if all goes well and a sufficient 
number of men are kept at work during 
that period. 

The canal is about 307 feet wide, and 
about thirty feet deep, thus allowing the 
largest vessels means of passing from 
one sea to the other. Seventeen large 
ports, or artificial bays, are to be con¬ 
structed along the line as well, each 
capable of containing a large number of 
ships, so that a Russian vessel, however 
large it may be, may make the entire 
transit in six days without hindrance of 
any kind. 

The Cost 

of the work, at the lowest estimate, and 
taking into consideration the means at 
the disposal of the Russian government 
as to the adoption of unpaid labor, will 
amount to about $120,000,000. The 
whole passage is kept within the limits of 
the Russian Empire, thus allowing Rus¬ 
sia absolute sovereignty over the entire 
course. Putting aside the great political 
advantages given to Russia by the new 
enterprise, the gain commercially and 
economically will be an incalculable one. 

Chicago Drainage Canal. 

One of the greatest enterprises in the 
line of canal building has just been fin¬ 
ished by the Sanitary District of Chicago, 
and consists of an artificial waterway con¬ 
necting the waters of the Chicago River 
with those of the Mississippi. For years 
the filth of the Chicago River has been 
such as to give the stream the name of 
“sewer.” The refuse from numerous 
factories emptied into it, and in heavy 
weather or after a thaw these waters 
flowed far out into Lake Michigan, from 
which Chicago gets its water supply, thus 


being a great menace to the health of the 
inhabitants. The opening of this canal 
effectually turned back the waters of the 
river from its mouth and made the stream 
flow towards its source. Virtually Lake 
Michigan thus has an outlet to the Gulf of 
Mexico, the water flowing steadily up the 
river and out through the cut that joins 
the river at its south branch, and over a 
rocky bed and between stone walls to 
Lockport, Illinois, where a great con¬ 
trolling dam is situated that lets the water 
into the Des Plaines River. From this 
point the water runs by way of the Des 
Plaines, through the town of Joliet, to the 
Illinois River, and thence into the Mis¬ 
sissippi. The canal is 160 feet wide, is 
made of six-foot thick masonry, and is 
deep enough to admit ocean vessels, while 
it has a capacity of 600,000 cubic feet of 
water a minute. Part of the route lay 
along clay beds, and here the work of 
construction was the easiest; elsewhere it 
lay along solid rock, and here blasting had 
to be done; another part lay along a 
prairie, and there a wall of stone thirteen 
miles long had to be built. 

To remedy the sewage problem of Chi¬ 
cago the whole sewer system had to be 
reversed, and the refuse matter made to 
flow out to the canal instead of into the 
lake as heretofore. To do this large 
intercepting sewers were constructed 
underground, connecting the larger sewer 
mains and emptying into the south branch 
of the river. It took seven years to 
construct the canal, and about $32,000,000 
were expended. The money for this 
was raised by taxes, but a large income 
will be derived from the use of the power 
developed by the fall of the water over 
the dam at the big controlling works at 
Lockport. 






Stupendous Power 01 Niagara 

FIFTY THOUSAND HORSE POWER DEVELOPED FROM THE 

WORLD’S GREATEST CATARACT. 


HE Niagara Falls are now being 
used to operate great electric 
dynamos for generating power 
for many factories in their 
neighborhood. The waters of lakes Su¬ 
perior, Michigan, Huron and Erie empty 
into the Niagara River, which after leav¬ 
ing Lake Erie flows swiftly for two miles 
and then widens and separates above 
Grand Island into two branches. These 
come together again below the island, and 
flow slowly about several islands till their 
combined waters reach the “rapids” 
about a mile above the falls. The flow of 
water here is 275,000 cubic feet a second, 
or half a million tons per minute. This 
enormous flood was first utilized for 
power in 1725, when a small saw-mill was 
erected near the falls and run by its force. 

The Niagara Falls Power Company 
recently made cuts in the river a mile 
above the American Falls. Water is led 
in from the “rapids” by a canal 12 feet 
wide and 180 feet long, with capacity of 
100,000 horse power, to a wheel pit 30 feet 
wide by 200 feet long and 180 feet deep. 
Eight steel penstocks restrain the water in 
its plunge down to the bottom of the wheel 
pit, and at the base of each is a 5,500- 
horse power vertical turbine. The shaft 
of each turbine is attached at the upper 
end to a 5,000-horse power generator, 
which gives the plant a total capacity of 
736 


40,000 Horse Power. 

Provision has been made for two more 
turbines and for another house to be built 
on the Canadian side. From the wheel 
pit the water runs through a tail-race 
7,000 feet long directly under the town of 
Niagara Falls to an outlet at the base of 
the cliffs. 

The Niagara Falls Paper Company uses 
7,200 hydraulic horse power from this 
same point, taking it from the canal be¬ 
fore it reaches the penstock. 

Another plant, operated by the Niagara 
Falls Hydraulic Power Company, takes in 
water from the rapids 2,000 feet below the 
other intake, and runs a canal through the 
town to the edge of the gorge, where two 
penstocks, eight and eleven feet in 
diameter, take the water to a power 
house 200 feet below at the edge of the 
river. Here horizontal turbines develop 
energy to about 20,000 horse power. An 
old canal built in 1858 also supplies about 
7,500 horse power. On the Canadian 
side the Niagara Falls Park and River 
Railway operates a power house with 
two turbines, and generates 2,000 horse 
power. 

The theoretical power that is possible 
from the Falls is that of 7,500,000 horses, 
of which, however, less than 50,000 is 
being developed and put to useful 
account. 






















THE STUPENDOUS POWER OF NIAGARA FALLS. 


737 


The Turbines 

that do the work of generating power are 
arranged in pairs. Each is attached to a 
13-foot diameter inlet tube. Two large 
revolving bronze wheels receive the 
water, which has first been governed by 
pressure gates, and led into the wheels 
by draught tubes, which are so arranged 
as to keep the dampness out of the ma¬ 
chinery. The turbines are 70 inches in 
diameter, and have 36 blades, each one of 
142 square inches and highly polished so 
as not to give resistance to the water. 
The axis of each of the great wheels is 
11 *4 inches in diameter, and they are all 

47 


mounted on ball bearings. Each turbine 
revolves 250 times a minute. 

Industries using electric power for 
manufacturing paper, aluminum, car¬ 
borundum, calcium carbide, and other 
chemical industries, street railways of 
Niagara and a railway of twenty-two 
miles to Buffalo, are all being operated 
by this great power generator. Buffalo 
alone takes 6,000 horse' power. It was at 
first thought that the electricity thus 
generated would sometime be taken great 
distances for power purposes, but the 
tendency is more for industries to move 
near Niagara than to transmit the power. 






THe Cinematopiili-Plovi Pictures. 

Reproducing, by means of the camera, the motion of moving objects as well 
as the objects themselves. A wonderful accomplishment which 
science in the time of our fathers would have scoffed at as 
impossible,—to-day an absolute fact. 







O THE person viewing for the 
first time the flitting pictures 
projected from a moving-pic¬ 
ture machine to the large 
magic-lantern screen where they repro¬ 
duce accurately every phase of life in 
rapid motion, there is something very 
weird and fascinating. When one knows, 
however, the means by which this ex¬ 
tremely odd and interesting feat is accom¬ 
plished, he simply learns that another 
great improvement has come about in 
this age of invention. 

The first phase of the moving-picture 
study was that of the invention of the 


“Zeotrope.” 

This was a toy in the shape of a wheel¬ 
like disk. On the back were painted a 
number of figures, each one in a stage of 
motion a little farther advanced than the 
one before it. Under each picture was a 
narrow slit, so that when a pin was run 
through the center of the disk and the 
picture side of the zeotrope held nearest a 
mirror, the person using the toy might 
squint through the slits as they passed by 
when the disk was whirled around. The 
general effect thus seen through the slits 
reflected on the glass was that of the 
object going forward by jumps, a great 
738 


deal like real life. Since the artist had 
to draw upon his imagination in painting 
the pictures, they were often incorrect in 
attitude, therefore as the disk spun around 
some very grotesque methods of locomo¬ 
tion were the result. 

This, however, was but the start of a 
series of experiments which later brought 
to perfection the present motion pictures. 
Some years later there appeared an inven¬ 
tion which brought to light the main prin¬ 
ciple now used in the best machines, 
namely, the passing of a strip of pictures 
behind the lens of a lantern, the device 
having a shutter which cut off the light 
for a short interval, as a new picture was 
moving into place, and again opened to 
allow the passage of light as the picture 
paused an instant before the lens. All 
experiments have since been conducted 
upon this system of jerking pictures 
through on strips, letting them pause 
for a moment before the light, then shut¬ 
ting off the light and then again going 
through the same operation. 

The question now came as to how cor¬ 
rect pictures might be obtained to place 
on these strips. When instantaneous 
photography became a fact, a man named 
Muybridge, of California, tried the scheme 
of placing a number of cameras in a row 






















THE CINEMATOGRAPH—MOVING PICTURES. 


along a road where he trotted a horse, 
and as the horse was in front of each 
camera the respective shutters were set 
off automatically. The result was his 
famous “Trotting Horse,” which for 
some time astonished the public in its 
lifelike motions. But it is apparent that 
the cameras had to be placed so far apart 
that the jump from one picture to the 
next was too great, especially if the ma¬ 
chine reproducing the pictures was moved 
very rapidly. 

The Kinetoscope. 

Then came Edison with his famous 
kinetoscope, by which he took series of 
photographs on long strips of film at the 
rate of some thirty a second. After this 
process the rest of the work of perfection 
was simply that of mechanical contriv¬ 
ances, the principle remaining the same. 

The systems in all the different motion- 
picture machines are very similar, though 
there are nearly as many names as ma¬ 
chines. First, photographic films are 
prepared on strips of gelatine, varying in 
length from seventy feet to six hundred 
feet. These strips are sensitized the 
same as a photographic plate, and are 
wound in convenient spools. The object 
is to pass this strip of film through a 
camera at the point where the plate is 
usually placed, or the focal point, unwind 
the roll bit by bit, have a tiny section an 
inch long stop still in front of the lens of 
the camera for a short fraction of a 
second, then have a shutter cut off the 
light, and the roll proceed till the next 
inch is before the lens. When the light 
is on again, another exposure is made, 
and so on till the whole strip of film is 
used up and about a thousand pictures 
have been made, all in the space of a 
little over a minute. This process re¬ 
quires a delicate mechanism, for the film 
must stop before the lens just during that 
fraction of a second that the shutter is 


739 

open, and the shutter must remain closed 
while the next bit of film is moving into 
place. 

After a series of pictures have been ex¬ 
posed, the strip of film is taken to the 
dark-room and developed. To handle a 
roll of flimsy gelatine seventy, a hundred, 
or perhaps several hundred feet in length 
is no small task, but devices have been 
arranged for keeping it on a windlass and 
unwinding and developing a short length 
at a time, or winding it on frames with 
pegs on them, so that the whole piece 
can be developed at one time. After the 
film is dried another film is placed over 
it and another exposure is made, only 
this one is a positive, whereas the other 
was a negative,—that is, in the negative 
all the white objects were black, and the 
black objects white, but in the positive 
they are their proper colors. Now, after 
the positive has been dried, it is ready 
to be passed again through the machine, 
which is, however, this time fitted with 
a powerful light of some kind, similar to 
that in a magic lantern. The film is un¬ 
wound and the shadow is cast by the light 
through the lens upon the white screen; 
then the shutter cuts off the light, the next 
picture moves into place, and the light 
throws another picture. The pictures 
move about fifteen to the second, that is, 
almost the same as the animal moves in 
real life. By a peculiar phenomenon, 
called “persistence of vision,” we retain 
upon the retina of the eye the image of 
what we have seen for even a short fraction 
of a second after we have shut our eyes, or 
the light has been cut off. This may be 
explained by looking through the fly¬ 
wheel of some large engine. The spokes 
keep cutting off the vision, yet the only 
result is a haze over the object beyond. 
Well, this is what enables us to view 
these motion pictures, for as we gaze at 
one picture it becomes firmly impressed 




740 THE WHITE MAN’S GREED FOR THE LAND OF THE BLACKS. 


upon the retina of the eye, and stays 
there long enough for the next picture to 
be moved into place. Thus we experience 
the effect of a continuous motion instead 
of a series of pictures, though there is a 
jerky sensation that it will take sometime 
before the inventors can do away with. 

Pictures may be colored and made more 
lifelike, though this is not often done. 
As yet these motion pictures have not 


been placed to much use beyond that of 
amusement. It is helping in some 
studies, however, such as that of anatomy. 
Pictures of operations may be made and 
afterwards shown to the class. At pres¬ 
ent we have all sorts of subjects, from 
athletic contests to naval and land bat¬ 
tles; from scenes in the nursery to the 
flight of birds or the thundering advance 
of the fast locomotive. 


Tp8 wuite Plan’s Greed lor me Land el tpe Blacks. 

CIVILIZATION IN AFRICA. 


HE scramble for land in Africa 
by the nations of Europe is 
of comparatively recent date. 
Earliest explorations were 
begun in 1553, and while the continent 
has held more of romance and danger for 
the explorer than possibly any other, it 
has been a hard task to colonize it. 
France and England, as in other things, 
have been constant rivals here, with Eng¬ 
land in the lead. Country after country 
has pushed into the interior at different 
points along the coast, and gained control 
of the native chiefs. Generally the parti¬ 
tion went on gradually and peacefully, 
and it was not till after the Brussels Con¬ 
ference in 1878 that the unrestrained 
scramble began that has since resulted in 
the division of the whole continent among 
the great powers. In 1876, while Great 
Britain, France, Spain and Portugal had 
located colonies on the coast, the interior 
was largely held by wild tribes, but since 
then the work of division has been so 


energetic, that in 1890, of the 11,900,000 
square miles of territory on the continent, 
only some 1,500,000 remained open for 
further conquest. Conflicting claims 
have existed all along between the 
powers, and it was through these mainly 
that France had trouble with England at 
Fashoda, in which the latter country came 
out victorious, and which keeps England’s 
army in the Soudan. The recent trouble 
with the Boers in South Africa will very 
likely add to the possessions of Great 
Britain, while France is daily getting a 
stronger hold on Madagascar. The follow¬ 
ing is the area as controlled by the different 
powers, omitting such as has over it only 
a protectorate government: Great Britain, 
2,250,000 square miles; France, 3,500,- 
000; Germany, 890,000; Portugal, 900,000; 
Italy, 600,000; and Spain, 250,000. Besides 
these possessions there, the Congo Free 
State controls 850,000 square miles; Li¬ 
beria, 37,000; the Boer republics, 162,640, 
and unappropriated territory, 1,500,000. 















tTTTTTTVTtTTTTTTTT* *PtTTtTTftfTTtfTTftTtTTTTTTTVTTVTTtttvtftttff 

ScieRtific FarmiRg. 

FOREST WASTE: IRRIGATION: PREVENTION OF FROSTS: 

Congress investigating and assisting in agricultural expansion, making it possible 
to grow grains and fruits in what was formerly a barren waste. 


*st» 'J/* “vjr* "vl/* M/* •\f/ % *\tr •Jf* •Jr’ "Jr 'A’ *4/* M/* *\!/* *\J/» M/* *\f/* »\|/» a!/* 

*j* * j* ^^ if* if* tj* 4$* ifk *{* 4^ *j* *+fi if* if* if* if* if* if* if* if* if* if* if* if* 


AR by year the United States 
government is striving to aid 
the farmer and land-owner by 
scientific work through the 
Agricultural Department. One of the 
greatest problems before the department, 
and before the whole country in fact, is 
the waste of timber, the denudation of 
forest land and the resulting floods that 
ravish the countryside in the spring, only 
to be followed by long droughts in the hot 
season. The making of paper is of course 
a necessity, but the rate at which timber 
cutting is going on for building and for 
making paper pulp is astounding. The 
people of Maine have complained, but 
they are not the only ones who are be¬ 
coming anxious over the depletion of our 
great forest lands. The devastation is 
enormous, and the waste is equal almost 
to the amount used. A substitute is de¬ 
sired for paper pulp, and the Legislatures 
are taking up the question. Cornstalks 
have been used with some success, and 
some relief seems in sight. 

Congress, in the fall of 1899, sent a 

Commission to the Head-Waters of 
the Mississippi 

which looked over the ground in Minne¬ 
sota for the purpose of establishing a 
national forest reserve and game park. 


The possibility that the vast cuttings of 
timber at the head of these waters might 
threaten this mighty stream has caused 
this action of Congress. The forests keep 
the moisture under their roots and allow 
it gradually to seep through continuously 
in all seasons. When trees are cut down 
it leaves a barren tract of land, over 
which in rainy seasons the waters pour in 
gullies to the rivers. Disastrous floods 
follow, but as soon as the rain ceases, as 
harmful droughts take their place. 

While forestry has become a living 
issue in the fertile Atlantic and Northern 
States through the depletion of perennially 
flowing springs and streams and increased 
flood action, and probably by greater and 
increasingly injurious extremes of frost 
and heat arising from forest destruction, 
in the West and Southwest successful 
forestry is to be the saving of the country. 
Vast stretches of arid land await develop¬ 
ment, and what good timber land there is 
will be saved at all hazards. The cover¬ 
ing of the mountain sides must be re¬ 
spected, though of course old trees may 
be cut as young ones grow up. 

Another method for 

Reclaiming the Bad Lands 

is to find crops that will grow in arid soil. 
Brome grass and broom-corn millet are 

741 























742 


SCIENTIFIC FARMING. 


being tried with great success. This pos¬ 
sibly is an easier way for the individual 
farmer than irrigation ditches. After 
fairly good crops of these grasses are 
raised for some time, the conditions 
naturally improve greatly. In many 
cases springs are developed, the grass 
sod holding the water in the hillsides. 


Another method for helping the agri¬ 
culturist is through the Weather Bureau. 
Daily signals are sent all over the country 
warning against approaching storms. It 
is the study of this department to avoid as 
much as possible the bad effect of drought 
and flood, and particularly of frost. 

The most effective prevention against 



A CALIFORNIA JACK-RABBIT DRIVE—RABBITS ENTERING CORRAL. 


In the west the country is so infested with jack-rabbits that the whole community rises to drive the 
pests in an ever - narrowing circle that at last ends in a corral. Here they are leisurely shot or 
killed with clubs. 


Kaffir corn is an example of what can be 
done in this line. Ten years ago this 
plant was an experiment in the United 
States. It was said to thrive in ground 
too dry for Indian corn, and was tested in 
western Kansas. In 1898 Kansas raised 
corn of this kind to the value of $5,688,- 
380,—a reclamation of half a million acres 
of land in a single State. 


heat radiation that induces frost is by 
means of glass screens, which possess the 
peculiar properties of allowing the heat 
to come in from the sun, but are almost 
impervious to the “dark” heat rays re¬ 
flected from the earth and plants. 
Lately, in California, muslin screens 
stretched on poles above the tops of the 
trees have protected whole orchards. In 













SCIENTIFIC FARMING. 


743 


Florida, houses of laths are made with 
openings at the top the width of a slat. 
When placed in the proper direction so as 
to receive the sun but gradually in the 
morning, the fruit trees thrive, for at 
night only partial radiation of heat takes 
place. Sometimes crude petroleum or tar 
is burned near the trees, so that great 
clouds of smoke are produced that rival 
atmospheric clouds. This produces con¬ 
ditions that will not allow frost. To 
quote Professor Garriot of the Weather 
Bureau, “The amount of heat produced 
from burning one sack of wet straw 
weighing fifty pounds, and condensing 
water vapor near the earth, would be 
sufficient to raise the temperature twenty 
degrees in a space of seventy-five feet 
square and twenty-five feet high. If only 
one quarter of this heat remained within 
the region to be protected, which would 


seem to be a reasonable estimate, it would 
afford ample protection for almost any 
ordinary conditions.” 

Spraying and Sprinkling Plants 

has been effectual in preventing frosts. 
In California, during threatening seasons, 
sprinklers are placed at the top of fifty- 
foot poles, which fill the air with fine mist. 
The owners of the ranch using these claim 
they have proved very successful in sav¬ 
ing crops. In France frost bells are rung 
to warn the vine growers when frost is 
expected, and they immediately pour tar 
on the ground near the vines and set fire 
to it. In Louisiana and Florida water 
ditches are run between rows of trees. 
During threatening weather the water 
gives off heat as it passes along, thus 
warming the surrounding atmosphere and 
saving severe freezes. 



a 

DISCOVERIES in the 

g 


ART OF HEALING medicine 



Curing by Light Rays; Artificial Skin and Bone, 



Germicide, Etc. 



ANY diseases and injuries 
which a few years ago were 
considered incurable and al¬ 
ways resulted in death are to¬ 
day successfully treated by the masters of 
medical science. Thousands of persons 
to-day owe their lives and healthy phys 
ical condition to the last decade’s progress 
in surgery. 

With the recent experiments in treat¬ 
ments for disease by electricity, X-rays, 
the Finsen violet light, and Pasteur se¬ 
rums for plague microbes, the world of 
science is fast advancing upon the diseases 
that flesh is heir to. Most scientists are 
coming around to the belief that a vast 
number of ailments commonly attributed 
to various or unknown causes all have 
their origin in microbes or bacilli,— 
tiny animal natures that feast themselves 
upon the tissues of the human body. With 
this thought in view, they have steadily 
sought out the particular germs of certain 
diseases, with the result that many have 
been classified The next study was to 
find some remedy that would effectually 
chase these intruders out of the system. 
At present scores of microbes have been 
found, some that cause one disease, others 
that cause others. Thus tuberculosis, or 
consumption of the lungs, diphtheria, 
plagues, cancers, and yellow fever, each 
has its own peculiar bacillus, and phy¬ 
sicians are daily searching for more and 
surer enemies to these little pests, 

744 


Light in almost any form and pure air 
are very beneficial in these diseases, being 
deadly enemies to most microbic organ¬ 
isms. Consequently scientists are search¬ 
ing through these media for the desired 
remedies, and yet in some cases air on a 
sore surface aggravates the trouble. Dr. 
Murphy has recently invented a process 
for the treatment for consumption in 
which he pierces one lung by means of a 
small hollow needle. Through the 
aperture of the needle he admits a quan¬ 
tity of gas which collapses that lung in its 
diseased part. When the tissues of the 
lung come together they scarify or grow 
into one piece, and though the lung is 
smaller than at first, it is cured; and 
after a few years the constant exercise of 
the lungs tends to develop them to their 
former size Dr. Murphy was also the 
inventor of the famous “Murphy button’* 
for piecing together severed intestines. 

Cures by Liquid Air. 

Liquid air, though in its crude stages 
for surgical uses, is yet hailed as a great 
boon to man. There is not to be found 
any other means of producing such in¬ 
tense cold, and the effect upon animal 
tissue of this strange property of air is 
nearly the same as intense heat, though 
no blister is occasioned. In cauterizing 
wounds, in removing foreign growths 
and killing putrid flesh, this method is 
sure and has few evil after effects. It 
























DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEALING. 


745 


cures corns, warts, boils, ring-worms, ivy¬ 
poisoning and ulcers, forms of rheuma¬ 
tism and neuralgia, kills typhoid fever 
germs, as well as diphtheria, and in part 
supplants the surgical knife. It has been 
used with success for eating out ulcers, 
and recently a case of facial erysipelas 
was treated by rolling a glass bulb filled 


light. It is well known that such mala¬ 
dies are caused by bacteria, and when 
light in concentrated violet hues is cast 
upon diseased tissue it has been found 
that the bacilli are killed and the skin 
becomes healthy again. 

The bactericidal property of light had 
previously been proved. Investigations 



A HUGE STATIC ELECTRICAL MACHINE FOR X-RAY WORK. 


Diameter of revolving plate, 6 feet; of fixed plate, 6 feet 4 inches. 


with liquid air over the inflamed tissues, 
with the result that the heat subsided 
and the patient was entirely recovered. 

Finsen Light Cure. 

Probably one of the greatest discover¬ 
ies of recent years in medicine has been 
that of Dr. Finsen of Copenhagen for the 
cure of skin disease by subjecting the 
affected parts to strong violet ravs of 


at the Finsen Laboratory showed that 
that property, instead of residing in light 
as a whole, was peculiar to the chemical 
rays. These rays have a power to irritate 
the skin and to penetrate it. He exposed 
a specimen bacillus to bright sunshine in 
July, and found that the rays killed it in 
an hour and a half. The light from an 
electric lamp did the same work in about 
eight hours. It was learned that when 



































746 


DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEALING. 


the skin was full of blood it was harder 
for the light to penetrate. This was 
proved by fastening a piece of sensitized 
photographic paper behind a man’s ear 
and placing him in the sunlight. After 
a considerable exposure the paper was 
unaffected. When the ear was after¬ 
wards pressed so as to squeeze the blood 
from it an exposure of twenty seconds 
turned the paper black. 

Now, as soon as Finsen had learned that 
the blue rays of light had the properties 
of killing disease germs, he set about 
devising a method for its practical use. 
The result has been a set of lenses be¬ 
tween which is a bright blue, weak, am- 
moniacal solution of copper sulphate. 
This water absorbs the red or heat waves 
and some of the yellow, but allows the 
blue, violet and ultra-violet rays to pass. 
To the surface of the skin to be treated is 
attached by rubber bands a lens between 
the glasses of which is run a stream of 
water to cool the surface and keep from 
blistering the skin, while at the same 
time the weight of the glass presses out 
most of the blood. When the rays are 
turned on, they at once penetrate to the 
spot where the germs are feeding upon 
the tissue and destroy them. It is said 
the treatment has been very efficient in 
smallpox, lupus or tuberculosis of the 
skin, baldness in small spots, and other 
epidermic ailments, and the patients say 
there is little or no pain, and are quite 
ready to undergo the treatment. 

Pasteur Serum. 

M. Pasteur of Paris, the inventor of the 
Pasteur water filter, and discoverer of 
hydrophobia serum, has recently been 
giving his attention to other methods for 
bacteria killing. In Portugal recently 
the plague broke out in a most frightful 
manner, and daily took off scores of vic¬ 
tims. At Oporto all experiments with 


the Pasteur serum were completely suc¬ 
cessful, and in China, where the plague 
seemed to originate, cases have been re¬ 
ported where life was saved. The work, 
however, is extremely difficult, since the 
natives are very suspicious of the French 
and English doctors. The treatment con¬ 
sists of injection into the blood of serum 
prepared especially for its deadly effects 
upon the plague bacilli. When the treat¬ 
ment is undergone in time, it is rare that 
the patient is not saved. 

In the Pasteur institute for rabies in 
Paris all the persons treated in 1898 were 
cured with the exception of three. For 
the thirteen years since the foundation of 
the institute to the end of 1898, 13,183 
persons were treated in Paris, and out of 
this number only ninety-nine died. 

Anti-Toxin. 

A serum called anti-toxin has recently 
been put into use as a cure for diph¬ 
theria. It is a brownish liquid prepared 
from the serum taken from the glands 
in the neck of a horse inoculated 
with the disease to fever point. The 
serum is allowed to stand and the anti¬ 
toxin comes to the surface and is skimmed 
off. By injecting the anti-toxin into the 
blood of the subject there is at once sent 
through the system a most deadly enemy 
to the diphtheria germs, j One well- 
known physician in two years’ practice 
with this remedy treated 2,100 cases in 
malignant form without losing one 
patient. The after effects are somewhat 
weakening, however, as the action of the 
anti-toxin tends to retard the heart’s 
motions. 

The X-Ray. 

Brain specialists have hailed with joy 
the X-ray as a medium for learning 
whether clots of blood are pressing on 
certain parts of the brain, thereby causing 
insanity, or inaction of some of the facul- 



DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEALING. 


747 


ties. One well-known lawyer in a fight 
with burglars received a severe blow on 
the head which rendered him insane at 
times. By means of a skiagraph or X-ray 
picture a shadow was seen that indicated 
a pressure on one of the brain convolu¬ 
tions. A cleft was made in the skull, the 
pressure removed, small bone particles 


taken which resulted in remarkable dis¬ 
coveries. Other uses for these rays are 
constantly coming before the public. 
Some time ago a Chicagoan suffered great 
agony from what seemed to be an abscess 
behind the base of the nose. By means 
of the Roentgen rays a skiagraph showed 
that the sufferer had in the cavity back of 



VT' ■ • - 

, 4 , ' 


Hplp; 

mm- 


•• if 


A SO-CALLED X-RAY EXHIBITION. 

A reflection from the man in the coffin appears on the screen at the same spot that the reflection from 
a skeleton in the coffin is seen at the back of illustration. By turning on one set of lights and lower¬ 
ing the other, the man appears to be transformed into a skeleton, and the skeleton into a man, at the will 
of the operator. 


placed over the cleft and the skin re¬ 
placed. Apparently the lawyer’s reason 
was restored. 

In stomach diseases it has been very 
difficult to locate enlargements or to indi¬ 
cate conditions of the membranes. Re¬ 
cently saturated chemical solutions 
impervious to the X-rays have been 
poured into the stomach, and skiagraphs 


his nose a small sack containing thirty- 
two miniature teeth. An operation was 
performed successfully, but for which the 
patient might have died. It is hinted 
that mental conditions are expected to be 
discovered by the aid of this remarkable 
light, certainly nearly every other malady 
has been treated with a measure of suc¬ 
cess. The heart can be seen beating in 









































































































































































748 


DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEALING. 


one’s breast, and enlargements or diseases 
can be promptly treated. Consumption 
of the lungs is discernible before it reaches 
its last stages, and ruptures, fractures 
and the presence of foreign substances 
can at once be noted. 

Apart from medical use the X-ray was 
recently employed to explore the interior 
of a mummy casket that had never been 
opened since the time some old Egyptian 
Pharaoh had been wrapped in his burial 
clothes. Also mummified animals, so dried 
up that the family to which they belonged 
could not be ascertained, were easily clas¬ 
sified after skiagraphs had been made of 
their bones and skulls. 

Hydrophobia. 

t 

Because of the apparent cruelty of the 
Pasteur treatment for prevention of 
hydrophobia, resulting from inoculation 
of small animals like the rabbit with 
rabies in order to procure the virus neces¬ 
sary to inject into the patient, many sci¬ 
entists have been studying other methods 
for curing or preventing this frightful 
malady, with the result that the Buisson 
system has quite a following. Many 
persons imagine yet that M. Pasteur 
undertakes to cure hydrophobia; this is a 
mistake, for from the point of view of this 
school of scientists, the disease is incur¬ 
able; the only thing they claim for their 
treatment is that it would prevent rabies 
if given soon enough after the bite. This 
was considered weak by many physicians, 
and though the Pasteur institutes have 
been in a wonderful degree successful, the 
followers of the Buisson method assert 
that theirs is the more simple, humane 
and curative system. 

For many years the vapor and Turkish 
baths have been considered of great bene¬ 
fit in relieving many ailments. Natives of 
Australia, and also of India, have a success¬ 
ful habit of at once taking violent exercise 


on beginning to feel ill, upon the grounds 
that the sweat produced thereby will 
cleanse the body of impurities. It is 
stated that years ago the Arabs knew of 
sweating as a cure for hydrophobia and 
other poisoning. The patient was 
swathed in woolen covering till all but 
smothered, placed in a small tent of 
camel’s hair and almost air-tight, and 
then left to sweat it out. This treatment 
has been found effective even for snake 
bites. The Buisson treatment is of the 
same nature. 

A good many years ago, Dr. Buisson, a 
French physician, was called to attend a 
woman attacked by hydrophobia. In 
bleeding her, as was the custom at the 
time, he cut his finger, and incautiously 
wiped it upon her handkerchief covered 
with her saliva. He cauterized the 
wound when he reached home, but to no 
effect, for he was taken down with the 
rabies almost a month after. His pain 
was so acute and his death so certain that 
he sought for the easiest method to die. 
For some time he had considered a vapor 
bath preventative but not a cure for hydro¬ 
phobia. He now thought of this as possibly 
the least painful way to die, hoping that 
the warm vapor might produce a languor¬ 
ous feeling, letting him peacefully sink 
off into a death slumber. Accordingly he 
went to a vapor bath, desired a very high 
temperature, and at 127 degrees Fahren¬ 
heit was cured. 

He at once commenced to experiment 
with his discovery, with the result that he 
soon claimed cures for the disease even in 
its last stages, and prevention positively 
in its early forms, without the danger of 
the use of possibly fatal methods. Since 
the time of his work his followers have 
gone on establishing branches all over 
the world. Marvelous cures have been re¬ 
ported from every quarter and sometimes 
with the aid of only the crudest appli- 




DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEALING. 


749 


ances. Recently a keeper of a Turkish 
bath establishment in Milwaukee, Wis., 
learned that his dog had the rabies. In 
trying to coax him into a bath room, he 
was bitten in the hand. It has been 
always considered impossible to cure a 
dog of the rabies, but after several hours’ 


with the patient sitting in the vapor and 
covered by heavy blankets, has effected 
cures. 

Two theories are advanced for the 
curative properties of the vapor bath: one 
is that it opens the pores and allows the 
impurities to escape; the other, that the 



METHOD OF MAKING A SKIAGRAPH EXAMINATION. 

In the box on the patient’s chest is a sensitive photographic plate. Below, on the floor, is the tube which 
develops the X-ray. The light passes through the patient’s body and prints a shadow on the plate. 


treatment to a vapor bath, during which 
time the dog snapped and bit at every¬ 
thing in the room, he finally went to sleep 
and awoke cured. The keeper took a 
similar treatment at a high temperature 
and never felt any evil effects from the 
bite. For country use it is maintained 
that simply a pan of water over a lamp, 


intense heat to which the body is sub¬ 
jected kills the poisonous germs. When 
medical aid cannot be summoned, life 
may often be saved simply by reverting to 
an old-time sweat. 

Appendicitis. 

Operations for appendicitis, or inflam¬ 
mation of the vermiform appendix, have in 











750 


DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEALING. 


recent days been brought down nearly to 
perfection. In the old days of crude 
surgery, when one had peritonitis (intense 
inflammation of the bowels) he generally 
died, for this was not considered a case 
for surgery. But to-day, on the least 
sign of inflammation of the appendix, care 
is taken that medical aid is at once called 
to reduce if possible the swelling, and as 
a last means surgery is resorted to. The 
appendix is a long, narrow, worm-like 
tube attached to the caecum (one of the 
bowels) on the right side of the abdomen 
near the hip. It is from three to six 
inches long, has a diameter about equal to 
that of a goose quill, and opens into the 
bowel by a rather imperfect valve. 
Inflammation of this tiny organ,—which, 
by the way, has no known use,—is rare in 
infants, and occurs in both males and 
females, though more commonly in the 
latter. It occasionally happens without 
the action of mechanical injury, and then 
it is supposed to result from the action of 
very small organisms, though it is due 
mostly from fecal concretions and foreign 
bodies such as grape and other fruit seeds, 
buttons, bits of bitten finger nails, and 
worms. It has also been caused by ex¬ 
tension of catarrh of the intestines. 
These foreign bodies produce inflamma¬ 
tion, which is generally attended by 
ulceration. If the poisonous matter is 
not gotten rid of, it will soon form a coat¬ 
ing around the appendix a nd neighbor¬ 
ing bowels; then the appendix is grad¬ 
ually eaten away, and when the abscess 
breaks it lets all the poisons into the 
abdominal cavity, which at once causes 
peritonitis, and frequently soon results 
in death. The most characteristic symp¬ 
toms are pains, swelling, tenderness and 
rigidity of the abdominal wall on the 
lower right side. Experience has taught 
that almost without exception sudden 
pain in this region, with fever and 


tenderness, with or without a swelling 
(tumor), means appendicitis. 

The Surgical Operation 

starts with an incision from four to six 
inches long over the inflamed part. The 
deeper tissues or muscles are drawn back 
and held away from the opening by 
clamps. Occasionally an exploration 
needle is used to probe for the abscess 
before the operation, but this is generally 
condemned; however, after or during the 
operation, this needle may be used to a 
good advantage. As soon as the abcess 
is reached, the contents are washed out 
with a weak antiseptic solution, and 
search made for fecal concretions or for¬ 
eign bodies. Then the bowel is drawn 
out, and the appendix removed, if it has 
not already been so perforated as to be 
nearly gone. After cleansing and sew¬ 
ing up the bowel it is replaced in the 
abdomen, and the incision in the wall of 
the latter is closed by sewing. Some¬ 
times, when an abscess occurs, the incision 
must be kept open to allow impurities to 
pass out; in this case the stitches are 
made but not drawn close at first. 

Skin and Bone Grafting. 

Improvement along the line of skin- 
grafting and bone-making is going on 
rapidly. It is no uncommon occurrence 
to-day to graft over burned or diseased 
spots large pieces of flesh and skin, taken 
from the body of a healthy person. In 
bone-growing, animal bone has practically 
supplanted the insertion of foreign sub¬ 
stances, such as plates of silver and the 
like. Decalcified bone chips (that is, 
bone with the lime taken out) are pre¬ 
pared from the fresh tibia or femur of an 
ox by being kept in a weak solution of 
hydrochloric acid for about a week. The 
periosteum, or outer skin of the bone, 
and the medullary tissue (marrow) are 




VOYAGING AT BOTTOM OF THE SEA 


751 


removed and the flimsy bone is cut into 
long strips about one-eighth of an inch 
wide. These, when they are to be used, 
may be cut into smaller pieces, and laid 
in the cavity of the patient left by the old 
bone being taken out. The skin of the 


wound is replaced, and gradually the 
grafted bone grows into the bone of the 
patient and performs its new functions as 
well as that with which he was born. For 
cranial defects, larger bones must be 
sought out and used in the same way. 


Voyaging at Bottom of the Sea 

Wonderful Boats that Navigate below the Surface 

of the Deep. 


'ICE the day when Jules 
Verne wrote his famous 
“Twenty Thousand Leagues 
under the Sea,” there has 
constantly been some inventor experi¬ 
menting to solve the problem of traveling 
by a boat submerged under the surface of 
the water. Verne’s boat, the “Nautilus,” 
was a marvel of imagination, but others 
as wonderful in their reality have ap¬ 
peared, which, though not perfect in all 
things desired, yet do operate at the bot¬ 
tom of the sea, float under the surface for 
several hours, and come up again safely. 
Such boats are being constantly studied 
by the war departments of the great 
powers perhaps more than by any one 
else, for reason of the uses to which they 
may be put during war. Such a sub¬ 
marine traveler, supplied with a number 
of torpedoes and with an air supply to 
last the crew a few hours, could send to 
everlasting rest a whole navy, equipped 
though it might be with the most modern 
methods for protection and attack. 


France, as much as any other nation, 
has been interested in this subject, 
and the result of her studies has been 
several boats brought forth by the skill 
and inventive genius of Gustave Zede. 
This clever man, in 1886, built at Toulon 
'an experimental vessel, 

The “Gymnote,” 

so as to test the principles he held with a 
view to embodying them in a larger and 
more complete war vessel. This boat 
was not much more than a large White- 
head torpedo, made of sheet steel in the 
shape of a cigar, being 56.7 feet long by 
5.9 feet in diameter, and with displace¬ 
ment of thirty tons. To this shell were 
attached horizontal and upright rudders, 
so that she might be steered straight 
ahead by using the usual rudder, or might 
be made to dive or rise by use of the 
horizontal rudder. Electric motors with 
storage batteries supplied the power for 
the screw propeller, and a speed of seven 
knots an hour submerged and of nine knots 
















752 


VOYAGING AT BOTTOM OF THE SEA 


on the surface were secured, while the 
batteries would run constantly for from 
four to five hours. Buoyancy was 
secured by a watertight compartment fore 
and aft, and sufficient compressed air 
was stored to supply the crew of five men 
when submerged. Besides these con¬ 
trivances there was a heavy ballast at¬ 
tached to the bottom of the boat on the 
keel, that could be detached at a moment’s 
notice in case of accident, thus allowing 
the vessel to rise. A long tube with re¬ 
flecting lens and mirrors rose from the 


boat like a mast. This could be bent at 
an elbow at right angle and made to turn 
about, so that the image of any object at 
any point of the horizon could be reflected 
to the cabin of the boat when it was sub¬ 
merged. Without this “prismscope” it 
would be almost impossible to keep track 
of the enemy when on a cruise under the 
surface. 

The experiments with the “Gymnote” 
were so wonderfully successful that the 
French government at once set Zede to 
work making a large one for practical use. 
The result was the vessel about which all 
the countries are talking, and which, in 
honor of the inventor, has been named the 


“Gustave Zede.” 

The length of this boat is 147 feet, diam¬ 
eter 10.75 feet, and displacement 260 tons. 
The hull follows the general lines of the 
former model, being cigar shaped with 
very sharp ends. The speed has been 
increased to 8*4 knots an hour below and 
14 knots on the surface. Ten men con¬ 
stitute the crew, and enough stored air is 
carried to last them while below. In the 
nose of the boat is an opening for dis¬ 
charging an ordinary torpedo. She has 
already operated in deep and shallow 

water with remarkable 
success, and trips aver- 
aging between seventy 
and eighty miles are her 
average runs, thus giv¬ 
ing her power to make 
a fighting dash at any 
enemy within a radius 
of thirty-five miles, and 
return in safety. 

Various boats having 
the same general prin¬ 
ciples have been made 
and operated with much 
the same success, among 
others the Nordenfeldt, 
the Peral, Goubet, and 
the Holland, the latter a remarkable 
vessel built by an American and used 
to some extent by the United States 
government. 

Of a different sort altogether, however, 
is Simon Lake’s invention, 

The “Argonaut.” 

Knowing the difficulties that beset the 
path of the inventor who tries to keep his 
boat floating under the surface in equilib¬ 
rium with the water, he set about to con¬ 
trive one that would travel on wheels at 
the sea bottom. In all types of floating 
boats, there is great danger of misplacing 
the ballast and thus tipping the boat over 





THE “GYMNOTE” TRAVELING AT THE SURFACE. 


Showing conning-tower and prismscope just in front of the captain. 










VOYAGING AT BOTTOM OE THE SEA 


753 



on her side. This was what Lake figured 
against, and accordingly he brought out a 
boat that would float on the surface pro¬ 
pelled by a screw, yet when closed and 
loaded with its water ballast, would sink 
to the bottom and advance along the un¬ 
known highways by means of large 
wheels, after the style of a locomotive. 
There are three of these wheels, one at 
either side, and one at the 
back that can be moved like 
the front wheel of a tricycle 
for steering. This back wheel 
is also the rudder when the 
boat is sailing on the sur¬ 
face. The oddest principle 
about the “Argonaut” is that 
though of heavy steel and 
weighing many tons, never¬ 
theless, she rests on her 
wheels at the bottom with 
a weight of but a few 
hundred pounds, generally 
just enough to keep her 
from deviating, by conflict¬ 
ing currents, from the course 
laid out. This is done in 
two ways: by letting in 
water ballasts, and by the 
use of two iron anchor 


weights weighing 1,000 pounds each. 
When it is necessary to go 


Below the Surface, 


the hatches are closed tight, the two 
weights, which are attached by cables to 
a windlass, are released and at once fall 
to the bottom. Then the water is let 
into the ballast compartments till the 
buoyancy is less than the two 
weights, say, 1,500 pounds. The 
boat is still floating with just a 
little of her conning tower and 
spars above the water, but when 
the weights are tugged at, it is 
found that the boat slowly falls 
below the surface and at last 
rests on the bottom. The two 
weights weigh together 2,000 
pounds, and since the buoyancy 
would stand only 1,500 pounds 
before the boat would sink, with 
the two weights she now rests 
on her wheels on the bottom 
with but the pressure of the 
difference between these two 
figures, or 500 pounds. Now 
her gasoline engines are started, 
the two side wheels revolve, and 
the “Argonaut” is on her voyage 


THE “ARGONAUT” FLOATING AT THE SURFACE. 

Near the center is seen the open conning-tower with a man’s head appearing. From this tower the 
boat is operated when below the surface. The man behind is steering by means of the submerged third 
wheel of the boat. Down one of the tall, hollow, steel masts, when nearly submerged, comes the supply of 
fresh air, and out at the other goes the exhaust steam. 

48 




























754 


VOYAGING AT BOTTOM OF THE SEA 


among the queer sea monsters, aged 
wrecks and untold treasures. 

The vessel is thirty-six feet long, cigar¬ 
shaped, with blunt nose and pointed stern, 
and is fitted with a thirty-horse power 
gasoline engine which operates the screw 
propeller, driving wheels, the electric 




A WEIRD SUBMARINE VOYAGE OF THE “ARGONAUT.” 


At the prow of the boat is seen a diver at work on a sunken vessel. He has just emerged from the 
open trap-door, and, with the aid of the powerful electric search-light in the nose of the vessel, is about to 
explore the unknown interior of a long-lost treasure-ship. About him, in all their glory, thrive the marvel¬ 
ous exotic plants of the deep sea, while, attracted and dazed by the fierce lights of the vessel, swarm the 
man-hunting shark and other queer ocean fauna. 

dynamo, the air compressor, and derricks 
for hoisting the weights. Like many 
other submarine boats, she is supplied 
with air when all but below the surface, 
by a steel tube reaching up in the air in 
the shape of a mast. Down this comes a 
fresh supply of air, and out at another 
similar one goes the exhaust steam from 


entirely practicable below as well as above 
water, only it must be kept high above the 
machinery, which would otherwise affect 
her needle. Compressed air is resorted 
to for breathing supply when the boat is 
so far below the surface that the engine 
has to be stopped and the masts are 
entirely submerged. Then the elec- 


the engine. In her nose is a searchlight 
that shoots out rays far ahead into the 
water; on her bottom is a heavy false keel 
that may be released in case of accident, 
allowing her to rise because of added 
buoyancy. The vessel is guided by a 
compass, and it is found that this is 



















































755 


Voyaging at bottom of the ska 

tricity, stored up by the dynamo while 
the engine was working, is used to oper¬ 
ate the machinery. Trips of 1,000 miles 
have been made in the “Argonaut” with¬ 
out landing, a great part of which was 
spent below. Air supply sufficient for 
five men for twenty-four hours is easily 
stored, and with occasionally running up 
near enough to the surface to let the steel 
tubes send down more air, these trips can 
last as long as gasoline and food hold out. 

But simply to go below the surface and 
not be able to leave the boat would be of 
little avail. The “Argonaut” is therefore 
fitted with 

Diving Apparatus, 

so that men may leave the boat at any 
time, explore a wreck fasten a torpedo 
to an enemy’s war ship, pick up a cable 
and cut it, or go a-fishing after sharks. 

This is all done by means of a hole in the 
bottom of the boat near the forward end. 

When a diver wishes to leave the boat, he 
puts on a diving suit and goes into the 
diving compartment, which has a great 
heavy door with rubber packing. This 



A, gasoline engine, 30-horse power, which supplies all the power in moving and operating boat. BB, two 
anchor weights used in sinking boat. C, one of the two driving wheels. E, rudder and guiding wheel. FFFF, 
living room, in which are placed the engine and all other machinery and apparatus for operating boat. G, 
airlock; this affords a passage to and from diver’s room without reducing air pressure. H, diver’s room, 
whence is had free passage into the sea. K, bow compartment where searchlight is placed. L, forward 
lookout compartment. MM, gasoline tanks. NN, compressed-air reservoirs. OOOO, water-ballast com¬ 
partments. PP, permanent keel. PQ, drop keel. R, dynamo. S, conning-tower. T, binnacle; the 
compass in this binnacle is in direct view of the outside steering gear, but from the conning-tower is read 
by reflection. U, outside steering gear. In general form the “Argonaut” is cylindrical, or cigar-shaped, 
with a very bluff bow, a pointed stern, and is 36 feet long. 



Sectional view of “Argonaut”submerged, showing 
man in conning-tower making observations; also 
man steering with third wheel, which rests on the 
ocean bottom. Water tanks are filled when de¬ 
scending, and pumped dry when ready to cdme up. 
































































































































































UNIVERSAL DISARMAMENT. 


756 

door he closes, and cuts off the diving 
compartment from the living rooms and 
machinery. Then he turns on the com¬ 
pressed air till the pressure in the room is 
greater than that of the water that wants 
to come in. He then lets drop the heavy 
iron door to the hole in the bottom of the 
boat, and steps out, and not so much as a 
drop of water enters the vessel. Or sup¬ 
pose in time of war the telegraph cables 
of the enemy are to be cut. Instead of 
putting on a diving suit, the man to do 
the work simply goes into the diving 
room, turns on the air pressure, lets the 


trap door drop, and by means of a short 
wooden stick with a hook in the end 
reaches down and picks up the cable and 
cuts it. 

The possibilities of such a boat are very 
great, both in time of peace and war. In 
salvaging wrecked ships and treasures a 
submarine boat would do marvels, as well 
as in pearl, sponge and coral fishing. 
The work of laying foundations for light¬ 
houses, piers and breakwaters would be 
wonderfully facilitated, as well as in land¬ 
ing armies during a blockade, and blow¬ 
ing up war ships. 




a niuersal Disarmament. 

THE PEACE CONFERENCE OF THE CZAR. 






UGUST 24, 1898, by order of 
Nicholas, the emperor of Rus¬ 
sia, Count Muravieff, the 
Russian minister of foreign 
affairs, handed to all the foreign diplomats 
at St. Petersburg a note calling for a meet¬ 
ing the next year of all the countries 
interested to discuss the question of de¬ 
creasing the armed forces of the world, 
with a view to an universal peace some¬ 
time in the near future. It held that 
recent expansion of the governments and 
armed forces of the world were to be 
deplored, both from a humanitarian and 
an economic point of view, and that the 
czar held it his duty to help ward off the 
calamities that must soon threaten the 
whole world. After a session of some six 
weeks at The Hague, capital of the 
Netherlands, on July 24, 1899, the final 
acts of the conference thus called together 


were embodied in a final act. This act 
held that there should be a permanent 
Court of Arbitration 
for the pacific settlement of all interna¬ 
tional disputes; that asphyxiating and 
deleterious gases should not be used in 
projectiles from balloons in war; that 
dum-dum bullets, or those made of soft 
material that will easily expand in the 
human body, should be prohibited in 
war; and that it was desirable that all 
countries limit their great military forces 
which so burden their own people and 
threaten the world. It also held that it 
was the right and duty of neutrals to offer 
their services toward the peaceable set¬ 
tlement of difficulties between other 
nations; and that all private property on 
land should be inviolable in war, and that 
in naval war towns and villages should 
not be bombarded. 
















THE LINOTYPE AND “MAKEUP-ROOM” OF A GREAT DAILY NEWSPAPER 

IN THE BACKGROUND ARE SEEN THE LINOTYPE OR TYPESETTING MACHINES AND THEIR OPERATORS. IN THE FOREGROUND TO THE RIGHT 

ARE THE TYPESET PAGES OR “FORMS” OF THE PAPER 





























































































‘ 










































■ 














































Our New Possessions. 

THE UNITED STATES AT THE EQUATOR AND EXTENDING 
NEARLY HALF-WAY AROUND THE GLOBE. 

New territory to the extent of 170,000 square miles, with populations 
numbering over ten millions, now under the protecting 
folds of the American flag. 




HE Philippine Islands lie just 
east of Cochin China, being 
separated from it by the 
China Sea, and are between 
the fourth and twentieth degrees north 
latitude, and 116 and 126 east longi¬ 
tude. There are thought to be about 
2,000 islands in the group, though this is 
not certain. A recent writer says: “The 
number of islands which form the Philip¬ 
pine archipelago will astonish many read¬ 
ers. It is said to approach 2,000. There 
are among them two which are larger 
than Ireland, namely, Luzon, with 42,000, 
and Mindanao, with 38,000 square miles. 
There are other islands with 5,500, 5,000, 
4,500, 4,000, 3,500, and 3,000 square 

miles.” Of the whole number some 600 
are inhabited. The estimates of the 
population vary from 6,000,000 to 9,000,- 
000, the fair estimate being about 7,500,- 
000. Nearly half this number inhabit the 
principal island of Luzon, on which is the 
capital, Manila, and where nearly all 
the fighting of the Filipino war has taken 
place. 

As many races almost as islands people 
this odd archipelago. Most important are 

the 

Tagals of Luzon, 

who number about 2,000,000 souls, and 
who are leading in the rebellion against 


the United States government, headed by 
their chief, Aguinaldo. They are a short, 
copper-colored people of the Malay race, 
and of exceptional cleverness. Next to 
them in point of intelligence are the 
Vicols, or BiCols, who occupy the Camar- 
ines peninsula and the islands of Catan- 
duanes, Burias, Ticao, and half of 
Masbate. They resemble the Tagals, and 
number about 400,000. The third divi¬ 
sion of the people are the Visayas, or 
Bisayas, who occupy the islands between 
Luzon and Mindanao, and are estimated 
at 2,500,000. Besides these are the Moros 
of Sulu, the Negritos and some others of 
the Malay race. Little is needed or 
desired by these natives. The soil of the 
islands is rich, and the rivers teem with 
fish; so that with a fighting cock, which 
every Filipino dearly loves, and scanty 
attire, he leads a happy-go-lucky life. 

The islands were discovered by Magel¬ 
lan, who landed on the island of Cebu in 
March, 1521, and soon after lost his life in 
a skirmish with the natives. In 1565 a 
fleet from Mexico took possession of the 
islands, and in 1570 a settlement was 
established on the Manila River, which 
place became the capital of the Spanish 
possessions in the Philippines, and con¬ 
tinued such till the late war. Before the 
arrival of the Spaniards the place bad 

757 





























































758 


OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 


been under the dominion of the Chinese. 
The Dutch made an unsuccessful attempt 
to capture Manila in 1606, and the British 
succeeded in a capture in 1762. The 
Philippines would probably have been 
British to-day, had not Spain promised to 
ransom them for $5,000,000, which, how¬ 
ever, remains unpaid to this day. Rebel¬ 
lions have been frequent in the islands 
ever since Spanish rule, those of 1822, 
1841, 1842, 1872, 1896 and 1897 being the 
most important. The revolts have all had 
a common cause, that of freedom from 
Spanish tyranny. When the United 
States went to war with Spain, the Fili¬ 
pinos, under several chiefs and headed by 
Aguinaldo, assisted the Americans in 
hopes of gaining their freedom from 
Spain. But after the treaty of Paris, 
which ceded these islands to the United 
States pending the establishment of a 
government for and of the native inhabit¬ 
ants, the Filipinos rose in 

Revolt 

against seeming annexation to the United 
States, and since that time have con¬ 
ducted a sort of guerrilla warfare against 
the American troops. An actually estab¬ 
lished government is claimed to exist by 
the natives, but the capital seems to 
travel with the fleeing president. At 
present the government of these islands 
is that of martial law, aided to a degree 
with civil courts maintained by the 
natives, who likewise aid in the govern¬ 
ment of the municipalities. 

There are 

Two Seasons, 

a wet and a dry; the first from June to 
November, the dry season from Novem¬ 
ber to June. In the wet season the 
country is inundated, the roads are im¬ 
passable, and the bridges disappear. The 
annual rainfall is from seventy-five to 
ninety-one inches. The hottest months 


are April and May; the droughts are 
then long, and the ants and mosquitoes 
troublesome. The coolest months are 
December to February. The average 
temperature is 80 degrees. Cyclones, 
typhoons and hurricanes visit the coast, 
and earthquakes are frequent. Many 
craters of extinct volcanoes are found, and 
some active ones are in operation. The 
highest mountain of the group is that of 
Apo on Mindanao, which is 9,000 feet 
high, while Halcon, in Mindoro, reaches 
nearly 8,900 feet, and Majon, in Luzon, 
exceeds 8,200 feet. 

The soil of the islands is very fertile, and 
the products are sugar, hemp, tobacco, 
rice, coffee, gums, cotton, indigo, cochi¬ 
neal, and cocoanuts. In the forests grow 
rattan, bamboo, ebony, logwood and 
numerous other hard woods and gum- 
yielding trees. The celebrated Manila 
hemp is not made from hemp, but is the 
fiber of a species of banana. The Philip¬ 
pines are fabulously rich in gold, and cop¬ 
per and coal have been discovered in large 
veins. We had exported to these islands 
before the war merchandise amounting to 
about $100,000 yearly, and imported about 
$5,000,000, but since the islands are now 
American dependencies, this commerce 
has been greatly increased. 

Sultan of Sulu and His Island 
Domain. 

Mohammed Tamajamalu Kiran, Sultan 
of Sulu, the monarch who is now, or who 
will be, something of an issue in Ameri¬ 
can politics, because of his recent treaty 
acknowledging American supremacy, is 
the ruler of 140 islands in the Philippines, 
of 120,000 subjects and a dozen wives. 
The sultan, his people, his wives and the 
75,000 slaves in his islands are now sub¬ 
jects of the United States. He is known 
by many titles other than sultan, for 
example, “The Stainless One.” “The 
Spotless One” and “The Mountain of 




OUR NEW POSSEvSSIONS. 


759 


Light.” His dress is simple, consisting 
of one garment, after the fashion of a 
modern night shirt. He is a short, fat 
man, with a round, boyish face and big, 
saucer-like eyes. Kiran lives in a small 
house protected by a stone wall ten feet 
high and quite thick. The first floor con¬ 
tains only one room, a large, bare apart¬ 
ment. The sleeping - rooms of the 
“palace” are on the second story. The 
Moros—that is the name of the sultan’s 
subjects—have the reputation of being an 
innocent, harmless people, but when 
General Bates visited the islands on the 
Charleston he found that most of the 
inhabitants went about armed. The 
mother of the sultan is regarded as the 
most beautiful woman among her people. 


THE MARIANA OR LADRONE 

ISLANDS. 

The Mariana archipelago is a chain of 
islands in the Pacific stretching north and 
south a winding distance of about 600 
miles, and embraces some seventeen 
islands, having an area of about 500 
square miles. The islands were discov¬ 
ered in 1521 by Magellan, and were 
named in honor of Mariana of Austria, 
wife of Philip IV. king of Spain, though in 
the later days of piracy they were dubbed 
the “Ladrones” or “robbers,” because 
they were supposed to be the stronghold 
of those pests of Asiatic waters. They are 
almost directly east of the Philippines, at 
a distance of about 1,200 miles. The 
principal island of the group is Guam, or 
Guahn, which covers nearly one-half the 
area of the archipelago. Formerly, when 
Spain first took control of the islands, the 
natives numbered about 120,000, but the 
oppressions were so great that one-half 
that number were killed off, and the 
greater part of the rest fled to the Caroline 
Islands. Colonization was tried from the 


Philippines, but these emigrants died of 
epidemics. In 1760 the population had 
been reduced to 1,600, and in 1875 but 
600 survived. 

The climate is very moist, several rain 
squalls occurring every day, which, how¬ 
ever, the natives do not seem to mind, for 
it keeps the air cool. The natives grow 
sugar cane, rice, corn and melons. The 
soil is well adapted to coffee growing, but 
this is done only to a limited extent, 
while all sorts of tropical fruits abound. 

Commercially the group is of little im¬ 
portance, for the natives need little, and 
no trade is done. However, the posses¬ 
sion of Guam by the United States, which 
came about by the treaty of Paris, is of 
some political value for a coaling station, 
and as a near neighbor to the Philippines 
in case of war. 


THE SAMOAN OR NAVIGA¬ 
TOR’S ISLANDS. 

The Samoan group consists of thir¬ 
teen islands, of which nine are inhab¬ 
ited, lying in the south Pacific Ocean, 
between 13 and 14 degrees of south lati¬ 
tude, and 169 and 173 west longitude. 
They are about midway on a line drawn 
southwest from the Sandwich Islands to 
New Zealand. A population of about 
40,000 people, including, besides natives, 
Americans, Germans and English, covers 
the area of some 1,125 square miles. 
Upolu, Savaii, Tutuila and Manua are the 
islands of most importance. Apia, on 
Upolu, is the chief town, and a good sea¬ 
port, while Pango-Pango, or Pago-Pago, 
on Tutuila, is possibly the best harbor in 
any of the Pacific islands, and being in 
direct route from San Francisco, is de¬ 
veloping into an important port. 

The climate of the islands is equable, 
averaging about 82 degrees, while the 
rain is rather evenly distributed through- 








760 


OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 


out the whole year. Tropical plants of 
all kinds abound, and while the com¬ 
merce of the group is small, exports of 
cotton and the dried meat of the cocoa- 
nut are made to Hamburg and San Fran¬ 
cisco. The natives are well developed 
and intelligent. 

The government by chiefs was unsatis¬ 
factory, so that in 1873 they desired the 
protection of the United States. In 1875 
a native was elected king again, but with 
an American for prime minister. In 1878 
a treaty between the islands and the 
United States was effected which gave us 
great powers, and later on similar treaties 
were made with Great Britain and Ger¬ 
many which led to a tripartite protectorate 
over the islands by these two governments 
in conjunction with that of the United 
States. A chief justice appointed by the 
three powers to some extent controlled 
the courts and advised the king, while the 
consuls of the three countries took a 
prominent part in the government. From 
time to time jealousies arose between 
these three countries, and annexation to 
one or another of them was proposed. In 
1898 and 1899 a serious difficulty was in¬ 
curred because of the death of the reign¬ 
ing king, and American forces were 
landed at Apia with threats of bombard¬ 
ment. Trouble between the German and 
American officials was at last patched up, 
and a division of the islands among the 
three countries will be the result. 

Tutuila, 

the island that will come to the United 
States as the issue of the Anglo-German 
treaty, gives us the finest harbor of the 
south seas, Pago-Pago. The island has 
an area of 55 square miles, being nearly 
17 miles long and from 3 to 5 miles wide. 
It is well wooded and fertile, and has 
some rivers of fair size. The harbor has 
been held by the United States since 1872, 


and from a strategic point is very desir¬ 
able, especially as a naval base of opera¬ 
tions in the Pacific. The harbor is a 
natural one, and well sheltered, and may 
be easily fortified. It is 2,000 miles from 
Australia, twice that distance from the 
Philippines, and 5,000 nautical miles from 
San Francisco. With the Philippines in 
the possession of the United States, this 
new dependency is invaluable. 


PORTO RICO. 

The island of Porto Rico, or, according 
to the Spanish spelling, Puerto Rico, 
meaning “rich port,” is fourth in size of 
the Greater Antilles, being exceeded by 
Cuba, Santo Domingo and Jamaica. It 
lies between the seventeenth and nine¬ 
teenth parallels of north latitude, and the 
sixty-sixth and sixty-seventh degrees of 
longitude, and contains about 3,668 square 
miles, being about 35 miles broad and 95 
miles long. The island was discovered 
by Columbus on his second voyage, 
November 16, 1493. Ponce de Leon, the 
celebrated explorer, was one of the first 
Spanish governors, and the wrongs 
heaped upon the natives by his arbitrary 
rule led to revolts. Several attacks upon 
the island by English and Dutch forces 
met with no success. The last one prior 
to that of our late war was by the cele¬ 
brated British commander, Sir Ralph 
Abercromby, who laid siege to San Juan 
in 1797 for about two weeks. Owing to 
insufficient forces, he had to withdraw, 
and from that time until the bombard¬ 
ment of May 12, 1898, by Admiral Samp¬ 
son, that city had had a century’s respite 
from the enemies of Spain. 

Several rebellions by the people oc¬ 
curred with the hope of throwing off the 
galling Spanish yoke and establishing a 
republic. One of these was in 1820, an¬ 
other in 1867, the latter being broken up by 




OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 


761 


the eruption of a volcano, which so scared 
the people that they again gave in to Spain. 

When General Miles, with the 

American Forces, 

landed on the island in the summer 
of 1898, he was greeted everywhere as 
the benefactor of the down - trodden 
natives, and from town to town his vic¬ 
torious troops were met by the officials 
of the provinces, who gladly turned over 
the government to that of the United 
States. October 18, the flag of the United 
States was raised over San Juan, the 
Spanish evacuation having been com¬ 
pleted, and January 1, 1899, the entire 
government, according to the Treaty of 
Paris, was placed in our hands. 

The island has a population of 815,000, 
of whom about 300,000 are negroes, the 
remainder being mostly Spanish, besides 
some Americans, English, Germans, and 
others of European nationality. The sur¬ 
face of the island is broken by hills and 
low mountains, one range of which passes 
through it from east to west. The high¬ 
est point of this range is El Yunque, 
which is about 3,700 feet above sea level. 
There are some 1,300 streams of remark¬ 
ably pure water running into the sea, of 
which forty-seven are rivers of consider¬ 
able size. Thus the island has abundant 
water supply for large herds of cattle. 


The Climate 

is exceptionally salubrious, mainly on 
account of there being little stagnant 
water. Heavy rains occur in the north 
from May to September, sometimes 
amounting to seventy inches. In the 
south there is little rain at all, while over 
the whole island in the winter the air 
and sea breezes are delightful. Coffee, 
tobacco, and sugar cane are grown in 
profusion, while exceptionally fine cotton 
is cultivated. Besides these staples the 
island exports annually large quantities 
of cattle, hides, timber and molasses, 
while flax, ginger, rice, maize,, citrons, 
lemons, oranges and other tropical fruits 
abound. Traces of some ores have been 
discovered, including gold, iron, copper 
and lead. 

No portion of the West India Islands is 
lovelier or in better condition than Porto 
Rico. The climate draws many foreign¬ 
ers there for the winter; the people are 
self-suStaining and hospitable, though 
somewhat ignorant and superstitious. 
Slavery was abolished in 1873, and the 
island is remarkably free from disorder. 
At present the government is temporary 
in nature, awaiting the decision of Con¬ 
gress as to the best methods of governing 
a race of people so different in all things 
from the average American. 



The /Modern Newspaper. 


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A GLIMPSE OF THE WORKINGS OF THE GREATEST AGENT 
MODERN CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION—HOW A DAILY 
PAPER IS WRITTEN, PRINTED AND CIRCULATED. 


OF 


Including Descriptions of 


Photo - Engraving, Stereotyping, 
Monster Presses. 


and Printing by 


IME was when the owner of a 
newspaper was editor, re¬ 
porter, typesetter, “devil,” 
presshand, and circulator, 
ides the duties incumbent on 
these positions he had to see to the odds 
and ends belonging to no one in partic¬ 
ular. But the day of the old Franklin 
hand press, and of setting up his articles in 
type before his case as the inspiration 
came to him, has passed, and now, with 
the division of labor, and the marvels of 
machinery, it is possible for the sub¬ 
scriber a hundred miles away to read in 
comfort at his breakfast table the metro¬ 
politan daily paper at the same time that 
other subscribers are reading it in the 
city where it is printed. To the persons 
who go to bed at nine o’clock and rise at 
five it is amazing that thousands of men 
and women are working while they sleep, 
and the sight of a large newspaper plant 
in full swing of operation would be still 
more wonderful. 

Every well organized paper is divided 
pnto a number of departments, just like a 
government, with a head or ruler over 
each. In most papers there are three 
main departments: Business, Editorial, 
and Mechanical, and each of these has 
numerous subdivisions. 

762 


Upon the business departments de¬ 
volve the duties of managing the capital 
invested, paying the salaries, etc., and the 
two greatest of all duties upon any paper 
that is expected to make money: the get¬ 
ting of advertisements, and the circula¬ 
tion of the paper to the subscribers. 
The editorial department has control of 
the reading matter and its preparation, 
while to the mechanical departments are 
left the duties of setting the stories, edi¬ 
torials and advertisements into type, the 
molding of the stereotype impressions of 
this type into great half-cylinders that are 
to be placed upon the monster presses, 
and the work of bringing forth from 
these presses the folded paper ready for 
its reader, at the astonishing rate of from 
thirty to fifty thousand copies per hour. 

The Editorial Staff 

of a paper is divided into several parts: 
the managing editor is head over every 
one in his department, and to some ex¬ 
tent is consulted in other things than 
those pertaining to his own department; 
the city editor is directly under the manag¬ 
ing editor, and controls a staff of reporters 
whose duties are to gather up the news 
about town and present it in readable and 
interesting form. Besides these two editors 













THE MODERN NEWSPAPER. 


763 


and the staff pf reporters, there are a num¬ 
ber of men who write editorial comments 
on the great events of passing interest to 
the public; on them to a marked degree 
falls the lot of shaping a community’s opin¬ 
ion on political or public questions. Then 


The modern city editor almost knows the 
news before it happens, and therefore has 
men suitable for the occasion on the spot 
waiting for it. 

At 12:30 p. m. the reporters of a morn¬ 
ing paper congregate in the “local” room 


(Courtesy of the Chicago Record .) 

A LINOTYPE MACHINE AND OPERATOR. 



The operator is at work setting “rush” copy. At the top of the machine is the fan-shaped magazine 
which holds the matrices of the letters. At the left, in the box and on the floor, are seen blocks of metal 
to be melted and used in casting the “line o’ type,” while at the left, near the top, is the large arm that 
reaches down and picks up the matrices for distribution after the line has been cast in metal. 


there are the special writers who write 
dramatic criticisms, sporting news, liter¬ 
ary, art and musical notes and criticism, 
and last, but not least, on the up-to-date 
paper, the funny story man. Contrary to 
general opinion, the reporter does not go 
aimlessly about town looking for news. 


and wait for the summons of their chief. 
For weeks ahead every event of impor¬ 
tance is pigeon-holed, every article in any 
paper noting an incident of interest is cut 
out and kept on a spindle with the date 
marked when it is likely to be available. 
Then there is a whistle at the speaking 











764 


THE MODERN NEWSPAPER. 


tube in the local room; a man jumps to 
answer it; the city editor is calling for 
“Brown” or “Jones.” That man hies 
himself to his superior’s office, and here 
is given a definite “assignment” or job to 
go to this or that place and find out 
a particular thing. Sometimes some 
well-known man is in town; then he 
is told to “get a story out of him.” 
There is no such word as fail when 
the city editor tells a man to do thus 
or so; failure means forfeiture of his 
position, and even though the city editor 
has been a reporter once himself and 
knows how impossible are some of the 
tasks set, yet he is never-relenting, and 
no excuses go. 

When the man comes back from his 
assignment, he reports to his chief and is 
told to write so many words, to “play it 
up strong,” or to “make it funny.” 
After this is done, the reporter waits 
about the office for another assignment or 
the good news that he may go home. 
His “copy” or manuscript is sent up to 
the printer, and after being set in type is 
“proved” and copies of the proof come 
down to men experienced in correcting 
according to the particular style of the 
paper. Some phrases are never used on 
one paper that are of habitual occurrence 
on others. These “desk men” must see 
that all copy conforms to the paper’s 
“style,” and that nothing libelous is 
printed. After the proof is corrected, it 
goes back to the printer, who makes the 
correction in type, and then the article, or 
“story,” as the reporters call it, is ready 
for its trip down to the stereotypers. 

Photo-Engraving. 

But possibly the story is of sufficient 
importance to need illustrating. No 
newspaper is complete without a corps of 
artists and a photo-engraving plant. 


Suppose the story is that of a great fire. 
At once the city editor on hearing the tap 
of the fire alarm in his office calls for 
reporters and artists to write up and illus¬ 
trate the fire. The reporters get the 
news, while the artists with paper and 
pencil sketch the most interesting sights 
at the fire. This must be done in light¬ 
ning-like hurry, for time is a great factor 
in newspaper work. On coming back to 
his office, the artist redraws in India ink 
the crude sketch he has made. This 
sketch is generally several times larger 
than it will appear in the paper, for the 
process of engraving reduces the size 
somewhat. 

Zinc Etching 

is the process generally employed in en¬ 
graving illustrations for newspapers, 
because of the rapidity with which cuts 
made by this method may be turned out. 
The first operation after the picture has 
been drawn in black and white by the 
artist is to photograph it by means of a 
great camera on a “wet” plate. The 
camera and rack to which is fastened 
the picture when being photographed 
are both placed on a long board and 
hung by ropes or chains from the ceil¬ 
ing, a good deal after the manner of a 
painter’s horizontal ladder hung by ropes 
from the roof of a house. This is done 
so that they will hold the same relative 
positions to each other, and if there is 
any jarring it will not affect the ex¬ 
posure. The exposures are generally 
made by the light of an electric arc lamp 
placed just back and to one side of the 
lens of the camera. 

After a number of plates have thus 
been exposed, they are developed by ordi¬ 
nary photographic silver process. The* 
use of “wet” plates is most important, for 
by this process the gelatine film which is 
wet may be stripped off from the lighter 



















































































MODERN OFFICE BUILDING IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION 

SHOWING THE FRAMEWORK NOT QUITE COMPLETE, WITH DERRICKS AT THE TOP FOR HOISTING INTO PLACE THE 
GREAT STEEL BEAMS. NEAR THE CENTRE ARE SEEN THE WO D KMEN ON THE SCAFFOLDING 

BUSILY LAYING ON THE OUTER WALLS 






















































THE MODERN NEWSPAPER. 


765 


glass used in the camera and pasted on a 
heavier glass for printing, several pictures 
on one plate. This heavy plate glass is 
then dried over a gas stove till the gela¬ 
tine is perfectly hard. Now a sheet of 
sensitized zinc is placed behind this 
plate, and is exposed to an electric light, 


that shows up the lines of the picture. 
After this there is a treatment of 

Nitric Acid 

that eats away the exposed surface of the 
zinc plate and leaves the inked lines 
standing out. The plate is then treated 



{Courtesy of the Chicago Record.) 

STEREOTYPING ROOM OF A LARGE DAILY NEWSPAPER. 


Showing the metal plates being prepared for the printing presses. 


the same as one would print an ordinary 
photograph. The negative, being dark 
except in the places where the black lines 
of the drawing show in white lines, ad¬ 
mits light to the sensitive zinc only along 
these lines. The zinc plate is now taken 
to the dark-room, where it is coated with 
ink and treated by a developing process 


to a shower of red dust called “dragon’s 
blood,” which is burned into it by plac¬ 
ing the plate on top of a hot gas stove. 
The plate would now be almost good 
enough to produce a fair impression, but 
acid and burning are repeated four times, 
once for each side of every line. Then 
the eaten-out portion is made still deeper 










766 


THE MODERN NEWSPAPER. 


by the “routing” machine, which con¬ 
sists principally of a little drill-like tool, 
driven rapidly by electricity, which bores 
down and scrapes away such parts as are 
likely to blur in printing. After this 
process, the etching is ready to be 
mounted on a metal base and sent to the 
printing form. 

Other methods such as half-tones and 
color-processes are used at times on news¬ 
papers, but for general work the above- 
described process is in the main adopted. 
The time used in preparing an illustration 
from the moment the artist returns to 
make his final drawing till the cut is 
placed in the form is often less than an 
hour. 

The Linotype Machine. 

One of the greatest machines ever in¬ 
vented is that which does away with the 
old method of setting type by hand, sub¬ 
stituting instead a device that performs 
with mathematical precision every act 
necessary for typesetting except thinking. 
Ottomar Mergenthaler, an inventor who 
recently died a millionaire, brought about 
this revolution by inventing the “lino¬ 
type” machine, which, as the name would 
indicate, sets automatically a “line o’ 
type.” This machine, which looks like a 
huge typewriter, has for its essential fea¬ 
ture the “matrix,” while the keyboard, 
triggers, rollers, pistons, elevators, 
sprocket wheels, and levers work with 
such accuracy that the line of “matrices” 
is carried down to the box for the molten 
metal, there is flooded by the metal, and 
then each separate matrix is carried back 
to its respective little box, waiting for the 
next tap on the keyboard that will call it 
into use again. The matrix is a mold of 
a particular letter made of sheet brass, 
and varying in thickness according to the 
width of that letter. If you were to press 
a type into some wax or putty, there 
would be the reverse of that letter; just 


so with the matrix. At the top is a 
V-shaped cut made up of little steps, and 
at the side of the matrix is the imprint of 
the letter to be used. Each of the little 
steps in the V plays an important part, for 
they are different in each matrix, and 
after the line has been molded, these 
steps help in the automatic sorting of the 
matrices back to their proper places in 
the magazine. The operator sits before 
his keyboard something like the type¬ 
writer girl; he lightly taps a certain key, 
and there at once drops down from the 
magazine and falls into place near the 
metal box the matrix of the particular 
letter wanted. The keyboard is laid out 
the same a’s the type case of the old days, 
the “lower case” or small letters being 
on white keys, the “upper case” or cap¬ 
itals on black, and the punctuation marks 
on blue keys; separate letters not much 
used are kept in a little rack at the side, 
and may be put in by hand. The “typo” 
taps away on his keyboard until a bell 
rings that tells him a line is completed. 
He then pushes down a lever at his right 
side, and the line of matrices is picked up 
bodily, carried to a set of clamps, 
splashed over with hot metal, and then 
carried up by an elevating arm to the dis¬ 
tributing part at the top of the machine. 
Here, by means of the little step-like 
grooves, each matrix is sorted out to its 
proper compartment by a machine some¬ 
what on the principle of a sieve. 

The Distributing Bar 

extends along the whole length of the 
magazine, which is fan-shaped and 
divided into tubes all ending at the bot¬ 
tom in the little runway where the 
matrices come out. Beside the bar is a 
long revolving screw, and as the row of 
matrices come up from the elevating arm 
this screw pushes them along the bar. 
In front of the compartment allotted for 




THE MODERN NEWSPAPER. 


767 


each letter is a special set of notches. As 
was said before, each letter has a set of 
little steps on the V-cut;* these notches 
and steps agree for each particular letter, 
so that as the matrix of the letter “A ” is 
carried along the distributing bar it can 
enter no compartment but that whose 
notches its little steps fit—just like the 
key that fits only one door. 


ioo letters.) There are men who can set 
even 10,000 ems per hour. Mistakes, of 
course, occur as in setting by hand, and 
the proofreader must send the matter 
back to be corrected. 

In setting 

Large Advertisements 

and headlines only is the old method of 
hand setting now used. This is necessi- 



(Courtesy of the Chicago Record ) 


FOUR O’CLOCK A. M. 


A crowd of newsboys waiting for their papers. 


Hot Type Mstal 

is always kept in the metal box, heated by 
a gas flame. Knives trim the edges of 
the molded line of type to the exact size 
necessary. After the metal has been 
used once it is again melted up for more 
type. Typesetters can set as high as 
7,000 ems, or matter to the amount of 
one newspaper column, in an hour, 
whereas it formerly took six hours. 
(The “em” is the standard of type meas¬ 
urement; 100 ems is equal to the average 


tated by the use of large and odd-sized 
type. And still the “ad” room of a paper 
is not the least interesting part of its 
plant. Here, on nights preceding a great 
“bargain day” of some of the leading 
stores of the city, many men, expert in 
style of setting up fancy advertisements, 
are kept busy arranging the most attract¬ 
ive displays of type for the reader on the 
morrow. 

After all the advertisements and 
articles are set up in type, they are sent 






















768 


THE MODERN NEWSPAPER. 


to stone tables where men called “make¬ 
ups” see that each “ad” or story finds its 
proper position in large, square steel 
frames called “forms.” In these the 
type is securely locked by screws so that 
the “form” maybe sent down an elevator 
to the stereotyping room, where another 
process is gone through with before the 
press gets the work. 


Stereotyping. 

Each page is made up separately, and 
as the “chase” containing the type 
reaches the stereotyping room on the 
elevator it is at once placed upon the 
steam table to dry, for the “make-up” has 
used a wet sponge to dampen the type 
and make each line stick against the 
other, to facilitate in handling. From 



.. , 


THE FOUNDRY. 

To the left, the electric battery; to the right the men are making an impression of the type in wax, 
and after the wax receives the coating of copper in the battery they take the copper shell and pour the 
metal into it—this is called casting. 


Time was when we printed by simply 
bringing a heavy weight to bear upon the 
flat surface of the paper spread on the 
inked type. That was when printing was 
done by hand. When the style improved 
and great cylinder presses came into use, 
type in its ordinary form would not do, 
but great circular molds had to be made 
that could be placed around the cylinders. 
This process is called 


the steam table, after the type is dry, the 
chase goes to a table where a “matrix” 
is made, only this matrix is not in brass, 
but in a sort of papier-mache. Sheets of 
tissue paper specially prepared are kept 
damp over night, and a sheet of this is 
now placed over the type. This is pressed 
into every little crack in the type and 
forms a reverse impression, which can 
easily be read. Then “backing” powder, 






































THE MODERN NEWSPAPER. 


78fl 


Consisting of lime, flour and charcoal, is 
spread over the back and into the impres¬ 
sions, after which other paper is spread 
over and the whole affair is covered with 
heavy blankets and shoved under a heavy 
press heated by steam. Here it is 
allowed to remain until the paper has 
become hard and dry, when it forms a 
light, almost fire-proof mold that can 
easily be bent into the shape of a half- 


the rough edges, and chisel out any im¬ 
perfections. After this the plate is run 
under water to cool, and we have ready 
for the press a mass of metal the size of a 
page of a newspaper, seven-eighths of an 
inch thick, and curved exactly to fit the 
cylinder of the press. 

Monster Presses. 

The Hoe press is possibly the largest 
and best of the monster printing machines 



ENGRAVING HALF-TONES. 

To the left of the picture are the finishers; to the right are the men that rout out the portion of the 

plate that isn’t to print. 


cylinder. Then the matrix is placed in 
the 

Casting-box, 

which is semi-cylindrical in form, consist¬ 
ing of two parts, one of which opens. 
The matrix is laid on the face of the 
casting-box, which bends it into the shape 
desired; the box is closed, the metal run 
in, and allowed partly to cool. While 
still hot to the touch, men with heavy 

gloves seize the cast plate and trim off 

49 1 


of to-day. They are quadruple in form, 
and are so ingeniously arranged that they 
take in paper in enormous rolls on spin¬ 
dles on one side of the press, print the 
pages, paste the pages together, cut each 
paper off at the proper time from the rest 
that is being fed from the spindle, fold 
the papers, count them, and deliver them 
at the rate of 48,000 four, six, or eight 
page papers an hour, 24,000 ten, twelve, 
fourteen or sixteen page papers an hour, 



















770 


THE MODERN NEWSPAPER. 


or 12,000 twenty, twenty-four or thirty- 
two page papers an hour. Each press 
needs floor space 22 feet long by 12 feet 
wide, and stands over nine feet high. 
The press is really two presses in one, 
paper being fed in from two rolls at a 
time, while the folder is really a separate 
machine connected and operated by the 
press. Each press has four 14-inch plate 
cylinders to which are attached by 
screws the stereotype plates. The cyl¬ 
inders revolve in the opposite direction 
to the impression roll, which is a heavy 
iron cylinder that presses against the 
plate and is covered with cloth. After 
a roll of 

Hundreds of Pounds of Paper 

is adjusted at the back of the press the 
paper web is run over a roller which 
smooths it out. Next it is grasped by 
the first impression roll, and it passes over 
the plate, receiving its first impression. 
Then the web runs downward to the 
second impression roll, where more is 
printed. Carrying tapes which guide the 
paper then run it up over the top of the 
press, where it is slit by a circular knife, 
and two wheels apply paste to the edges 
of the paper. Now the web is led 
to the folder over an angle - bar, and 
the mechanism is so perfect that the 
pages are all brought out in their prop¬ 
er position and the leaves cut. The 
other half of the press has been work¬ 
ing in the same manner, either to make 
a complete paper like the other, or a 
supplement that is “stuffed” into the 
other part. 

The Greatest Care 

must be taken in operating the gigantic 
press, both to protect its delicate parts 
and the hands and legs of the men in 
attendance. One man holds a lever that 
starts and stops the press, others run 


about with oil-cans, lubricating every 
part, while others see that the ink is 
properly fed, and that the paper does not 
break or that a fresh supply is on hand. 
The cost of a Hoe press above described 
is $40,000. 

From the maw of this great giant the 
papers are run in on little electric trolley 
cars to 

The Mailing and Delivery Rooms. 

In “newsboys’ alley” has congregated a 
crowd of urchins with their pennies ready 
to lay in a supply for their morning trade. 
Each has bought a check from a cashier 
which bears upon it the number of papers 
to which he is entitled. With this check 
he falls into line at the delivery window, 
and as his turn comes, he yells out the 
number. The man behind the window 
rapidly counts out that number, takes his 
check, and throws the bundle of papers 
at him. So quick is the whole process 
from writer to street boys that “hot” 
news brought in at half-past two in the 
morning is in the hands of the early riser 
at four o’clock. But there is yet the 
subscriber living at a distance who must 
be supplied with his particular morning 
favorite. As soon as his name is entered 
on the subscription list, this list is sent to 
the printer, who sets it up in type. From 
this is printed upon long strips of yellow 
paper the names of every subsciiber who 
is to receive a paper by mail. The print¬ 
ing includes with each name the post- 
office and street address, together with 
date of expiration of the subscription. 
These strips are set into still larger strips, 
and sometimes pasted together, so that 
by a clever little device called a “mailing” 
machine, in the hands of skilled “mail¬ 
ers,” each little label is carefully gummed, 
cut off from the strip, and with a slap is 
pasted on the outside of the paper, thus 
telling the postmasters its destination. 





THE FINISHING DEPARTMENT OF AN ELECTROTYPE FOUNDRY. 


once, hurriedly roll up the bundle and 
throw it into the sack for a particular 
train. 

All the “galleys” of printed lists of 
subscribers and dealers out of town 
have been arranged in geographical 
order, that is, all those going to one town 
are on the same list. This greatly aids 
in sending out to the trains, for as soon 
as one strip is done, that bunch of 
papers is put in a bag ready for that 
town or train. 


that will increase the reputation of the 
paper; correspondents abroad hired and 
paid; press associations formed with 
other papers for the protection of their 
general interests. And when one stops 
to consider how vast are some of the 
American journals, with several issues 
each day, and great magazine-like editions 
on Sunday, with circulations that run 
nearly to a half million copies daily, the 
nature of such stupendous business enter¬ 
prises may be imagined. 


NEWSPAPER. 771 

i * ' ' . > } ' * 

Business Departments 

of the newspaper are where all other de¬ 
tails are thought out. Advertising must 
be obtained which will bring in money to 
support the plant and make money for its 
owners. Schemes must be worked out to 
induce customers to buy this particular 
paper instead of some competitor. Enor¬ 
mous contracts for buildings and machin¬ 
ery must be let; new devices developed 


THE MODERN 


This process is, however, only for the 
single subscribers; for the dealers there 
have been prepared early the evening 
before large wrappers with their proper 
labels for sending, together with the 
number of papers to be sent, plainly 
marked on the outside. So when the 
time comes for wrapping, each mailer can 
rapidly count out the desired number, 
appty paste to a number of wrappers at 






















Death=Dealing Machines of War. 


# 
# 
as m 


t 

m 

HOW THE ARMIES AND NAVIES OF THE WORLD FIGHT TO-DAY 

COMPARED WITH METHODS USED ONE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. ^ 

^ Huge Floating Arsenals; Shells Fired Eight Miles; Smokeless Powder; Torpedoes m 

and Submarine Mines. 


T has been said that improve¬ 
ments in deadly war missiles 
will before long put a stop to 
war altogether. One would 
almost think so when it is considered 
what marvelous strides invention has 
taken along this line. Time was, and not 
long ago either, when the round cannon 
shot was aimed at the tough oak side of the 
frigate; when the grappling chain and 
cutlass for hand-to-hand conflicts were 
necessary on all war vessels, and the 
bayonet and cavalry charge played great 
parts in land battles. Most of this is now 
changed. The iron shot gave way to 
steel projectiles, as the wooden hulls were 
replaced with steel. The completeness of 
victories, however, is no less than in cen¬ 
turies past; distances are only greater. 
And each increase in the power of im¬ 
proved explosives and projectiles will be 
met with greater defensive devices, and 
with greater distances between the firing 
lines. It will be the brotherhood of 
man, not the deadliness and fear of 
weapons, that will bring about universal 
peace. 

To-day, in land forces there are such 
improvements as the far-reaching rifle, 
with its nickel-capped bullets, the Gatling, 
Maxim and Hotchkiss guns, smokeless 
powders, and such explosives as cordite, 
dynamite, lyddite and nitro-glycerine. 
Charges play some part, as in the gallant 
fight of San Juan Hill, but, in the main, 
artillery and long-distance firing prevail. 
772 


With the navy more marvelous improve¬ 
ments have been made. Nearly every¬ 
thing on board ship can now be operated by 
electricity. Ships are lighted, torpedoes, 
guns and mines fired, searchlights are 
operated, torpedo-boats propelled, and a 
hundred other devices all controlled by 
this weird agent. 

The armor plates of the modern vessel 
are thick and of the hardest steel known, 
yet they are readily pierced by the enor¬ 
mous shells thrown at the distance of 
several miles from the throats of great 
dynamite and compressed air guns. 
Among the numerous 

Explosives of High Power 

that are coming into use, the newest and 
possibly the most powerful is lyddite. 
Like others of its class, such as dynamite, 
melinite, cordite,, maxinite, etc., it is 
picric acid brought into a dense state of 
fusion. Picric is obtained by the action 
of nitric acid on carbolic acid. When 
lyddite shells explode they grind their 
outer coverings into small fragments, and 
with a noise like the downfall of the 
heavens, tear everything to pieces for 
yards around. This explosive is being 
used now by the English in the war with 
the Boers, though the latter have com¬ 
plained that such is against the codes of 
civilized warfare. General Kitchener 
also used it in his campaign of the Sou¬ 
dan with tremendous effect. A shell was 
dropped into a mosque at Omdurman, 













< 


GREAT NAVAL DEMONSTRATION IN PHILADELPHIA DURING THE PEACE JUBILEE 

A STRIKING EFFECT WAS PRODUCED BY SEARCHLIGHTS ON THE WAR VESSELS AND ON THE CITY HALL 



























THE BALLOON USED IN MODERN WARFmRE 


v 













DEATH - DEALING MACHINES OF WAR. 


773 


where 120 Mahdists were worshiping. 
The mosque and its inmates were 

Blown Into Pieces, 

and only twelve of the worshipers 
escaped alive. In the war between China 
and Japan, cordite, a similar though in¬ 
ferior explosive, was thrown in a twelve- 
inch shell into the Japanese flagship 
Matsushima with the effect of hurling a 
4.7-inch gun from its mounting, firing a 
heap of ammunition, disabling two more 
4.7-inch guns, and killing and wounding 
ninety officers and men. 

Smokeless powder is another deadly ex¬ 
plosive, having for its main peculiarity 
the quality of exploding without smoke, 
giving off only a slight violet vapor, that 
is not sufficient to betray the ambush of 
the gun. This kind of powder is made in 
long cylindrical strings and then cut up 
into small pieces. In the United States 
war supply factories, it is coated with 
plumbago by being placed in receptacles 
with the powdered black lead or plum¬ 
bago and shaken up. This coating, being 
rather oily, keeps the powder from ignit¬ 
ing by friction in case of rough handling. 
Cordite looks a great deal as its name 
would signify, something like brown jelly 
pressed into long strings from one-six¬ 
teenth to one-half inch in diameter, and 
dried. Some kinds of smokeless powder 
look for all the world like carefully cut 
strips of slippery elm bark. It is made in 
slabs about one-fourth inch thick and a 
foot and a half to two feet long. This 
powder is much safer to handle than com¬ 
mon black or brown powder, and will bear 
quite a blow provided no sparks are 
struck. Like all smokeless powder, it 
will burn without special danger if a 
match is applied, to it, with a clear, steady 
flame, not flashing with a big s-s s-s like 
the old sort. Some of these explosives 
are cut into pieces just like Saratoga 
chips, and it is. a rather blood-curdling job 


for one not informed to watch shell-load¬ 
ers hammer home this stuff into the big 
shells as though in truth it were only so 
much potato. 

Nitro-GIycerine, 

which is used in some of its forms for war 
purposes, but more especially for blasting 
oil-wells and the like, is one of the most 
difficult of all explosives to manufacture. 
It is generally pale yellow in color, is 
odorless, and has a sweet, pungent taste, 
though when touched to the skin will 
cause severe headache. It is made in a 
large tank called an agitator, which has a 
set of revolving paddles. Into this are 
poured equal quantities of nitric and sul¬ 
phuric acids, and after a mixture of 250 
pounds is secured, sweet glycerine to the 
amount of 1,500 pounds is added. The 
chemicals naturally tend to come to great 
heat, but since ninety degrees explodes 
the mixture, water pipes are arranged 
about the vat to keep down the temper¬ 
ature. In carrying this explosive there is 
great danger of jarring. Makers of the 
stuff generally live only about five years 
at their work. As in all other factories of 
powders and the like, no metals are 
allowed, and the shoes and clothing of the 
workmen must be changed to suit their 
employment. Canvas shoes are used, 
and the men may not turn their trousers 
at the bottom for fear of bringing in grit 
and gravel that might strike a spark. 

Projectiles 

have improved in weight and hardness so 
that now in battles tons of metal are fired 
through great granite fortifications and 
steel clad ships with greater ease than the 
old-time round shot could pierce an oak 
side. Early in the present century 
methods for throwing hollow shells filled 
with powder or small shot were invented. 
From canister, grape and chain shot, 
there have evolved heavier shells, gener- 




DEATH-DEALING MACHINES OF WAR. 


774 

ally explosive, but also of such hard and 
sharply pointed steel that no armor can 
withstand them. Most of the smaller 
rifles are equipped with balls that pierce 
the object aimed at cleanly and without 
jagged edges. Cases have been known 
where such a ball passing through a per¬ 
son did not even inflict a severe wound. 
Such is really the result aimed at in civil¬ 
ized war; either to kill a man outright, 
or simply temporarily to disable him. 
Some kinds of shells, however, are dia¬ 
bolical in their intent. Among these is 
the 

Dum-dum Bullet 

recently declared barbarous by the Peace 
Convention at The Hague. Some small 
shot explode after entering the body; 



THE ENGLISH DUM-DUM BULLET. 

The recess in the point of the bullet allows the soft 
lead, of which the interior of the bullet is made, to 
expand on striking the victim’s body; while the 
nickel sheath breaks into jagged edges and makes 
frightful wounds. 

others, like the dum-dum bullet, flatten 
out when they strike any object of resist¬ 
ance, because of their soft material, being 
only partly covered by a nickel envelope, 
and these at once make fearful, jagged 
wounds, and are hard to extract. The 
British are now using in South Africa an 
awful affair partly covered with copper, 
but bare at the end, and with a slight 
opening sawed down into the bullet. 
When this strikes a victim, the cut closes 
because of its softness, and the bullet 
then assumes the shape of a mushroom, 
as a result making terrible and painful 
wounds. One of the new inventions 
along the line of projectiles is what is 
called 


The “Base” Shell. 

The bottom or blunt end of the shell, 
which is large and for cannon use, is 
separate from the rest of the shell. This 
“base” rests on ball-bearings, and, while 
the upper portion revolves, it is station¬ 
ary. Attached to the base and folding 
up into grooves along the upper part are 
four murderous scythes. When the shell 
is thrown from its gun, the rifling of the 
core starts the point of the shell revolv¬ 
ing, the knives, pushed by springs, jump 
out from the sides of the base, and as 
they go through the ranks of the enemy 
cut and maim every man in their course. 
Then, after its work is nearly complete, it 
explodes and works more havoc. The 
knives when outspread cover a diameter 
of forty-five inches, and it may be imag¬ 
ined what carnage such a missile will cre¬ 
ate in a rank of closely lined infantry. 

Searchlights 

have brought about a great revolution in 
warfare. By their means lights and sig¬ 
nals can be thrown many miles, and the 
work of the enemy in the night detected. 
The average searchlight is made up of 
lenses and reflectors so as to condense or 
diffuse the light of a 25,000 candle-power 
electric arc lamp. They are made in the 
shape of a cylinder about thirty inches 
deep and from two-to three feet in diam¬ 
eter. In the back is a silver-backed re¬ 
flecting lens, and at the front is a glass 
door. Within is an electric lamp placed 
at the focusing point of the lens. Be¬ 
tween the glass door and the lamp is a 
smaller reflecting lens that throws the 
light of the electric lamp into the large 
lens, and that lens in turn throws the 
concentrated rays out through the glass 
door miles and miles into the night. The 
whole affair is mounted on a pedestal, 
and can be moved in any direction at will. 
The rays of light are generally kept to¬ 
gether so that a beam 3,000 feet away 







DEATH - DEALING MACHINES OF WAR. 


775 


covers only the width of fifty feet. This, 
however, can be changed at will if de¬ 
sired. 

Torpedoes 

are the dread of all war vessels, and work 
as much havoc as any other weapon. 
They are shaped like a cigar, with pro¬ 
peller at the rear and an awful load of 
dynamite or gun-cotton at the nose. In¬ 
side is an electric storage battery attached 
to a motor that operates the propeller. 
When ready to be discharged at the 
enemy, a torpedo is placed in a com¬ 
pressed-air device that shoots it out into 
the water, aimed in a certain direction. 
The electric battery has been turned on 
and the rudders so arranged that the tor¬ 
pedo will travel in a given angle. It 
drives forward at a great speed, the cap 
on the nose strikes the side of the ship 
and discharges the explosive, and the ship 
is torn into pieces. 

Mines are used nowadays for protection 
of the harbors against an incoming 
enemy. These are big bombs placed at 
the bottom of the harbor or straits and 
connected by electricity so that they may 
be fired off at will. Charts are made of 
the harbor, and so figured out that the 
attendant several miles away can look 
through a telescope at the approaching 
enemy, and can tell at just what moment 
the intruder is over a given mine. He 
then turns a switch, and the great vessel 
of steel and iron is blown into the air with 
a vast volume of water, and rapidly sinks. 
Some mines are fast to buoys which float 
at the surface, so that when a vessel com¬ 
ing into the forbidden waters strikes one, 
an electric spark is carried down to the 
mine and it explodes. 

Among 

Machine Guns 

the Gatling, Hotchkiss and Maxim are the 
deadliest because of their rapid fire. The 
Gatling has a .number of barrels joined 


together side by side, and at a distance 
looks like a big stubby cannon. There 
are generally about ten barrels, which 
revolve upon a pivot. Each chamber has 
a separate lock which is discharged auto¬ 
matically when the barrel reaches its 
proper position. The machine is worked 
by a crank; the cartridges are placed in a 
rack with grooves that let them slide down 
into their proper chambers as soon as the 
fired shells have been ejected. As many 
as 1,200 shots a minute have been fired 
by the Gatling gun. 

The Maxim differs in that it is wholly 
automatic; after each recoil of a previous 
discharge the shock opens the breech, 
extracts the empty shell, takes a fresh 
cartridge, cocks the gun, pushes the shell 
into its chamber and fires the gun. The 
cartridges are loaded into the gun in a 
belt, and all the operator has to do is to 
pull the trigger the first time, and the 
belt is ground through the machine at the 
rate of 600 shots a minute. 

The Armstrong gun is the largest of 
the rapid-fire guns. It is for large caliber 
shells, using 4 y 2 pounds of smokeless 
powder, and throwing six-inch projectiles 
weighing 100 pounds with enough force 
to penetrate fifteen inches of wrought 
iron. -A smaller gun of the same order 
fires forty-five pound shells at the rate of 
fifteen per minute. 

The Driggs-Schroeder and Hotchkiss 
rapid-fire guns are inventions of Ameri¬ 
cans, and are used largely on our battle 
ships, especially in the “fighting tops.” 
These swing on pivots, so that they may 
be directed to any quarter. They fire 
one shot at a time, and to aim the gun an 
arm-piece similar to that of a rifle is 
attached. The gunner presses this against 
his shoulder and steadies it, while his two 
hands remain free to open the chamber, 
insert a shell, pull the trigger, and re¬ 
load. It fires still projectiles with great 



776 


DEATH-DEALING MACHINES OF WAR. 



CARING FOR THE WOUNDED. 

A scene in a modern U. S. field hospital during the late war with Spain. 


battleship class the effectiveness of our 
fighting ships has been prodigiously in¬ 
creased. Six new monsters of the finest 
type are under way: the Kearsarge, Ken¬ 
tucky, Alabama, ( Illinois, Wisconsin, and 
the new Maine. The measurements of 
the Kearsarge and Kentucky are: Water¬ 
line length, 368 feet; displacement, 11,525 
tons; speed, 16 knots; horse power, 
10,000; water-line armor belt, 16*4 


tiles thrown from the main-battery guns 
weigh 1,100 pounds, leave the muzzle 
with 33,627 foot tons energy, and have 
the power of penetrating 34^4 inches of 
wrought iron. 

Besides the heavy war vessels, the navy 
is being equipped with ‘ a new class of 
peace ships. Six cruisers are soon to be 
built that are not intended for battle with 
war ships of the enemy. Their duties 


inches; side armor above belt, 6 inches; 
turret armor, 17 and 15 inches; conning 
tower, 10 inches; protective deck, 2^ 
inches. Armament: Main battery, 4 thir¬ 
teen-inch guns; submain battery, 4 eight- 
inch guns; secondary battery, 14 five- 
inch rapid-fire guns, and 20 six-pound 
rapid-fire guns. The enormous projec- 


force and at the rate of thirty-six shots a 
minute. 

Enormous strides have been made in 
the upbuilding of the 


American Navy 


since the Spanish-American war. Many 
new craft have been added, but in the 
















DEATH-DEALING MACHINES OF WAR. 


777 


will lie in capturing or annoying the 
merchantmen and unprotected harbor 
towns of the enemy, and policing the sea. 
They are especially adapted to tropical 
waters, carry plenty of coal, and are light 
enough to enter shallow water. They 
are to be built of steel, but their bottoms 
and sides up to a minimum of two feet 
above the water line are to be sheathed 
with heavy planking, which in turn is to 
be covered with copper. This copper 
covering is to avoid barnacles and the 
like which grow on the bottoms and sides, 
and materially hamper marine move¬ 
ments. Very little wood is to be used on 
the vessels, for it has been found that 
breaking beams splinter and cause more 
wounds than bullets. They will measure 
308 feet 2 inches over all, 53 feet wide; 
full draft when loaded, 16 feet 8 inches; 
displacement, 3,400 tons; horse power, 


4,500; coal capacity, 700 tons, and speed 
. i 6}4 knots. All the latest methods of 
electric lighting, heavy engines and the 
like will enable them to carry crews of 
290 men 9,800 miles without other supply. 

The Largest Searchlight 
ever made is the one that was exhibited 
on the roof of the Manufactures Building 
at the World’s Columbian Exposition, and 
which is now installed in the observatory 
on the summit of Mt. Lowe, California. 
It has the power of 3,000,000 candles and 
throws a strong light 150 miles. Its re¬ 
flecting lens weighs 800 pounds, is three- 
fourths of an inch thick at the edges and 
one-sixteenth in the center, and is encased 
in metal rings weighing 750 pounds. 
The whole light is 11 feet high and 
weighs 6,000 pounds, yet is so delicatety 
poised that a child can move it in any 
direction. 




THE MODERN PUEBLO VILLAGE; WHOLE TOWNS IN THE TALL 

BUILDING OF TO-DAY. 


EN years ago, when the first 
“skyscraper,” the Tacoma 
building, was begun in Chi¬ 
cago, it was supposed that 
the Pyramids and a few of the great 
cathedrals were the largest buildings that 
were likely ever to be erected. To-day 
we have tall bridge-like edifices that almost 
overtop these landmarks and seem to brush 
the skies. The development of the tall 
building generally known as the “sky¬ 
scraper” came about in the natural course 
of improvements in building, but it has 
wrought one of the greatest revolutions, 
though peaceful, that has ever been wit¬ 
nessed. 

When land values in the great cities 
began to go up several figures at a jump, 
the question was asked, “Where are we 
going to conduct our business?” Land 
was occupied in the mercantile centers, 
and since the buildings could not spread 
out they must increase in height. This 
went on in a meager sort of way, for 
people did not like climbing up several 
stories to their offices. Then came the 
elevator, and with it the study of how 
best to increase the height of the office 
buildings. 

It had always been supposed that the 
walls were the main support for the floors 
and the rest of the structure, but one day 
an engineer came along who reversed this 
method. He argued that by making the 
framework of steel and fastened together 
like a cantilever bridge, there ought to be 
778 


strength enough to support the outside 
covering. And such has been the method 
o-f building since, called 

“Chicago Construction.” 

But the problem was not nearly worked 
out, for with increased height there must 
be increased strength in the foundations. 
This meant a study of the soil to see if it 
would bear such great weights, and what 
would be the best method of keeping the 
structure from leaning out of plumb. 
The result has been that building has 
now become almost a branch of civil 
engineering. 

Let us observe the rearing of one of 
these cities in miniature, with its railway¬ 
like elevators carrying thousands of pas¬ 
sengers and freight daily, with its own 
electric light and power plants, its restau¬ 
rants and hotels, its libraries for the 
tenants, its telephone “central” and tele¬ 
graph lines, its laundries, fire apparatus 
and trained fire departments, barber 
shops, postoffices, superintendents, de¬ 
tectives, and corps of workmen. 

The Tallest Building 

of to-day is the Park Row, in New York 
city, designed by R. H. Robertson. It is 
twenty-nine stories in height and meas¬ 
ures from the bottom of its foundation to 
the top of its flag pole 501 feet, or nearly 
one-tenth of a mile. Its weight is about 
20,000 tons, and when loaded with its 
“live” weight of tenants, furniture, etc., 
the total pressure upon the foundation 
















SKYSCRAPERS. 




piles is about 61,400 tons. It may well be 
imagined what is the amount of steel, 
stone, bricks, cement, glass, etc., that is 
needed in the construction of such a 
monster, and yet the rapidity 
with which these buildings 
are erected is still more 
amazing. 

First the soil is probed to 
see of what nature it is. In 
Chicago,—which, by the way, 
is almost a floating city be¬ 
cause of the thin crust of 
earth that rests on a large 
bed of ooze,—the building 
problem is different from 
that in New York, where the 
ground is largely sandy with 
rock bottom. 


would seem no force o*r time could con¬ 
quer. Resting on this sub-foundation are 
huge blocks of granite, and above them the 
brick piers of the building. The weight of 


Great Pile-Drivers 

with hundred-ton hammers, 
pound down into the ground 
to great depths long pine 
piles, sometimes, as in the 
Park Row building, forty feet 
long, and as many as 1,200 
in number. The piles are 
placed about two feet apart 
and in rows that will be di¬ 
rectly under the great ver¬ 
tical columns that are to 
support the great weight of 
the completed building. On 
top of these piles and about 
their upper ends is ponred 
concrete, which hardens and 
becomes a solid rock-like sub¬ 
stance, resting securely upon 
the piles. Sometimes criss¬ 
cross arrangements of steel 
rails are imbedded in the 
concrete, and, when it has 
hardened, there is presented 
as a first foundation a mass 
of steel and rock that it 


A MODERN “SKYSCRAPER.” 

Showing the framework tip, and several floors laid. Ready to put 

on the wallo of the lower stories. 


























780 


SKYSCRAPERS. 


the building- is not allowed to come directly 
on the granite, but huge steel beams, 
some of them eight by fifty feet, and 
weighing more than fifty tons, are placed 
between the foundations and the bases of 
the upright steel girders about which the 
“skyscraper” is to be built. This dis¬ 
tributes the weight to every part of the 
foundation. Above the surface a great 
steel framework rises, which, before the 
walls are on, looks a great deal like an 
immense house of cards. 

The enormous steel girders that make 
up the frame are all riveted together in 
every available place. It is said that if a 
storm great enough to disturb one of 
these skyscrapers came along the building 
would hang together, even if it were 
blown entirely over. The outer walls of 
this great box-like frame are very thin 
when compared to its height. If the old 
method of using the walls as support for 
the floors were used, the walls at the bot¬ 
tom would have to be so thick that there 
would be no open space for use, while the 
weight would be so great that no founda¬ 
tion would support it. The material varies; 
often it is of terra cotta, and sometimes of 
brick and stone. It is fastened securely 
upon the framework, and the lower walls 
give but little support to those above. 


The floors are made, as are also the 
walls, entirely of hollow, 

Fireproof Brick; 

and some buildings have not even wooden 
laths, but rather arrangements of thin 
steel or tin upon which the plaster is laid. 
Thus a fire may burn out the fittings of 
one room, yet not spread to another. 

The cost of the Park Row building was 
$2,400,000, but the income from its rents 
is more every year than the taxes of a 
small city. It contains 950 rooms, and 
will accommodate tens of thousands of 
people. The elevators carry over 50,000 
people daily. 

The question whether the “skyscraper” 
has reached its limit is not as yet 
answered. Cities are enacting building 
laws regulating the height of buildings. 
Fires disastrous in their results have 
recently broken out in New York, which 
threatens the increase of height. It re¬ 
mains to be seen whether steel will last 
long enough without rusting, though at 
present, examinations of steel girders 
erected ten years ago show no such 
decay. Whatever the future of the tall 
buildings is, all modern improvements in 
buildings take on the aspect of the “sky¬ 
scraper. ’ ’ 




























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♦ 

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9 

* 

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Compressed Air and Pneumatic Tubes. 

9 

9 

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HOW MAIL AND EXPRESS PACKAGES ARE SENT MILES 

9 

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UNDERGROUND BY AIR ALONE. 

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IR compressed into a smaller 
space than it normally occu¬ 
pies exerts a powerful pres¬ 
sure, for being a gas of a 
certain density it needs a certain amount 
of room. When, then, by means of a 
compressor or pump we force air into a 
small receiver the tendency is for the tiny 
atoms that make it up to push one against 
the other for more room and try to get 
away. This powerful agent is easily 
obtained, and when stored up in tanks 
may be used in any one of some hundreds 
of ways. When conducted through a 
pipe with a faucet nozzle the air may be 
used for blowing dust out of carpets and 
upholstery, as well as for applying paint 
to high ceilings. Chemical experiments 
are made daily with its aid. Power is 
applied for running cars, elevators, auto¬ 
mobiles, electric dynamos, and many 
other such affairs. Liquid air was dis¬ 
covered only by its aid, and the great 
system of sending packages in pneumatic 
tubes from floor to floor of the great de¬ 
partment stores, mail from city to city, 
and messages underground from the great 
press associations to the newspapers, 
saves much time and expense. Recently 


a pneumatic tube system was opened be¬ 
tween the New York City postoffice in 
the city hall at New York with that of 
Brooklyn. A tube eight inches in 


diameter and over a half-mile long pass¬ 
ing over the Brooklyn Bridge thus hourly 
saves the use of many wagons and mes¬ 
sengers. Possibly as fine a system as any 
is that which was recently installed in the 
Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City, 
though the placing of the tubes in the 
walls of the building is a great deal easier 
than running them under the ground in 
conduits, as are those that connect all the 
great newspaper offices with the tele - 
graph companies. 

This great hotel has 1,200 rooms, and 
on an average entertains 1,500 guests; it 
is sixteen floors high, so that it may 
readily be seen what an army of pages 
and clerks it would take to sort and de¬ 
liver 6,000 pieces of mail and 2,000 news¬ 
papers that are received every day, 
without the aid of some such device as its 
pneumatic tube system. In the basement 
of the hotel is a 

Pump-Like Engine 

that compresses the air to a pressure of 
from two to three pounds to the square 
inch. The compressed air is stored in a 
large tank, from which run two large 
mains or pipes, one to the “central” sta¬ 
tion on the main floor, where the boxes 
are shot up to the different floors, and 
another that leads up to the top of 
the building. The latter has fourteen 

781 


























782 


MODERN ILLUSTRATING. 


branches, one leading to each of the first 
fourteen floors, each one ending in receiv¬ 
ers specially adapted to the system. 
These two mains and their branches 
supply air under pressure to the other 
tubes that are to carry the messages. 
Now, leading from each station on the 
upper floors down to the “central” on the 
main floor are separate transmission 
tubes made of seamless brass tubing 
three inches in diameter, which do the 
carrying. Thus, at the main station 
there is a long row of receivers, fourteen 
in all, each numbered and leading to its 
respective floor. Little boxes to fit the 
tubing, and having fur on the ends so as 
not to stand still and let the air pass 
around them when in the tube, are em¬ 
ployed to shoot through these pipes, 
while longer ones ten inches in length 
are used for carrying newspapers. When 
it is desired to send up mail or a visitor’s 


card to an occupant on an upper floor the 
attendant at “central” places the message 
in one of the boxes, shoves the box into 
the receiver, and then pushes a rod which 
in turn actuates machinery that lets a 
little air into the tube. This causes a cur¬ 
rent sufficient to carry the box up to the 
end of its tube, where it is dumped out. 
The attendant at this station hands the 
message to a page in waiting, who carries 
it to the proper room. 

Some systems have two sets of pipes 
through which all the time there is flow¬ 
ing a strong current of air, one pipe lead¬ 
ing up, the other down. This, however, 
is done away with by the system just 
described, one tube sufficing for messages 
either way. On election nights when 
newspapers are rushed to get the news, 
and thousands of telegrams are being 
sent and received hourly, this is the only 
method which could be used. 




Modern Illustrating. 

HALF-TONE AND COLORTYPE ENGRAVING. 



SIDE from the method known 
as zinc-etching (see article on 
Modern Newspaper) there are 
several other processes, such 
as wood-cuts, half-tones and colortypes. 
Wood-cuts, as their name implies, are 
engravings on blocks of wood, and are of 
the earlier method of engraving. With 
these very fine detail in lights and shad¬ 
ows can be obtained, but for rapid and 


inexpensive work the photo-engraving 
processes are used in the main. The zinc 
method for outline cuts, or cuts where 
there are no other tones or colors other 
than black with the blank space white, 
is as good a process as could be desired, 
but it can readily be noticed that in repro¬ 
ducing photographs there are some shad¬ 
ows more intense than others and some 
lights brighter. Zinc etching cannot 





















MODERN ILLUSTRATING. 


possibly bring out anything .but white 
and black, so the half-tones or lighter 
shadows had to be produced by some 
other method. 

It was found that by photographing the 
object desired through a fine screen of 
muslin or 

Wire Gauze 

or lines scratched on a glass plate and 
then filled up with ink, the little squares 
in the screen would separate the rays of 
light according to the strength of the light 
or shadow of the picture. Where the 
shadows are intense the rays run together 
so that the effect on the plate is of the 
black shadow running all together, but 
where they are lighter the rays come 
upon the plate differently and form little 
dots, while in the high lights or white 
places the plate is still more dotted. If 
you will take a magnifying glass and 
examine a half-tone you will see that the 
whole picture is made up of little cross¬ 
bars. This is the effect of the screen, and 
is called ‘ ‘ stippling. ’ ’ The screen is placed 
just in front of the plate to be photo¬ 
graphed upon in the camera, and as the 
rays of light come in through the lens 
they are diffused according to the inten¬ 
sity of the light or shadows in the object 
being photographed. The screen is ruled 
in little bars with lines from 80 to 150 to 
the inch. These are so small that they 
hardly appear as lines when the cut is 
viewed a little ways off, yet they accom¬ 
plish the work of collecting the different 
grades of half-tones, and produce a pic¬ 
ture after being etched on copper or brass 
plates almost a counterpart of the photo¬ 
graph. 

The Colortype 

is worked out on the same line, that is, 
with a screen to stipple or grain the plate, 
but a further process of using different 
colored inks is used which in the end gives 


783 

the effect of photographs in color. The 
process consists in having three different 
half-tone plates made of the same subject, 
which are used respectively with three dif¬ 
ferent inks: red, yellow, and blue. These 
three colors when combined in proper 
amounts by printing one on top of the 
other will give any shade of color desired. 
The subject to be printed is carefully 
studied as to its color, and the proper 
combination of the inks to produce the 
desired colors is decided. Then one plate 
is arranged for printing, let us say, in 
blue. All that portion of the picture that 
is to appear in heavy blue has a heavy 
surface on the engraving; the lighter 
shades are stippled more, o-r eaten out; 
while that portion which needs blue in 
combination with one or both of the other 
colors is shaded in proportion. This 
plate, after being “blocked” with color 
thus, is marked near the edges with- 

“Register Marks” 

which aid in printing the next color ex¬ 
actly on top of the other at the proper 
place. Then the yellow plate is prepared 
in the same manner, and then the red. 
Proofs of each plate are taken separately 
and together, to see if the right color scale 
has been worked out. If the final proof 
is correct, all the register marks on the 
several plates should print exactly one 
over the other and not blur, forming a 
single mark. When this is done, we have 
as a result a perfect colortype or picture 
resembling a photographic half-tone, only 
in natural colors. The greatest difficulty 
in this kind of engraving is that the oper¬ 
ator must thoroughly understand the 
effects of one color upon the other, and 
be able to know what degrees of intensity 
of the primary colors must be used to 
combine at last into the perfect and 
natural shade. 





me Meat Market oi me world. 


The Union Stock Yards, of Chicago, Where Millions of Dollars, Worth of 
Cattle, Hogs, and Sheep are Slaughtered Daily and Shipped 
To Every Quarter of the Globe. 



HICAGO supplies the world 
with meat. Daily there passes 
through the great Stock Yards 
on the southwest side of the 
city millions of dollars, worth 
of cattle, hogs, and sheep, beside vast num¬ 
bers of horses, to be shipped to all parts 


of the globe. These yards gain their name 
by reason of the numerous railway lines 
that surround them in a square, and which 
bring here from all parts of the stock- 
raising country vast herds to be slaugh¬ 
tered and packed. 

The Union Stock Yards is a corpora¬ 
tion, virtually a monopoly, and has many 
of the powers of a municipal^. Within 
784 


its gates enter every morning, between 
4:30 a. m. and 9 a. m., some 28,000 per¬ 
sons, while there are employed in both 
the yards proper and “Packington,” 
which is always considered a part of the 
yards, about 35,000 people. In 1899 the 
total receipts of animals were about 2,500,- 

000 cattle, 140,000 
calves, 9,200,000 hogs, 
3,700,00c sheep, and 
120,000 horses (for this 
yard is also the greatest 
horse market in the 
world). To bring this 
stock to market re¬ 
quired nearly 300,000 
cars, or a train over 300 
miles long. The Stock 
Yards Company con¬ 
trols all manner of in- 
d u s t r i e s within its 
grounds, from water 
plants and fire depart¬ 
ments to restaurants and boot-blacking 
stands. 

When a load of stock is run in on the 
side track, the cattle or hogs are run into 
chutes by the company and locked up 
until the man to whom they are consigned 
sends for them. Then a “key-man” opens 
the chute and gives the animals into the 
care of the consignee. This man may be 





















































THE MEAT MARKET OF THE WORLD. 


785 



KILLING “KOSHER" CATTLE. 

For Jewish customers meat must be dressed with especial religious rites. 


The Pens 

are divided into blocks 
and divisions just like 
a township, to facilitate 
in locating stock. The 
yards cover no less than 
475 acres, 320 of which 
are covered with plank 
flooring. There are 13,- 
000 pens, 8,500 of which are covered for 
housing hogs and sheep. The divisions and 
blocks lay out the place with twenty-five 
miles of streets, while there are thirty- 
eight miles of water troughs for watering 
stock, ninety miles of water pipe and fif¬ 
teen miles of sewers Six artesian wells 
furnish the water supply, and in summer 
time the tanks and reservoirs hold water 
for emergency to the amount of 8,000,000 
50 


of inspection for disease by government 
officials makes it almost impossible for 
unhealthy stock to be sold. And when 
one considers that in one year $230,000,- 
000 worth of stock is yarded by the com¬ 
pany and it seldom occurs that a single 
head is lost, one can possibly understand 
the magnitude of this great buying and 
selling center. 

But aside from the simple handling of 


a packer or a commission man. From the 
chutes the animals are driven to pens that 
custom has given to each particular firm. 
Here they are inspected and sold. As they 
go to the scales and are weighed govern¬ 
ment inspectors throw out poor stock, 
while a public shrinker docks some ani¬ 
mals that are not in the best condition from 
forty to eighty pounds. 

Condemned animals 
have a tag fastened in 
their ears. Three main 
sections in the yards are 
laid off for cattle, sheep, 
and hogs. The cattle 
pens are large, roomy 
places which will hold 
several car-loads, and 
are brick paved. The 
pens for hogs are 
double-decked, that is, 
like a two-story house, 
one pen over the other.' 

The sheep are all taken 
to a roofed place called 
the “sheep-house.” 


gallons. Owners are put to no trouble in 
the handling of stock, for all kinds of feed 
are delivered to the pens by the com¬ 
pany, and the watering, feeding and yard¬ 
ing is all conducted under its care at 
reasonable cost. Two hundred commis¬ 
sion firms located at this market make 
competition acute. A thorough system 












786 


THE MEAT MARKET OF THE WORLD. 


stock by commission men and speculators, 
the Stock Yards are noted for the latest 
and fastest methods for killing, packing 
and shipping to all points of the globe 
the meat supply of all humanity. The 
largest packers at Chicago include Armour 
& Co., Swift & Co., Nelson Morris & Co., 
Libby, McNeil & Libby, and the Cud- 
ahys. All these firms are capitalized in 
the millions, and nearly all have branch 
yards and packing houses at Kansas City, 


Omaha, St. Louis, and several other 
points, while they are represented by 
salesmen and markets all over the world. 
To give an idea of the immensity of one 
of these concerns the following figures 
are given: One company in 1898 pur¬ 
chased live stock to the aggregate of 
1,437,844 cattle, 2,658,951 sheep, and 
3,928,659 hogs. Sales the same year 
amounted to $150,000,000, and the total 
number of cars needed to carry the meats 
was 107,684. From this number of live 
stock there were made 196,244,585 pounds 


of lard, 6,472,857 pounds of wool, 3,888,- 
983 pounds of neatsfoot oil, 5,487,540 
pounds of glue, 8,116,338 pounds of 
butterine, 26,009,453 pounds of tallow 
and grease, 61,635,047 pounds of oil, 
90,079,748 pounds of hides, and 86,226,- 
586 pounds of fertilizer. This same 
company’s plant at Chicago extends over 
forty acres of land, of which thirty- 
eight acres are covered by buildings, the 
latter having floor space to the area of 

sixty- seven acres. 
Twenty - five engines 
with eighty-one boilers 
and 12 dynamos supply 
the plant with power 
and light, while seven 
refrigerating machines 
with 125 miles of pipe 
have a capacity of cool¬ 
ing 1,400 tons of meat 
daily. The storage and 
cooling rooms have a 
capacity of 5,000 cattle, 
7,500 sheep, and 12,000 
hogs. Six thousand and 
eighty - five employes 
that carry on this gi¬ 
gantic enterprise neces¬ 
sitate a weekly pay roll 
of $70,000. 

Numerous methods 
are used for 

Killing 

and preparing the stock for consumption. 
The cattle are driven from the buying 
pens over long runways to pens near the 
slaughter houses. From these they are 
run one by one into pens within the house, 
each just large enough for one animal. 
Platforms run along the side of these 
pens and level with the top. Along these 
platforms walk men with small sledge¬ 
hammers, and when just above a steer, 
one of them will suddenly swing the ham- 



IN THE HOG “STICKING-PEN.” 


Showing a sticker in the act of killing. 






787 


THE MEAT MARKET OF THE WORLD. 


mer with stunning force upon the head of 
the animal just between the horns. The 
animal drops to the floor, and then a gate 
is swung up, the floor turns upward on 
one side upon a pivot, and the animal 
rolls out, only to be quickly jerked to the 
ceiling by a chain fastened about one 
hoof. At once the throat is cut, and the 
head removed; the animal is drained of 
blood, and then in quick stages the hide, 
hoofs, shanks and inwards are removed, 
and sorted to their various departments. 
The “splitter” comes 
along and splits the ani¬ 
mal down the back¬ 
bone. All this time the 
carcass has been trav¬ 
eling upon an endless 
trolley; and now, after 
it has been washed and 
cooled, it is ready to be 
stored in the great re- 
frigerating rooms, 
whence it comes later 
wrapped in cloth and 
is shipped away in spe¬ 
cially prepared refriger¬ 
ator cars all over the 
world. For Jewish cus¬ 
tomers a special killing 
is necessarv because of 

j 

the tenets of their re¬ 
ligion that will not allow them to eat 
meat other than that killed by an ordained 
rabbi, or which has ever had a broken 
limb. Instead of using the hammer for 
stunning, the animal is first tied by the 
feet, then raised in the air by the one 
hind foot. A killer appointed by a rabbi 
comes along murmuring a prayer, and 
with a quick slash cuts the animal’s throat. 
This process is called 

Killing “Kosher,” 

and is very rapid, in one plant 250 being 
killed and dressed an hour. 


With sheep the process is similar to 
other killings, only the sheep are sus¬ 
pended two by two on hooks that run 
along a continuous trolley line. As each 
set passes a certain station a certain part 
of the process is completed. The killer 
sticks the knife in their throats at the 
rate of twenty a minute; then the animal 
moves along to each specialist until the 
carcass appears at the end of the trolley 
held apart with wooden sticks, ready for 
the chilling room. With this branch of 


slaughtering as with others, the Jewish 
method necessitates a special slayer, who 
places the edge of the knife between his 
lips and mutters a prayer before every 
death stroke. 

With 

Hogs 

an odd device like a great drum, with six 
hooks at intervals on each side, revolves 
by machinery. Each hook is so arranged 
with a little wheel that, when a hog is 
fastened to one as the drum revolves, the 
hog is jerked with it till it reaches its 
highest point, when the little wheel slips 



UNITED STATES INSPECTORS MARKING HOGS TO BE 

SHIPPED. 



















788 


THE MEAT MARKET OF THE WORLD. 


on to the rail of a trolley and the hog is 
quickly run down to the killer. This 
man makes the quickest killing of any, 
numbering about twenty-five strokes per 
minute, while 550 wholly dressed hogs 
are turned out from one plant each hour. 
From the killer the hogs go to the “gut¬ 
ter,” and then to the scalding trough, 
where in boiling hot water and with the 
aid of a scraping machine most of their 
hair is removed. Next in a cooler bath 
the last vestige of hair is scraped away by 
hand. From here the carcass goes 
through the general process of cutting 
up, only with hogs the cutting is in 
smaller pieces. The leaf lard is sent to 
markets or to the refinery; the sides are 
pressed into shape for bacons by hy¬ 
draulic presses, while odd bits and cut¬ 
tings are sliced off here and there and 


shot through tin chutes hundreds of feet 
long to other parts of the building, 
where they are packed in boxes ready for 
shipment. 

The process of killing must for facility 
be divided so that each man does but one 
part of the work; thus, one man kills, one 
man “guts,” another removes the hide, 
another chops off the hocks, while still 
others split and divide the carcass into 
marketable shape. The animal is always 
yet warm ere the process is complete, and 
in from three to five minutes after the 
live animal is driven into the pen, the 
meat is ready for cooling. It is remark¬ 
able that not an ounce of a slaughtered 
animal goes to waste. Every part that 
cannot be used directly for food, wool, 
leather or oil goes to the “tank” and is 
refined into glue. 



CHICKEN KILLING. 

With a corps of eighty men, 10,000 chickens, 8,000 ducks or 6,000 turkeys are killed and dressed by the 
above illustrated process every day. Each operator has his certain work to do; one man fastens the fowl’s 
legs to the hooks on the endless chain, and also hangs a little can to its neck just below the bill. The 
chain moves on, a man sticks an awl through the neck of the fowl, and the blood drips out into the can 
whence it is sent to the “tank” for fertilizer. Then as the chain goes on each man plucks his part of the 
feathers till all is done. 











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STEEL PLATE MILL 

SHOWING IN THE BACKGROUND THE IMMENSE ROLLERS THAT PRESS THE WHITE-HOT STEEL INGOTS OR 
SLABS INTO IMMENSE STEEL PLATES TOR THE HULLS OF VESSELS, LOCOMOTIVES AND OTHER USES 



CONTINUOUS TRAIN-ROD MILL SHOWING THE IMMENSE ROLLER THAT PRESS THE IRON INTO LONG RODS 











































Great Governments of the World 

HOW THE NATIONS OF TO-DAY GOVERN 

THEIR PEOPLE. 


OVERNMENT has existed 
since the birth of man. Opin¬ 
ions differ with people and 
nations as to the goal to be 
reached by this or that 
method, but the intelligent person watches 
with interest the growth in any form of 
the great science of politics and govern¬ 
ment. The entire human family has un¬ 
dergone, or is still undergoing, vital 
changes of government and mutual rela¬ 
tionship. A glance at the various gov¬ 
ernments in operation throughout the 
world at the present time will reveal 
the important fact that few, if any, of 
the methods familiar in the pages of 
history are absent from the list. We still 
have the savage communities, which in¬ 
volve almost an obliteration of the family 
relation rather than the existence of one 
large family; there are the nomadic 
hordes and camp-followers, grazing their 
herds on the edges of the desert at one 
time, and threatening to overthrow the 
world at another. Some countries still 
think the individual exists for the benefit 
of the government rather than the gov¬ 
ernment for the governed. Let us glance 
at some of the larger nations with their 
most improved and enlightened methods 
of government, as well as their errors. 


FRANCE. 

In France, as much possibly as in any 
other great government, we have the ex¬ 
tremes democracy and monarchy com¬ 
bined. When the old monarchy went to 
pieces under Louis XVI., the masses were 
afraid to trust any of the aristocracy with 
the reins of government, and, accord¬ 
ingly, boards were appointed to manage 
the different departments. When Napo¬ 
leon assumed control, however, it was an 
easy matter to place trusty tools or single 
officers in charge. After him came 
changes of republics and empires until 
to-day, under the third republic, we have 
a system of government combining the 
features gained from the advanced repub¬ 
lican thinkers of France (the country most 
advanced in theoretical republicanism) 
with those of a strongly centralized mili¬ 
tary rule. One cannot study the govern¬ 
ment of this powerful republic without 
taking into consideration the enormous 
power wielded by the army, and the 
almost implicit confidence placed by the 
common people in that body. 

A national assembly, elected to treat 
with Germany after the Franco-Prussian 
War in 1871, found itself in control of the 
government, and while the members were 
largely monarchists, the general tendency 

789 






















790 


GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


of France as a whole was toward the re¬ 
publican form of government, therefore 
the assembly dared do nothing but draw 
up a republican constitution. To be 
sure, the constitution was rather meager, 
and tended strongly towards the monar¬ 
chical, and it was not submitted to the 
people for approval, nor is such now 
necessary. We have, therefore, these 
two tendencies of monarchy and republi¬ 
canism struggling for supremacy. 

The divisions of France for electoral and 
administrative purposes are eighty-six de¬ 
partments, which are divided into smaller 
districts,—362 in all,—which are in turn 
divided into still smaller cantons, 2,899 in 
number, while the smallest subdivision is 
the commune, of which France has 36,170. 
Three sides of government exist, the legis¬ 
lative, executive and judicial, though all 
are so centralized that a comparison to 
the government of the United States would 
be entirely out of place. 

The Legislative Department 
is divided into a chamber of deputies and 
a senate, members of the first to the num¬ 
ber of 584 being elected for four years, 
while those of the senate are elected for 
nine years, one-third retiring every three 
years. Each male citizen of twenty-one 
years who has resided six months in a 
commune, and who is not disqualified, may 
vote. Deputies must be citizens twenty- 
five years old, and receive $1,800 a year 
and free transportation on all railways. 
As a rule they are men of ordinary cal¬ 
iber, being retired business men, doctors 
and farmers. Senators are forty years 
old or more, and average sixty-three 
years, with salary the same as the depu¬ 
ties. The deputies are elected directly 
from the districts, though some of these 
are so large that two or more constitu¬ 
encies are made from them. Election 
day is set by government and not by law, 
and always comes on Sunday. If no 


candidate receives an absolute majority 
of all the votes cast, and at least one- 
fourth of the registered voters in his con¬ 
stituency, another election is held in two 
weeks, in which a simple plurality elects, 
and if a tie occurs, the oldest man is 
chosen. Senators are chosen from de¬ 
partments by electoral colleges (bodies 
of men elected for the purpose) composed 
of three classes: first, of delegates chosen 
from the municipal councils of the differ¬ 
ent Communes in the Department; sec- 
ond, of senators and Deputies of the De¬ 
partment; third, of members of the coun¬ 
cil general of the Department, and of the 
members of the different councils in the 
Districts of the Department. The sen¬ 
ators are not often men of national 
reputation, but retired professional men 
from the country towns. The work of 
the senate is not much beyond that of 
deciding with the president when the 
chamber of deputies shall be dissolved, 
and that of sitting as high court for im¬ 
peachments and trials of persons who 
threaten the existence of the state. In gen¬ 
eral it is a body inferior to the chamber. 

The President of France 
is elected by a majority of the chamber 
and senate sitting in joint session, and 
no member of the royal family may hold 
the office. The president’s salary is $125,- 
000 yearly, with a great retinue of serv¬ 
ants and the free use of the palace (Palais 
d’Elysees) in Paris. He has no veto on 
legislation, though he may return a bill 
for a second vote. He may adjourn the 
houses, though only for a month; may 
close a session over five months old, 
and with the consent of the senate may 
dissolve the chamber of deputies. The 
president has for his advisers a cabinet of 
eleven ministers of the different portfolios 
of finance, war, marine and the colonies, 
foreign affairs, etc., whose salaries are 
each $12,000 a year. These ministers are 



GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD 


791 


chosen by the president with a view to 
their influence in the respective house of 
which they may be members, and gener¬ 
ally with the advice of the presidents of 
the two houses. They really frame the 
legislation of the administration, and 
must sanction the acts of the president 
ere they are effective. They speak in 
both houses, whether they are members 
or not, but when they cannot control the 
bodies in legislation they are forced to 
resign, and a new cabinet is chosen. The 
smallest factional fight will defeat a cabi¬ 
net, the average life of the cabinet being 
about eight or ten months. And yet the 
government is largely that of the cabinet 
rather than of the president, for the 
latter really has no very great powers, 
and is more a luxurious figurehead than 
anything else. 

Legislative Methods 

begin with a choice of eleven bureaus in 
the chamber by lot at the start of each 
annual session, while nine are selected in 
the same manner by the senate. These 
bureaus choose from their numbers a 
monthly committee on parliamentary 
initiative, to which all bills are first re¬ 
ferred, when presented, to decide if they 
are worthy of consideration. This com¬ 
mittee practically passes all serious bills, 
and after printing them refers them to 
their respective bureaus. The bureau 
selects a sub-committee for study of the 
bill, though this is generally on party 
lines. After the bill has been amended 
to suit the committee, it is presented be¬ 
fore the chamber by a commissioner, who 
does not speak from his seat, but from a 
“tribune” above and behind the chair of 
the president of the house. The speaker 
(president of the chamber) has nothing of 
the great power wielded by the same 
officer of the United States, though he is 
elected by party rule. French parlia¬ 


mentary practice differs greatly from that 
of almost any other country, it being 
nothing uncommon for members to shout 
out their opinions of disapproval of the 
person speaking, and even the Speaker 
will stoop to trivial criticisms of members 
and speeches. 

Another body, the “council of state,” a- 
relic of the days of Napoleon, performs 
the function of advising the president and 
ministers on matters of public impor¬ 
tance. The members are, in many cases, 
men of learning, and do considerable 
good in preparing rules for administra¬ 
tion, though, as far as legislation is con¬ 
cerned, they are of little avail, for they 
are not generally consulted. 

Since the cabinet is dependent upon 
the chamber for support, it must naturally 
deal out favors to the deputies. These 
are largely in the shape of offices for 
friends and political aids. Public opinion 
is largely felt in France, and to avoid 
censure of the press, it is a well-known 
fact that the great sums of money at the 
hands of the cabinet for secret service 
are largely spent in subsidizing the news¬ 
papers. 

The System of Courts 

starts with the usual local justices of 
the peace, ascending through courts of 
appeal to a final supreme court. The 
president of the republic appoints the 
judges, with the aid of the minister of 
justice, and with the exception of the 
justices of the peace the tenure of office 
is permanent. A special court also ex¬ 
ists, composed of judicial officers and men 
of administrative training, whose duty it 
is to decide disputes arising over admin¬ 
istrative questions or between officers of 
the administration and citizens. The 
methods of procedure in French courts 
are entirely different from those in Amer¬ 
ica or England, and while there is not so 
much chance for a guilty criminal to avoid 



/ 


792 GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


sentence, at the same time, the system 
lacks the security of personal liberty. 
One judge in secret does the work of 
examining cases instead of a grand jury, 
and he may dismiss the case or commit it 
to trial at his own discretion. Many 
courts which sentence but for three or 
four years consist of three judges who 
act without a jury. A prisoner may be 
kept for days without communication 
with his friends, and if the judge so wills 
it, all the evil effects of the old “lettres 
de cachet” of the days of the Bastile can 
be reproduced. In the higher courts 
twelve jurors generally assist the judges 
and decide by a simple majority. In 
commercial cases there are special courts 
and councils made up of experts. 

In Local Government 
each district has a prefect, or sort of 
governor, appointed by the president for 
an indefinite term and responsible to the 
cabinet. A general council of the de¬ 
partment, elected by general vote for six 
years, one from each canton, assists him. 
These carry on the general work of the 
department, such as management of 
schools, local courts, railroads, asylums 
and the poor. Likewise the district 
(arrondissement), the next smaller divis¬ 
ion, has a sub-prefect appointed by the pre¬ 
fect, responsible to him and really act¬ 
ing as his agent. A council, one mem¬ 
ber elected from each canton, has the 
work of dividing the taxes among the 
communes. The canton is simply a 
small election district and judicial district 
for justices of the peace, muster district 
for the army, etc. The commune (still 
smaller) is self-governing, and is the 
unit of all government. Each elects a 
municipal council according to its popula¬ 
tion, and this council elects its mayor. 
The mayor, however, when once elected, 
becomes the agent of the central govern¬ 
ment at Paris, and may be suspended or 


removed if so desired. By the system of 
appointments and removals from office 
the government can for a time be abso¬ 
lutely despotic in its decrees, though when 
this happens new elections shortly remove 
the real offenders. Thus we have really 
two extremes of government, yet the 
great centralized power is plainly shown 
for the good in the great roads, bridges, 
expositions, public improvements and 
educational institutions of France. 


GERMANY. 

After the ravages of Napoleon upon the 
German states, their rulers naturally 
sought a defensive alliance. Till after 
the war of 1866 Austria was the natural 
leader of the union, but at that time 
Prussia came forward and Austria was 
thrust out. Three forces set to work to 
bring about what is now the German Em¬ 
pire, namely: first, the necessity of union 
of the several states; second, the great 
Bismarck of victorious Prussia, wishing 
order more than freedom; and, third, the 
princes of the different states, desiring to 
perpetuate their thrones, and wishing a 
degree of states’ rights. 

History. 

After the victories of the Prussian 
army against the French, the king of 
Prussia was elected the president of the 
union with the title of “emperor,” and 
the first coronation—that of Emperor 
William—took place in the palace of 
Louis XVI. at Versailles, near Paris, 
which was still besieged, January 18, 1871. 

Shortly afterward a diet was called and 
the new constitution was drawn up. This 
has not distinctly marked in it the three- 
sided form of government so familiar to 
Americans. 

The Imperial Government 

consists of the emperor and his adminis¬ 
tration, a federal council (or bundesrath) 





GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


793 


similar to our senate, and a diet (or 
reichstag) similar to our house of repre¬ 
sentatives. The latter is composed of 397 
members elected by popular vote for five 
years. Any German twenty-five years 
old can vote or be a candidate. The 
members are not paid, but receive free 
transportation. Bills cannot be intro¬ 
duced in the diet without support of at 
least fifteen members, and when a bill 
concerns only a certain state, either in the 
federal council or in the diet, the whole 
house does not vote, but rather only that 
portion affected by the bill. The diet 
must be consulted on war, the senate on 
treaties, and neither house can adjourn 
for more than from day to day, the em¬ 
peror having the right to fix the dates of 
adjournment. He is also empowered to 
dissolve the diet and order a new election 
within sixty days. The federal council is 
almost a counterpart of our senate, being 
composed of ambassadors from the differ¬ 
ent states of the union, selected by the 
head of the state, aided in a measure by 
the legislature. They vote according to 
the number from their respective states, 
and votes are cast in a lump by one 
spokesman for each state. The council is 
a perpetual body, and the emperor must 
convoke it upon the request of one-third 
of the members. The imperial chancellor 
presides over the council, and in case of 
a tie, his vote produces the necessary ma¬ 
jority for legislation. The council must 
concur in the legislation of the diet 
before it becomes a law, and accepts 
or rejects treaties. In case a state 
of the union shall not obey commands, 
the council may enforce its edicts with 
arms. The council is also empowered 
by the constitution to execute laws 
whenever no other provision has been 
made by law, thus giving, it is said, 
the actual sovereignty of the empire to 
this body. 


The Emperor 

at first glance would be thought to have 
no more power than that of our president, 
but it must be remembered that the con¬ 
stitution makes the ruler of Prussia its 
emperor. The Prussian crown descends 
to the oldest male, hence a man is always 
in power. This allows customs to grow 
up, and privileges are granted the ruler 
that would never be the case if a presi¬ 
dent governed, or if the emperor came 
from a different state each time. Also 
the German people have a great re¬ 
spect for the glory and grandeur of the 
imperial throne; the emperor repre¬ 
sents the empire in all its foreign affairs, 
appoints ambassadors without confirma¬ 
tion, and receives those of other courts. 
Besides this, he is almost absolute lord 
over an army of 500,000 thoroughly 
trained soldiers, always ready for the 
field. As king of the Prussians, he con¬ 
trols their seventeen delegates in the 
federal council, and it would mean almost 
revolution if he could not secure the other 
fourteen votes necessary for a majority. 
And then Prussia has absolute veto power 
on questions relating to the army, the 
navy, and the imperial taxes. This gives 
the emperor power enough to whip any 
faction into line. 

Bills 

are generally prepared by experts and 
submitted first to the council, and if 
passed here sent through the chancellor 
to the diet. Amendments of the consti¬ 
tution are not referred to the people, but 
are enacted by the council. If fourteen 
votes are cast against such a measure it 
cannot pass; hence, it can be seen that no 
group of smaller states can force on 
Prussia, with her seventeen votes, a dis¬ 
tasteful amendment, and yet neither can 
Prussia so work against the smaller states 
that they cannot secure fourteen votes to 
quash measures harmful to them. 




794 


GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


The Chancellor 

is the emperor’s right-hand man, ap¬ 
pointed by him and removed at pleasure. 
He generally controls politics, is head of 
the Prussian delegation in the council, and 
presides over that body. All acts must 
be signed by him before they become law. 
Bismarck was the greatest of the chan¬ 
cellors. 

Local laws of the different kingdoms of 
the empire govern mostly in the courts. 
There is the usual system of local, district 
and superior courts in the various king¬ 
doms, the j udges being appointed instead of 
elected. From the superior courts appeal 
is had to the imperial supreme court, 
which consists of eighteen judges who sit 
for life and are appointed by the emperor. 
The empire has a code of criminal law, 
another for commercial, and recently a 
civil code that governs the judiciary of all 
the kingdoms. The powers of the su¬ 
preme court do not reach to declaring 
acts unconstitutional, for there is no dis¬ 
tinction between constitution and statute. 
In fact, the judiciary of Germany is only 
a branch of her political administration. 

The nature of the empire, while 

Not Strictly Democratic, 

is yet as much as can be expected of 
monarchical states, and very well fits the 
people it governs. It is no loose con¬ 
federation, but a firm pact,—an “indis¬ 
soluble union of• indestructible states.” 
Its laws take precedence over those of its 
states, and a revolting state would be 
brought to terms by arms. The taxing 
power is limited to customs and excises 
on salt, tobacco, beer, brandy, beet sugar 
and sirup. Pro rata contributions can be 
called for from the kingdoms to meet 
emergencies. The empire controls the 
coinage, railways and telegraph, though 
the states are allowed to operate mints, 
and to some extent own railways. 


The main defect of this government 
is that it has no bill of rights in its con¬ 
stitution that guarantees to the individual 
certain rights against the encroachments 
of the government when in the hands of 
unscrupulous agents. 


GREAT BRITAIN. 

The government of Great Britain is that 
of a limited monarchy in name only, for, 
though the oldest member of the reigning 
family holds the crown and title, as well 
as the honors of a monarch, yet the power 
is so limited that were the ruler to attempt 
to coerce the representative branches of 
the eovernment, revolution would result 
in dethronement. The government is 
that of a cabinet under constitutional 
control as worked out by a house of com¬ 
mons and house of lords, influenced to 
some extent by the queen and to a great 
extent by public opinion. Unlike the 
constitution of the United States, that of 
England is unwritten, being a mass of 
customs of gradual growth which it has 
taken years to be brought out from pub¬ 
lic acts of the parliament against the 
reigning sovereign. 

In Early Times 

in England the power of the monarch was 
nearly absolute, but gradually, by hard 
fights, the people gained rights in repre¬ 
sentation in parliament, some monarchs 
were deposed, others executed, and still 
others judged insane or incompetent and 
regents were appointed. The house of 
commons deposed Charles I., appointed 
Cromwell president of the Common¬ 
wealth, and later called a monarch back 
to the throne. James II. attempted later 
to enforce edicts distasteful to parliament 
and was deposed, to be succeeded by 
William and Anne. Since these rulers a 
cabinet has always played an important 
part in English government. When 

















GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


795 


George I. came to the crown he did not 
understand English, and necessarily 
leaned a great deal upon his cabinet. 
Later, George III. tried to do away with 
this institution, but he eventually had to 
come around to its use again. Since that 
time 

The Cabinet 

has grown into a permanent branch of the 
government, though not mentioned legally 
as such, it being simply a growth by cus¬ 
tom for convenience* sake. 

This cabinet is of from fifteen to twenty 
of the chief ministers of the various de¬ 
partments or portfolios of the government. 
A state of affairs that brings about two 
political parties is necessary for such a 
form of government, for each party 
must strive for supremacy, and criticise 
the acts of the other. The ministers 
naturally have control of the parliament 
so as to influence the passage of impor¬ 
tant measures, or they are of no power 
and have to resign. When a great issue 
is at stake, the party that is defeated must 
of necessity resign the ministry and with 
it the cabinet positions, for without sup¬ 
port of parliament a dead-lock would 
result. The alternative is had of dissolv¬ 
ing the house of commons and appealing 
by elections to the spirit of the public. 
If members in sympathy with the measure 
at stake are returned to the house, the 
administration is vindicated and the bill 
is passed, for if the house of lords refuses 
to agree in the legislation, which by law 
is necessary, the house, with the queen, 
can create more new peers to take seats in 
the house of lords, and thus effect a pas¬ 
sage. It is to be seen, therefore, that 

The House of Commons 

is the direct representative and servant of 
the public, that it is superior in power to 
the lords when really supported by the 
people at large, and that the reigning 


sovereign must to a great measure coin¬ 
cide with the wishes of the government of 
the house of commons in order to avoid a 
revolution. If, then, the commons is so 
powerful and the direct agent of the 
people, what is the office of the cabinet, 
and why is the government at all a mon¬ 
archy? First, the cabinet is not recog¬ 
nized as such by law. As said before, it 
was of gradual growth, a secret body of 
advisers to the sovereign. The party 
having control of the parliament, and 
hence most directly representing the 
people, is the one that the sovereign must 
consult in order to have any legislation 
passed. Therefore, when one ministry 
and cabinet has resigned through lack of 
support in parliament, the queen calls to 
her aid the leaders of the victorious party 
in both houses, appoints them to the 
offices in the ministry (the privy council), 
and from the officers of the ministry 
selects the cabinet that is to originate and 
influence legislation and administrative 
acts. Having no standing according to 
law, the cabinet may act not as the cabi¬ 
net but as the privy council. The head 
of the cabinet is the premier, but neither 
is he recognized bylaw; he is generally 
the minister of foreign affairs. 

As to the second point, 

The Government is Monarchical 

because the queen, though not having 
veto power, yet exerts a powerful check 
on the cabinet, lords and commons, and 
though the people are largely democratic, 
yet they have a great respect for their 
sovereign, and would not return to parlia¬ 
ment members that would willfully set at 
naught her rule. 

The method of administration and 
legislation, then, is that the cabinet of 
leaders of a certain party, backed by an 
influential force in the commons and 
lords, in secret session discusses and 



796 


GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


frames plans of action. The advice and 
consent of the sovereign is gained, 
and the measure sent through both 
houses of parliament. If the houses con¬ 
cur, it is legal; if they disagree, the cabi¬ 
net (as privy council) and queen may dis¬ 
solve the commons and trust to an elec¬ 
tion to vindicate their ideas; or the cabinet 
may resign their positions in the ministry, 
whereupon a new ministry and cabinet is 
formed from leaders of the victorious 
party. Altogether, the system of checks 
and balances is admirable, the main fea¬ 
ture being that though the queen can do 
no wrong, her ministers, as guided by her, 
can, and they are directly responsible for 
bad management, being forced to resign 
at the lack of public approval. 

Since the 

Constitution is Not Written 

the courts do not sit upon the constitu¬ 
tionality of an act; the parliament is all 
powerful, and any legislation passed by it 
is presumably constitutional. Thus, if 
the judiciary, which is entirely separate 
from the legislative and executive 
branches, though appointive in some 
degree, should judge laws contrary to the 
opinions and wishes of parliament, acts 
would be passed that would nullify the 
old laws. The judiciary holds office for 
life, and cannot be removed except for 
cause. This gives a great degree of 
liberty to their acts, and tends toward 
justice in the main. The 

House of Lords 

has power almost collateral with that of 
the house in making legislation, except 
that it cannot introduce or amend money 
bills. The privy council, which is the 
legal body of the ministers in session, 
does the official negotiating with the 
queen and signs acts. Altogether, there 
are five sources of influence that bring 
about English government: First, the 


queen legally and formally appoints; 
second, the cabinet cannot continue to 
exist unless it has the support of a ma¬ 
jority of parliament—thus the commons is 
said to choose the cabinet; third, when a 
new house is elected, the voters determine 
who shall be next prime minister, for the 
leader of each particular party is in mind 
when the ballot for members is cast; 
fourth, parties must exist to keep the 
system of cabinet up—that is, one party 
must always be ready to take the place of 
the one in power, thus making all acts 
open in the light of publicity; and, lastly, 
the man himself must develop into a 
leader in order to give a possibility for 
cabinet rule over the sovereign and lords. 


RUSSIA. 

Autocracy, or government imposed upon 
a people rather than created by them, is 
the principle upon which Russia is ruled. 
And yet in the home life of the Russian 
villagers democracy is pre-eminent. Thus 
the worst and the best form of govern¬ 
ments occur in the same land, at opposite 
ends. The land of Russia is one-seventh 
of that of the whole globe, covers the cold 
sides of both Europe and Asia, and is 
inhabited by about 130,000,000 people. 
Three-fourths of this nation are people of 
the Slavic race,—people who for centuries 
have threatened the southern countries of 
Europe, and who, it is feared, will one 
day dominate the earth. They are 
admirably adapted to colonizing, and 
when in their early history robber chiefs 
arose who oppressed them, they simply 
moved to another quarter of their country 
where, in their “mir” or village, they 
could have some degree of freedom in the 
ownership of land. They did not dread 
slavery, but while being owned bodily, 
they still persevered in the customs of the 
“mir.” 






BARTHOLDI STATUE OF LIBERTY 

ERECTED ON BEDLOE’S ISLAND, NEW YORK HARBOR. HEIGHT FROM GROUND, 220 FEET; STONE 
PEDESTIAL 82 FEET HIGH; FOREFINGER 8 FEET LONG; HEAD 14 FEET 
HIGH AND 40 PERSONS CAN STAND IN IT 






























THE AUTOMOBILE IN WA R—R A PI D-FIR E GUNS USED BY THE ENGLISH TROOPS AT THE DEFENCE 

OF LADYSMITH 






























GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


797 


History. 

When all the rest of Europe was being 
freed from the feudal system by the upris- 
ing of commoners, Russian nobles were 
just beginning to see the richness of the 
prize that lay before them in the shape of 
innocent villagers who knew not the terrors 
of robbery or slavery. At once the poorer 
classes were forced to carry out the will 
of the noble; law was unknown as the 
offspring of the people, and commands 
and edicts took its place. 

Peter the Great, 

who died in 1725, was the power that first 
began to bring order out of chaos, and 
the autocracy that he organized has re¬ 
mained for almost two hundred years to 
the present time. A great part of his 
work lay through the church. Russians 
had long been of the Greek orthodox 
church. A patriarch existed and the 
church owned its lands. Peter at once 
dispensed with the patriarch, confiscated 
the lands, and appointed a 

Holy Synod 

to do the bidding of the czar in matters 
ecclesiastical. Since the church is thus 
under the direct will of the czar, it must 
follow that any belief not to his way of 
thinking must be persecuted and perish. 
High-mindedness must needs soon dwin¬ 
dle, and instead of exposition of religion 
and teachings for the goodness of the 
belief, there is in reality nothing but vast 
ceremonials and endless doings. Thus, 
through the church, the czar wields an 
enormous influence over the minds and 
souls of the common people. 

Three Agents. 

Besides the holy synod, the czar has 
three other methods of executing his will: 
a committee of ministers, a council of 
state, and a senate. With these divisions 
one would suppose some division would 


be made of legislative, executive, and 
judicial duties, but such is not the case. 
That would be an approach to democracy, 
and we are here dealing with autocracy. 
All these bodies exert the functions of all 
branches of government, though each has 
its particular duties. However, the 
executive, instead of having a check put 
upon him by the people or any other 
branch of the government, is absolute; 
he issues orders instead of laws. Thus 
there is no legislative branch, the usual 
bodies simply aiding in suggestions for 
the executive and in seeing that they are 
properly issued. Neither is there such a 
thing as a branch of justice, for since 
there are no laws, there must needs be no 
interpretation of them; simply the en¬ 
forcement of the commands of the execu¬ 
tive. In short, the czar w r ills, the czar 
sees that his will is obeyed, and the czar 
punishes arbitrarily any disobedience. 

. For convenience’ sake there are 

Twelve Departments, 

such as state, navy, justice, foreign 
affairs, and the like, and the heads of 
each, appointed by the czar, form the 
committee of ministers. Their duties are 
to aid in conducting the affairs of admin¬ 
istration, and issuing explanations of the 
so-called laws. They may not resign 
without the consent of the czar, for then 
he would not be having implicit obedi¬ 
ence. The council of state consists of 
some sixty members appointed by the 
czar, of which twelve are the ministers of 
the various bureaus. The duties of the 
council are principally those of consulta¬ 
tion and information. Reports of the 
departments are read here and discussed, 
and special commissioners appointed by 
the czar look into the details of recom¬ 
mendations of the ministers. The coun¬ 
cil also considers the annual budget, or 
expense account. 















798 


GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


The Senate 

is the body through which the so-called 
laws are patched up in shape to dupe the 
people. It is composed of high digni¬ 
taries, also appointed by the czar, and 
these men have in charge the putting into 
effect of all commands. Ministers or 
governors of provinces are also here called 
to account for their conduct. The senate 
is regarded as the last court of resort in 
the feeble judicial system, though the 
council of state may review its acts. 

Thus, there are four main agencies for 
the execution of the will of the imperious 
czar: the holy synod, for church matters; 
and for matters of state, through twelve 
departments or bureaus and the commit¬ 
tee of ministers, the council of state, and 
the senate. All sorts of work are done in 
all bodies, and the sole object aimed at is 
the union of every phase of government 
into the single person of the czar. 

Yet, while this autocratic method is 
pursued with cruelness over the great 
needs of the state, in the family life 
democracy is triumphant. Entire free¬ 
dom of will is expressed in the 
Government of the Town Meetings 
by the heads of families, custom having 
gone so far that decisions must be unani¬ 
mous to be effective. The “mir,” or 
town, is all-powerful in all matters that 
pertain directly to its domestic life; 
its officers are responsible to the peo¬ 
ple at large, and it is no branch of the 
rule of the czar. All the czar wishes is 
obedience to laws, especially in the mat¬ 
ters of taxation. Here the “mir" is 
willing to submit; the people are simply 
victims of the higher government, but 
complain little if let alone in their home 
life and ownership of land. 

It is not to be wondered at that such a 
government by one powerful and possibly 
unscrupulous man should cause uprisings 
and plots. In fact, the government uses 


such methods, and the people copy after 
them. It is said that assassination is a 
frequent method of meting out so-called 
justice to the czar’s subjects. After a 
time such a rule must needs dwarf the 
sensibilities of the people, and then worse 
punishments must be prescribed to arouse 
dread. 

Flogging 

and exile to the mines in Siberia are of 
daily occurrence. Without warning, the 
government lays hold on those who have 
broken no law, and subjects them to the 
severest penalties. What wonder, then, 
if the government that uses the sword in 
the place of law must in the law of nature 
sometime perish by the sword? 


THE UNITED STATES 
OF AMERICA. 

It is a common and erroneous saying 
that the constitution of the United States 
is the most marvelous instrument ever 
struck off by the brain of man. This 
would lead people to think that our fore¬ 
fathers simply sat down to the task of 
writing a constitution, and produced a 
paper at first thought that has since 
proved almost perfect. Such was not the 
case. For generations before, both the 
colonists in America and their British 
cousins across the water had been fighting 
the domineering power of the English 
crown, and as a result many concessions 
were made to the 

Representatives of the People. 

Though we were oppressed by governors 
not our own, and by foreign-made laws, 
yet we had in every colony some form of 
democratic government as expressed in 
the councils and assemblies. In most 
cases there had been grants or charters, 
given by the sovereign, enumerating cer¬ 
tain privileges. These were in reality 
little constitutions. All the colonies 






GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


71)0 


were in the habit of sending complaints 
to England, sometimes even rebelling if 
the governors did not acknowledge the 
proper powers of the people. What 
wonder, then, that upon throwing off the 
English yoke the different colonies should 
at once frame constitutions democratic in 
nature, somewhat improving upon their 
old forms, and later that the colonies 
Jtpon uniting into the common union 
should combine all their various forms 
into one instrument? Many clauses in 

Our Present Constitution 

were deemed decidedly undemocratic by 
some of the colonies, and vice versa. 
Thus the great central system of our 
government is built about an instrument 
that was in every sense the outcome of 
simple experience, and one of compro¬ 
mises and concessions. 

In 1787 a body of men framed this con¬ 
stitution, and referred it to the various 
colonies for ratification. The instrument 
stipulated that upon the adoption by nine 
colonies it was to be effective, and was to 
be permanent. In 1788 nine colonies had 
signed, and in 1789 George Washington 
was installed as the first president, with 
the capital at New York. The govern¬ 
ment thus laid down in writing, and 
which by common consent is supreme, 
consists of three main departments: legis¬ 
lative, executive, and judicial. The first 
comprises two representative bodies: the 
senate, or upper house, consisting of two 
members from each state elected for six 
years each and so divided that one-third 
of the house is new every two years; and 
the house of representatives, consisting of 
members from each state in number 
according to the population, and each 
elected for two years. The senators are 
chosen generally by the legislatures of 
the states, and if a vacancy occurs during 
vacation, the governor of the state tem¬ 


porarily fills the vacancy. The repre¬ 
sentatives are elected directly by the 
people of the congressional districts of 
each state. These two houses are almost 
co-ordinate in their powers, though only 
the representatives can introduce money 
bills, and only the senate can ratify 
treaties with the president, and agree to 
appointments made by him. 

The President of the United States 

is the main executive, elected by an elec¬ 
toral college, and serves for four years, 
with the privilege of re-election. The 
electoral college consists of members 
chosen from each state, equaling in num¬ 
ber the representatives and senators of 
that state. These electors are chosen at 
large by the people of the state, and at 
the capital of their state on a day ap¬ 
pointed by law they cast their votes for 
president and vice-president. The votes 
thus cast are forwarded to Washington, 
where they are all counted together and 
the decision made as to the man elected. 
All the electors of one pai ty in any state 
may be elected by a bare majority, 
especially if election districts are so 
marked out as to favor that party. Thus, 
while the popular vote of the whole 
country might favor a president of one 
party, the system of electors may result 
in placing a man in the chair who has the 
less number of votes of the people behind 
him, as when Harrison was elected over 
Cleveland in 1889. As far as law is con¬ 
cerned, the elector is not bound to vote 
for any particular candidate, but custom 
has arisen by which they pledge their 
votes for the leader of their respective 
parties. 

The Duties of the President 

are to see that the laws of the land are 
duly carried out, to send a message to 
each congress suggesting needed legisla¬ 
tion, and to sign or reject bills for legisla- 







800 


GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


tion. He has the veto power, but the two 
houses of congress may pass a bill over 
his veto by a two-thirds vote. He is com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the land and naval 
forces of the United States, is the official 
representative of this country in dealings 
with foreign powers, and is the general 
adviser for the welfare of the government. 
Assisting, though not called for by the 
constitution, are a number of officers who 
head the different departments of state, 
navy, war, interior, treasury, etc., and 
who together form his cabinet. With 
these men, who, by the way, are selected 
by him with the consent of the senate 
from the greatest men in the country, he 
consults on matters of administration. 
They are directly responsible to him for 
their acts, and censure would lead to 
resignation, though not necessarily with¬ 
out the demand of the senate. Each of 
the department heads sees that the work 
in his particular province is carried on; 
for instance, the postmaster-general con¬ 
trols in a great measure the post-offices 
all over the country. 

When 

Legislation 

is proposed in one of the houses it is sent 
over to the other for confirmation. Here 
it is either refused or passed. In the 
latter case it goes to the president for his 
approval. If he signs it, it is at once a 
law; or if he allows it to remain unsigned 
ten days there is the same effect. As 
before said, he has the veto power, but he 
cannot block legislation that has the sup¬ 
port of two-thirds of congress. The 
senate is the more conservative of the 
two houses, for it represents not the 
people directly, but rather the individual 
states of the Union. Here are brought to 
naught many of the bills from the house 
of representatives that are considered too 
radical. The legislation in the house of 
representatives is carried on largely by 


committees. A speaker elected by the 
house appoints a number of standing com¬ 
mittees for various subjects to be consid¬ 
ered. When a bill is presented, it is at 
once referred to a committee, which 
refers it to a sub-committee. If the bill 
is in favor with the party in power the 
committee reports favorably, and a vote 
is cast. But if otherwise, the committee 
never lets it see the light of day again. 
Thus it may be seen what a power resides 
in the speaker. 

The Judicial Department 

consists of a supreme court and various 
lower courts, entirely independent of the 
other two departments, though generally 
somewhat in sympathy with them. 
The federal courts, which are courts of 
the United States as a whole, in distinc¬ 
tion from those of state power, pertain only 
to the laws of congress and the constitu¬ 
tion, with the exception of the supreme 
court, which is the court of last resort for 
any legal question, be it of state or fed¬ 
eral law. To understand just the distinc¬ 
tion between the federal and state oowers 

A 

one must know that in their local govern¬ 
ments the states are absolutely supreme, 
that is, of course, where they do not 
come into contact or conflict with the 
powers given by the constitution to the 
federal government. The federal authori¬ 
ties govern only such questions as interest 
the whole union of states. The minor 
matters of the states, such as police, civil 
and criminal laws, schools, etc., are in the 
domain of the states alone. These have 
assemblies consisting of two houses 
elected by the people, and a governor, for 
the enactment of state laws and the execu¬ 
tion thereof. Whenever the federal gov¬ 
ernment attempts to encroach upon the 
rights of the states, they at once appeal to 
the constitution, which is the supreme 
law of the land. The judiciary decides 



GREAT GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 


801 


what is the proper construction of the 
constitution, and declares the law valid 
or void as the case may be. Thus we 
have a system of checks and balances as 
good as almost any government. The 
president cannot act without the aid of 
the houses, the houses cannot enact legis¬ 
lation, unless by great majorities, without 
the consent of the president, and after the 
law is enacted, if it is questioned, the 
judiciary must also be in accord with the 
other branches of the government before 
the law is legal. 

The tendency all the while is for the 


Supreme Court 

to uphold the acts of congress and the 
president, for it considers that the con¬ 
gressmen are serious in their intents, and 
not merely passing laws to hold their posi¬ 
tions. This leads the federal government 
more and more to control the states, and 
tends toward a centralized government. 
But if the people do not like this method, 
they at once resort to the ballot, a new 
president soon takes the chair, and new 
senators and representatives govern more 
in accord with the sentiments of their 
constituents. 


51 







Colonial Government 
of the United States. 




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HE president is giving careful 
attention to the selection of 
civil governors for Puerto 
Rico, Cuba and the Philip¬ 
pines. As commander-in-chief of the 
army it is within his authority to desig¬ 
nate civil governors to act under the 
direction of the secretary of war. 

In administration circles it is not ex¬ 
pected that congress will take hasty action 
concerning Cuba, Puerto Rico or the 
Philippines. Until congress relieves him 
the president will remain in supreme con¬ 
trol of affairs in the islands, and he is 
proceeding under the conviction that the 
welfare of the people will be in his charge 
at least during the remainder of his pres¬ 
ent term. 

PUERTO RICO. 

The problem of civil government in the 
islands yielded or ceded by Spain presents 
itself in the simplest form in the case of 
Puerto Rico. That island is fully and 
without question under the sovereignty of 
the United States. It came to ns not only 
by legal right, but with the cheerful and 
unanimous desire of its people, who are 
peaceful and loyal, and eager for the 
benefits to be derived from the applica¬ 
tion of American ideas of government. 

In determining the question as to the 
form of government and the participation 
of the people of the island therein, the 
802 


most important fact to be considered is 
that the people have not yet been edu 
cated in the art of self-government or any 
really honest government. The difficulty 
does not consist merely of a lack of 
familiarity with the methods and proc¬ 
esses of government; it lies deeper than 
that, in the fact that the Puerto Ricans, 
as a people, have never learned the 
fundamental and essential lesson of obedi¬ 
ence to the decision of the majority. In 
the experiments which have already been 
tried in municipal elections and toward 
government by municipal boards, the 
minority which is voted down almost 
invariably refuses to participate further 
in the business of government. 

The attitude of the defeated party is 
precisely that which causes the continual 
revolutions in the government of other 
West Indian islands and the Central 
American states in the same latitude. It 
would be of no use to present to the 
people of Puerto Rico now a written 
constitution or frame of laws, however 
perfect, and tell them to live under it. 
They would inevitably fall unless they had 
a course of tuition under a strong and guid¬ 
ing hand. With that tuition for a time 
their natural capacity will, it is hoped, 
make them a self-governing people. 

Plan of Government. 

Some such provision should be made 
for future government as the following: 


















COLONIAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 


803 


That we should first declare definitely, by 
statute, what general laws of the United 
States are to be extended to the Puerto 
Ricans, such as, for instance, the postal 
laws, the banking laws, the customs, 
navigation and internal-revenue laws 
with such modifications as may be 
deemed advisable, the laws against 
counterfeiting, the anti-trust laws, etc., 
and provide for federal officers to execute 
these laws just as they are executed in the 
various states and territories of the Union. 
That there should be a provision for a 
federal judiciary in the island, with the 
same kind of jurisdiction which is exer¬ 
cised by the circuit and district courts of 
the United States, and that jurisdiction to 
review their determinations should be 
vested in the Supreme Court of the 
United States, or in a designated circuit 
court of appeals and the Supreme Court 
of the United States. That there should 
be a form of local insular government 
provided which shall have complete con¬ 
trol over the rights, property and obliga¬ 
tions of the people of the island, substan¬ 
tially covering the field covered by the 
government of our respective states, and 
subject to limitations prescribed by con¬ 
gress of the same character as the consti¬ 
tutional limitations generally imposed 
upon our state legislatures. 

Framework of the Plan. 

The framework of this government 
should be substantially as follows: A gov¬ 
ernor, to be appointed by the president of 
the United States, with the advice and 
consent of the senate; the chief officers of 
state customary under our system, such as 
secretary of state, attorney-general, treas¬ 
urer, auditor or comptroller, superintend¬ 
ent of public works, and superintendent 
of education, to be appointed in like 
manner, and a legislative council, to 
be composed of the chief officers of state 


and a minority selected from the people 
of the island by the president. That all 
acts of the council should be subject to 
the veto power of the governor and to be 
passed over the veto by a two-thirds vote, 
and no law should take effect until it has 
remained without disapproval for thirty 
days after presentation to congress, or to 
the president of the United States if 
passed when congress in not in session. 
That there should be a supreme court of 
the island, composed of judges appointed 
by the president with the advice and 
consent of the senate, and having appel¬ 
late jurisdiction only; trial courts in 
separate districts, having general original 
jurisdiction, with judges and officers to 
be appointed by the governor, and a petty 
court in each municipality; that the sev¬ 
eral municipalities now existing in the 
island, with such consolidations and alter¬ 
ations of boundaries as the council shall 
prescribe, shall be governed by mayors 
and municipal councils, to be elected by 
the people of the municipalities, each 
municipality to be free from control in 
the exercise of the powers of local gov¬ 
ernment, except as it shall be controlled 
by statute, and except as its officers shall 
be liable to removal by the governor in 
case of failure to faithfully perform their 
duties, and with power in the governor, 
in case of such failure, to order a new 
election and to fill vacancies in the mean¬ 
time. 

Legislature. 

The question whether there might not 
now be provision made for a legislature 
elected by the people of the island is not 
free from doubt, but in view of their pres¬ 
ent inexperience it would be better to 
postpone such a provision until the people 
can have had an opportunity for exercise 
in municipal government, and until the 
first formative period of adapting the laws 
and procedure of the island to the new 






804 


COLONIAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 


conditions shall have passed under the 
direction of a council composed of Puerto 
Ricans selected for their known capacity 
and wisdom, and Americans from the 
states competent and experienced in 
dealing with legislative and admin¬ 
istrative problems. The constitution 
of such a legislature should be contem¬ 
plated as a step to be taken in the near 
future. 

Wherever it is necessary to employ 
Americans, except in the chief offices, 
a system of civil-service examination 
should be provided, under which re¬ 
quests from the governor of Puerto Rico 
for suitable persons to be appointed may 
be filled. 

The answer to the question, “What 
shall be the treatment of the municipal 
law of the island, and how far shall the 
laws which now regulate the rights and 
conduct of the people be changed to con¬ 
form to ideas which prevail among the 
people of the United States?” presents 
little real difficulty. The civil code estab¬ 
lished by Spain for Cuba, Puerto Rico and 
the Philippines, and in force at the time 
of the cession, is an excellent body of 
laws, adequate in the main and adapted 
to the customs and conditions of the 
people. It should be continued in force 
with such gradual modification as ex¬ 
perience from time to time suggests to 
those who are actually engaged in en¬ 
forcing it. 

Congress has the legal right to regulate 
the customs duties between the United 
States and Puerto Rico as it pleases; but 
the highest considerations of justice and 
good faith demand that we should not 
disappoint the confident expectation of 
sharing in our prosperity with which the 
people of Puerto Rico so gladly trans¬ 
ferred their allegiance to the United 
States, and that we should treat the inter¬ 
ests of this people as our own. 


CUBA. 

The object of the present government 
is to give protection to the people of 
Cuba, security to person and property, to 
restore confidence, to encourage the 
people to resume the pursuits of peace, to 
build up waste plantations, to resume 
commercial traffic, and to afford full pro¬ 
tection in the exercise of all civil and 
religious rights. To this end the United 
States has endeavored to work through 
the channels of civil administration, with 
the preservation of the civil and criminal 
laws of Spain, modified from time to time 
as the interest of good government de¬ 
manded. Immediately upon assuming 
his control of the island, General Brooke 
began the formation of a civil govern¬ 
ment—not such as we Americans might 
choose, but one suited to the character 
and customs of the people. At the same 
time he confirmed in office all the Spanish 
appointees. This was a disappointment 
to Cubans, but it was necessary, for it 
prevented a scramble for office and a 
tangle in administrative affairs that would 
have been hopelessly confusing. 

With his civil government formed, the 

Military Governor 

began, slowly, and with a conservatism 
that was utterly incomprehensible to the 
fiery Cuban character, to reach out upon 
all sides, perfecting his system, as out¬ 
lined by himself and his advisers, and 
rectifying wrongs as they came to his 
notice. Civil governors for the various 
provinces were appointed, and the pro¬ 
vincial deputations, which had been 
advisory to the governors, were abol¬ 
ished. The first act was a concession to 
what might be called the province or 
states rights idea, made because it had 
been part of the old system. The second 
was a step in counter action, in order that 




f 


REVOLVING GUNS USED FOR COAST DEFENSE 







































COLONIAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 


805 


the spirit of sectionalism might not grow 
too strong in so small a country. 

The question of 

Taxation 

was taken up, and a complete revision of 
all assessments was made, at the cost of 
immense labor. The outrageous imposts 
of the Spaniards were in many cases 
entirely abolished, and in others so 
lowered as to come within the range of 
right and reason. Municipalities which 
were hampered by suits for debts saddled 
upon them by the Spaniards for war pur¬ 
poses were relieved by an order prevent¬ 
ing civil action, until some plan of 
settlement could be determined upon, 
and many taxes which had formerly gone 
to the state were turned over to the 
municipalities, that they might meet their 
obligations as they occurred under the 
new regime. 

Courts 

were stopped from prosecuting persons 
charged with committing crimes during 
the war while in actual military service, 
for no sooner did the Americans come 
into power than all sorts of private re¬ 
venges were plotted by both Spaniards 
and Cubans through the instrumentality 
of corrupt courts. 

The control which we are exercising in 
trust for the people of Cuba should not 
be, and of course will not be, continued 
any longer than is necessary to enable 
that people to establish a suitable govern¬ 
ment to which the control shall be trans¬ 
ferred, which shall really represent the 
people of Cuba and be able to maintain 
order and discharge its international obli¬ 
gations. When that government is estab¬ 
lished it will be its duty and right to solve 

i 

The Problems 

for Cuba. Our present duty is limited to 
giving every assistance in our power to 
the establishment of such a government, 


and to maintaining order and promoting 
the welfare of the people of Cuba during 
the period necessarily required for that 
process. 

Before long it is believed that, the 
results of the census having been com¬ 
puted and tabulated, we shall be ready to 
provide for municipal elections, which 
will place all the local governments of the 
island in the hands of representatives 
elected by the people, and that when 
these local governments thus elected are 
established they will be ready to proceed 
to the formation of a representative con¬ 
vention to frame a constitution and pro¬ 
vide for a general government of the 
island, to which the United States will 
surrender the reins of government. 
When that government is established the 
relations which exist between it and the 
United States will be matter for free and 
uncontrolled agreement between the two 
parties. 

It cannot be doubted that when the 
question of 

Future Relations 

between this country and Cuba comes 
to be considered by the represent¬ 
atives of the two countries the United 
States will deal generously in all respects 
with the people for whom she has made 
such great sacrifices. It does not seem 
that, so long as we retain control of Cuba 
and preclude her people from making 
trade agreements or treaties on their own 
account, we ought to treat her sugar pro¬ 
ducers less favorably than we do their 
competitors in the West Indian islands 
which are subject to other powers, and it 
has been recommended that during the 
period of our occupation of the island the 
duties imposed upon the importation 
into the United States from Cuba of the 
products of that island be reduced to the 
same rates which will be imposed upon 






806 


COLONIAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 


the goods imported from Jamaica in case 
the senate shall ratify the pending reci¬ 
procity treaties. 

Since the Spanish evacuation there have 
been no strictly military operations, and 
the officers of the army in Cuba have been 
largely occupied in conducting, under the 
direction of the military governor and the 
department commanders, a general civil 
administration, for which no other gov¬ 
ernmental machinery existed, and in aid¬ 
ing the existing municipal governments 
in the performance of their duties. 


THE PHILIPPINES. 

Claim to government by insurgents in 
the Philippines can be made no longer 
under any fiction. Its treasurer, secre¬ 
tary of the interior, and president of con¬ 
gress are in our hands; its president and 
remaining cabinet officers in hiding, evi¬ 
dently in different central Luzon prov¬ 
inces; its generals and troops in small 
bands scattered through these provinces, 
acting as banditti, or dispersed, playing the 
role of “amigos,” with arms concealed. 

Since that time our troops have been 
actively pursuing the flying and scattered 
bands of insurgents, further dispersing 
them, making many prisoners, and releas¬ 
ing many Spanish prisoners who had been 
in the insurgents’ hands. 

It is gratifying to know that as our 
troops got away from the immediate 
vicinity of Manila they found the natives 
of the country exceedingly friendly, and 
both men and animals were able to live 
upon the country and for considerable 
periods leave their supply trains behind. 

Wherever the 

Permanent Occupation 

of our troops has extended in the Philip¬ 
pine Islands, civil law has been imme¬ 
diately put in force. The courts have 


been organized, and the most learned 
and competent native lawyers have been 
appointed to preside over them. A sys¬ 
tem of education has been introduced and 
numerous schools have been established. 
It is believed that in the city of Manila a 
greater number of good schools, affording 
better facilities for primary instruction, 
exists to-day than at any previous time in 
the history of the city. 

The commissioners appointed by the 
president to study the government of the 
Philippines have returned, and ere long 
congress will take up the question of 
replacing the military with a civil govern¬ 
ment. 


THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 

For a considerable time after the queen 
of the Hawaiian Islands had been deposed 
from her throne the liberal party in the 
islands, made up largely of Americans 
and Europeans, repeatedly petitioned the 
government of the United States for 
annexation. Early in 1898 the provisional 
government sent to this country a com¬ 
mission to bring about the desired junc¬ 
tion of the two governments. Debate 
was hot in congress for some time, and 
several treaties were drawn up and pend¬ 
ing. Upon the explosion of the Maine in 
the harbor of Havana, however, the 
administration was so aroused that as a 
war measure it was decided to annex the 
islands. Accordingly, June 11, 1898, the 
house passed a resolution by a vote of 209 
to 91 to take 

Possession of the Islands 

ceded by the provisional government, the 
senate concurring July 6, by a vote of 42 
to 21. August 12, this government 
officially lowered the old Hawaiian flag 
and set our own stars and stripes over 
the government buildings, and adminis¬ 
tered the oath of allegiance to the national 





COLONIAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 


807 


guard. The resolution under which the 
islands were annexed stipulates that 
“until congress shall provide for the gov¬ 
ernment of such islands, all the civil and 
judicial and military powers exercised by 
the officers of the existing government in 
said island shall be vested in such person 
or persons and shall be exercised in such 
manner as the president of the United 
States shall direct. ” The existing treaties 
with foreign powers were to cease, and 
be replaced by those of the United States; 
municipal legislation not inconsistent 
with the resolution or with the constitu¬ 
tion of the United States was to remain 
in force until congress acts; customs 
duties were to remain in full force; the 
public debt was to be assumed by the 
United States, not, however, to a sum 


greater than $4,000,000. The Chinese 
were at once barred from further immi¬ 
gration. 

A Joint Commission 

was to be appointed by the president to 
study the laws and customs of the islands, 
and report to the congress of the United 
States for legislation. For this purpose 
$100,000 was appropriated by our govern¬ 
ment, and President McKinley appointed 
Senator Cullom of Illinois, John T. Mor¬ 
gan of Alabama, Representative Robert 
H. Hitt of Illinois, Ex-President Dole of 
Hawaii, and W. F. Frear of Hawaii, as 
the joint commission. This commission 
studied the nature of the islands, and 
from their reports congress will soon 
enact new methods of governing our new 
possessions. 




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TRAVELING 
IN THE AIR 



MODERN SCIENTIFIC 
KITES AND FLYING 
MACHINES. 


1 


Wonderful development toward solving the problem of Aerial Navigation. 

through space at enormous speed assured in the near future. 


Travel 




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ENTISTS and mechanical 
engineers are looking for 
some one to bring to perfec¬ 
tion a pactical flying machine 
or air ship. They no longer laugh at the 
idea that earial flight is a possibility, but 
instead say that it is not only a possi¬ 
bility but a strong probability. The 
reason for this is that a number of men 
have been steadily experimenting for the 
last decade upon kites, aeroplanes and 
balloons, with the idea in view of being 
able sometime to direct them at will. 
Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor, came 
as near, perhaps, to perfection as any 
one yet, while Maxim, the gun inventor, 
has been to some extent successful. The 
latter built a machine eight feet wide and 
forty feet long, which by propulsion by 
screws made a number of flights. 

Lilienthars Method 

not only was successful in propelling to 
some distance a machine through the air, 
but also carried its inventor. His outfit 
consisted of several large “planes” made 
of light wooden frames covered with cot¬ 
ton cloth, the whole apparatus much like 
four outspread wings of a huge bird. 

808 


They were in two sets, one above the other, 
connected by vertical rods, and at the 
back between the two extended a large, 
cloth-covered rudder, which also had 
horizontal planes. The operator held 
on to the lower set, clasping levers to the 
wings by his hands, while at the same 
time he was supported by cushions under 
his arms, thus leaving his legs free and 
dangling in the air. The affair weighed 
from thirty-five to fifty-five pounds, and 
was intended for jumping from a high 
tower, somewhat after the style of a para¬ 
chute, only as the flyer started off into 
space he might work the levers, which in 
turn manipulated the planes, and sent him 
shooting out at an angle, or soaring up 
again or around in circles, just like a bird. 

Near Berlin, Lilienthal built a tower 
about fifty feet high on a hill, and from 
this he sailed as far as six hundred feet in 
easy winds, sometimes against heavy 
winds, and on several occasions he 
reached a height greater than that from 
which he started. These experiments, 
though they advanced the science of aero¬ 
nautics, at last resulted in the inventor’s 
death by collapse of his machine. 

Professors Chanute and William Paul 




















TRAVELING IN THE AIR. 


809 


some years ago conducted a series of 
aeroplane flights at Dunne Park, Indiana, 
on the shores of Lake Michigan, which 
were in the main successful. No motive 
power was used, the principle being that 
a slide down hill would lift the plane a 
distance into the air, and then by other 
planes and rudders, the machine was 
kept in the air for some time. 

Paul has also invented one of the most 
perfect tailless kites of late years. It is 
called 

The “Fin” Kite, 

and consists of two planes, one intersect¬ 
ing the other at right 
angles, so that there are 
presented to the wind 
four fins, two lateral, 
one at either side, and 
two perpendicular, one 
above and one below. 

The connecting band is 
attached at the ends of 
the perpendicular fins, 
and when the kite is 
raised it exerts a very 
powerful pull, and has 
hardly any wavering 
motion. Heavy logs 
have been pulled across 
Lake Michigan in tow 
of the kite, and the 
inventor contemplates a 
voyage himself in a 
small iron open boat. 

Probably the best experiments, or 
those that have borne the most useful 
results, are those made by the war de¬ 
partments of this country and Europe. 
The use of the kite has been remarkable 
in past years. Franklin by its aid drew 
electricity from the clouds; Peacock 
dragged a little carriage by one, and 
others have suggested life-saving appa¬ 
ratus with kite connection. But it has 
really been only in recent years that huge | 


kites have been constructed with the sole 
purpose of experiment. 

The great variance in wind pressure 
under different conditions makes it rather 
difficult to figure accurately on flights. 
Tails for a long time were considered 
necessary, but of late years this hin¬ 
drance was done away with. The fact 
that tails were not necessary was discov¬ 
ered purely by accident. A famous kite- 
flyer had built a huge affair of 500 square 
feet with an immense tail of brush. At 
the first attempt at flight the tail became 
entangled in a tree. The kite came to 


ground, and the disgusted maker resolved 
to try another tail, when a gust of wind 
came along and took it up in the air, 
where it flitted about unsteadily, but 
rather successfully, though without an 
appendage. 

The material for building is varied, some¬ 
times the frames are made of bamboo, 
sometimes of metal, while the sails are 
often made from silk or cambric cloth, 
and sometimes even heavier material.. 
The most successful flyers operate several 



A GAS-KITE BEING PROPELLED THROUGH MID-AIR. 











810 


TRAVELING IN THE AIR. 


kites from one rope, thus giving great 
lifting power. Captain Baden-Powell, of 
the Scotts Guards, rigged up a series of 
five kites and attached a balloon basket 
to them which would lift two men to the 
height of ioo feet. Photographic appa¬ 
ratus has been attached to kites and bird’s- 
eye views of the earth taken by manip¬ 
ulating strings from the ground. Pictures 
of birds in flight have also been 
made in this way. In large cities flags 
and advertising banners are flown from 


the supporting string, and in signal serv¬ 
ice corps occasionally signals are sent to 
distant camps by their means. 

For years,—in fact, ever since the bal¬ 
loon was developed into a man-carrying 
flyer,—plans have been laid to make it so 
that it can be propelled and directed at 
the will of the operator. Huge cigar¬ 
shaped bags filled with gas have been 
floated to which were attached baskets of 
• some sort containing propelling machin¬ 
ery and rudders. The general plans that 


seem to be followed the most are those 
which call for large planes or wings so 
constructed that they will help to support 
the ship, and also guide it by extending 
great enough surfaces so that conflicting 
winds will not beat them about. Screw 
propellers above and at the rear are 
generally used to draw the ship about. 

The latest improvement in the line of 
War Balloons 

comes from Germany. That country 
took no interest in ballooning till 1884, 

whereas her traditional 
enemy, France, began 
investigations in the 
science of aeronautics 
at once after the war of 
1870. However, Ger¬ 
many has made rapid 
strides in her experi¬ 
ments, with the result 
that the United States 
government is now buy¬ 
ing one of the recent 
productions of her skill. 
The balloon in question 
is the invention of Cap¬ 
tain von Parsval, a 
Bavarian, and First 
Lieutenant Sigsfeld, a 
Prussian. Hitherto the 
wind has been the great¬ 
est difficulty to over¬ 
come in this science. 
Even a moderate wind was sufficient to 
depress the ordinary bullet-shaped ship, 
the result being that it could not mount 
high, and was thus practically useless for 
military purposes. To surmount the 
wind difficulty, therefore, this ship has 
been made of great length, and of such 
nature that it rises in the air on a slant, 
somewhat like a kite. This odd feature 
has given the device the name of the 
“dragon” balloon. The main bag is 
filled with a buoyant gas which keeps the 



DANILEWSKY’S DIRIGIBLE FLYING MACHINE. 
Showing wings and the bag inflated ready for a flight. 












TRAVELING IN THE AIR. 


I 


ship afloat, while at the rear and below it 
is a sack-like arrangement which is open 
to the wind, allowing it to pass through 
an aperture in the back, thus steadying in 
a great measure the balloon against 
heavy gusts of wind. The basket is hung 
to the rear end, and from it are run cable 
and telephone wires, thus weighting that 
end and keeping the whole ship in the air 
at an angle of 20 degrees to the horizon¬ 
tal. Ingenious devices are arranged in¬ 
side the bag for keeping the pressure the 
same upon the sides at all times, this 
having been one of the greatest diffi¬ 
culties to overcome. At the sides of the 
bag are fins which in a great measure 
protect it from upward wind currents. 
A cable through which run insulated 
copper wires for telephone and telegraph 
communication, holds the balloon to earth 
and is reeled from a cylinder on a wagon. 
When the huge ship rises in the air, it can 
stand steadily in almost any direction 
desired, and in the face of heavy gales 
does not fly about. The benefits to 
accrue from such a contrivance are many: 
battles may be viewed from a distance; 
explosives dropped on the enemy, though 


81 

this is prohibited in civilized warfare; 
fortifications inspected and photographed, 
and similar manoeuvres. 

With the help of the motive power of 



FLYING. 

The wings raised in mid-air and being pro¬ 
pelled by occupant of the ship. 


the newly-discovered liquid air we may 
expect to have some sort of a dirigible air 

ship before long. 












STEEL ROLLING HILLS. 


From crude iron ore to shining steel rails. How work is done in one of America’s 

greatest industries. Millions made and invested 
in nature’s great product. 



IGHT is the time when one 
should watch the process of 
converting crude iron ore 
into the long black steel rails 
that are destined to span the country. 
No display of fireworks can equal the 
grandeur of the great crucibles vomiting 



men love it and take a pride in the fine 
little scars that seam their breasts, the 
result of their working stripped to the 
waist in a shower of sparks. 

When a load of ore arrives from the 
mines it is brought up on side tracks 
where men with wheelbarrows can easily 



BLAST FURNACES. 


The towers with the cupolas are the blast furnaces. Between the blast furnaces are seen the hot-air 
furnaces, of bottle-like appearance. Inside the four buildings (each one connected with a blast furnace) 
are cast the steel billets and ingots, which are later run through the mills and rolled into plates, rails or rods 


forth their masses of fiery metal. Many 
times the glow on the sky from these great 
mills can be seen great distances, and the 
reflection on the clouds often resembles a 
mountain on fire. The work in these 
rolling mills is hard in its nature, and 
to some degree dangerous, yet the work- 
812 


cart it down to the melting room. This 
is a great roomy place with no walls to 
speak of, and nothing but a sand floor. 
In one end of the room, reaching high up 
in the air, is the “cupola.” In some 
mills this is fifty feet high. It is cylin¬ 
drical in shape, like an enormous boiler 













































































































- 

























STUDENTS OF DECORATIVE PAINTING AT WORK-SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART, PHILADELPHIA. 



























STEEL ROLLING MILLS. 


813 


set up on end, and is lined with firebrick. 
The bottom has a sand bed, and just 
above this enters a blast pipe through 
which rushes the current of air that is to 
make the fire “blow.” At the top of the 
cupola is a stack out of which the smoke 
and gases escape, and a little lower down, 


out, and just above these and running 
around the base are a number of holes or 
slits, called “tuyeres,” surrounded by a 
wind box. This wind box is attached to 
the blast pipe and aids in the “blow.” 

The Cupola 

man starts a fire of kindling wood and 



UNLOADING IRON ORE. 

This picture shows the trams over which the ore is carried in large buckets from the ships and dumped 
into the ore pile within the yards of the steel works. From these great heaps the ore is later taken to the 


blast furnaces for conversion into pig iron. 

running around the cupola, is a platform 
called the “charging floor.” An opening 
in the cupola even with this floor is called 
the charging “door,” and it is here that 
the ore, coke and lime are dumped in 
when a melting is to take place. At the 
bottom of the cupola are a tap hole and a 
spout at which the molten metal runs 


coke, and when he has it going well he 
dumps down through the charging door 
alternate loads of coke, lime and iron ore. 
When the cupola is nearly full and the 
blast is working well, the cupola man sits 
down with his pipe, to watch. Gradually 
the ore is heated through and begins to 
yield; and here conies in the use of the 


























814 


STEEL ROLLING MILLS. 


lime. Many impurities, especially sulphur, 
are in the ore, which, if not removed, would 
make the iron too hard or too soft. The 
lime seems to have an affinity for these sub¬ 
stances, and as the ore melts it takes them 
up, together with particles of the coke, 
and lets the melting iron run down to the 
sand bed at the bottom. At the tap hole, 
just above the wind box, is an opening 
covered with mica, where the process of 
melting can be watched by the cupola 


A STEEL RAIL MILL. 


man. When he sees the first sign of 
dripping, he plugs the tap-hole up with 
clay, and then waits a little longer till he 
is ready to unload. 

In the meantime men have been pre¬ 
paring the sand floor of the room into 
long troughs, one leading from the other, 
and all joining in one main trough that 
ends just under the spout of the cupola. 
Now the charge is full, and a man with a 
big mallet strikes the plug of the spout a 
blow. Out rushes the stream of fiery 


metal into the troughs to cool. Men with 
great wooden sabots for shoes, or boards 
on their feet, run about among the 
troughs and cover the iron with sand. 
As it cools somewhat by streams of water 
being thrown on the sand, these men run 
along over the iron and break it into 
short lengths or “pigs.” These pigs 
may be shipped to foundries or other 
mills for casting. 

At the steel mills, however, much of the 

iron is not cooled into 
pigs, but drawn off into 
little brick cars and car¬ 
ried at once to the 
steel - converting cruci¬ 
bles, thus saving a sec¬ 
ond heating. The cars 
run along rails that 
carry them right up to 
the top of another cu¬ 
pola-like affair. Here 
the iron is poured in, 
and a 

Tremendous Blast 

set going. Sometimes 
oil is used to get the 
desired heat. Then a 
man comes along with 
a ladle full of “spiegel- 
eisen,” which is a com¬ 
bination of carbon, 
manganese and other 
chemicals that works 
the great process of changing iron into 
steel. There are three grades of iron 
product: malleable or wrought iron, which 
is simply iron as we know it in pigs; 
steel, which is iron with an addition of 
i to percent of carbon; and cast iron, 
which contains about 4 per cent of carbon. 
The more carbon added the harder and 
more brittle the substance becomes. 
When the carbon has been poured in, the 
blast spouts up for a while longer, and 
then the cupola, which is hinged, tips 



The steel ingot passes back and forth between the sets of immense rollers 
until it is finally delivered, at the left of the picture, a perfect steel rail, 
ready to do its part in the transportation of the world’s products. 








STEEL ROLLING MILLS. 


815 



FIFTEEN THOUSAND TONS OF STEEL RAILS. 

In this one pile are enough rails to build a double track railroad from New York to Philadelphia, or 
nearly enough to build a single track from New York City to Washington. 


over and with a shower of sparks the 
bright red steel flows out about as thick 
as tar into big oblong molds set on the 
sand floor, which, however, have only 
four sides and no top or bottom. There 
are generally a dozen or so of these molds 
full of glowing steel arranged in a circle 
on the floor waiting to cool. When their 
contents are sufficiently cool to handle, 
the molds are picked up by great cranes 
and tongs, and swung over to brick- 
covered cars. Here the steel “ingot,” as 
the lump is called, is knocked out of the 
mold, and sent on its way to the rollers, 


while the mold is dropped back to iL 
place to receive another charge. 

In Making Steel Rails, 

numerous rollers, each a little smaller 
than the one before it, are arranged in 
successive rooms. The red-hot ingot is 
dumped from its car on to a continuously 
traveling bed with arms sticking up from 
its chains. These pick up the ingot, and 
with the aid of a man who pushes with a 
crowbar, the mass of metal is run between 
two great rollers and reduced in width 
and thickness but greatly lengthened. 



MAGNETIC TRAVELING CRANES. 


Some steel plates are so large that they cannot be carried by hand; consequently, powerful electro¬ 
magnets are so arranged that—by the simple push of an electric button—they descend, and, grasping the 
huge plates, convey them to any part of the mill desired. 


































816 


ACETYLENE GAS. 


This process is repeated again and again, 
each time the size diminishing one way 
but increasing another. Finally the rail 
begins to take on a shape, with flanges at 
the bottom and T-shaped head. Then 
the name of the mill is stamped in and 
holes are punched in the sides, so that 
they may be handled better when laid on 
the tracks. Then comes the sawing 


apart, by highly tempered saws lubricated 
with oil. The rail is gradually cooling all 
this time, and as it cools it warps. To 
overcome this it is placed in vises and 
straightened. The time occupied from 
the moment the hot iron metal leaves the 
ore-refining cupola till it is formed into 
heavy, perfect rails is, in a rush season, 
but a few hours. 


Lj 




IS 


Acetylene Gas: The New Illummant. 

BRIGHTER THAN ALL OTHER LIGHTS. 


I 


' J!I l 





J 1 I 1 I L 


1_1 I L 


ECENTLY a most successful 
illuminating gas has appeared 
to which has been given the 
name “acetylene.” It is 
generated by dampening cal¬ 
cium carbide. This calcium or calcium 
carbide is a hard, porous, grayish material 
produced by fusing in an electric furnace 
pulverized coke and air-slaked lime. One 
ton of this material will make i i,ooo cubic 
feet of acetylene gas, which is said to be 
the equivalent of 264,000 cubic feet of 
ordinary coal gas; that is, 1 cubic foot of 
acetylene is equal to 24 cubic feet of coal 
gas. The following is the process for 
making the calcium: 

The lime is crushed and pulverized by 
suitable machinery and allowed slowly to 
air-slake, after which it is mixed with a 
certain amount of powdered coke and 
placed in a specially prepared furnace for 
fusing. This furnace is built of fire¬ 
brick, and in it is a cast-iron crucible. 
The bottom of this crucible is connected 


with an electrical generating apparatus 
and above it is suspended a “pencil,” 
specially prepared, which forms the other 
end of the electrical circuit. To prevent 
the crucible from melting when the cur¬ 
rent is on, a thick layer of powdered car¬ 
bon is strewn on the bottom of the cruci¬ 
ble, which acts as a good conductor of 
electricity but a poor one of heat. 

When the furnace is ready to be 
charged, the carbon pencil is lowered till 
it touches the bottom plate, or “elec¬ 
trode,” and the mass of powdered coke 
and lime is shoveled in around it. The 
doors of the furnace are now closed and 
the current turned on. So long as the 
pencil touches the bottom there is no 
effect, for the current simply runs off to the 
earth; but the minute it is slightly raised, 
the current is broken, and to gain the 
earth the electricity must jump across the 
intervening space. This makes a big 
spark, and the fusing together of the lime 
and coke is soon accomplished by means 














ACETYLENE GAS. 


817 


of the great heat thus generated. Gradu¬ 
ally the pencil is raised as the process 
goes on, for the calcium is an excellent 
conductor of electricity. At last, when 
the current is turned off, we have a cone 
of calcic carbide in the middle of the 
crucible, where the electricity operated 
on the two crude materials. 

When dampened, this calcium throws 
off a thick, heavy gas, which has a very 
disagreeable, pungent odor, and which 
burns with a steady, brilliant, greenish- 
white light. Lamps have been invented 
for burning this gas, and those for bicycle 
use have small compartments in which 
the calcide and water are kept separate, 
the water being allowed to drip through a 
very small hole, one drop at a time, and 
as the gas is generated it flows out 
through a jet at which it may be lighted. 
A lamp thus charged with a few cents’ 
worth of calcide will burn all night. 
Plants for the manufacture of this gas 
for use on farms and country estates 
have recently been built, with the result 
that far away from the city a very 
superior gas for illuminating may be had, 
and at a very reasonable cost. The light 
is many times as powerful as that from 

52 


coal gas, but it needs more careful hand¬ 
ling, cases having been reported of dis¬ 
astrous explosions from careless use of 
damp carbide. 



ACETYLENE GAS LAMP. 

In the upper chamber is held a quantity of 
water, the flow of which is controlled by the 
thumbscrew at the top. As the water drips down 
to the bottom chamber where the calcium carbide 
is stored, the acetylene gas is generated, and flows 
up into the central gas chamber; then through the 
filter above the coil spring and out at the jet, where 
it burns. 













m 

•:-v 

1 


PHOTOGRAPHY 
IN 1900. 


|S- 


PICTURES OF LIGHTNING, 
ELECTRIC SPARKS, OBJECTS L 
TOO SMALL TO BE SEEN, O' ( 

AND OBJECTS AT A DISTANCE FAR 111 
BEYOND THE REACH OF THE HUMAN EYE. 



the last few years many 
important inventions 
have been made in 
photographic circles. 
The X-rays are used in 
methods peculiar to the 
realms of photography. New sensitive 
papers have been introduced, especially 
the rough gray platinum kinds that give 
the effect of steel engravings. More im¬ 
proved plates for making exposures have 


given results never before dreamed of. 
Beautiful pictures of the heavens and 
nature are the result. Among other odd 
subjects for the camera are the lightning- 
flash and electric sparks. Meteorologists 
have been much interested in the results 
of pictures of lightning, and among other 
conclusions arrived at regarding these 
familiar electrical discharges is that they 
are crooked as they appear, and not, as 
some would have us believe, straight with 




VIEW OF A COCOANUT-TREE TAKEN WITH AN ORDINARY 
CAMERA AT A DISTANCE OF 200 FEET, 


818 




























a crooked effect from 
the background of 
clouds. 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN 1900. 


819 




Electographs, 

or pictures of electric 
sparks, are of great 
interest to scientists. 
These are produced by 
exposing a sensitive 
photographic plate to 
the path of a spark 
jumping from the poles 
of a static machine. 
The plate is enclosed 
in a dark envelope, and 
placed between the 
poles of the machine 
at right angles to a 
line that would con¬ 
nect them. The spark 
leaps out, punctures the 
envelope, exposes the 
plate, and rushing over 


One of the latest snap-shot cameras, arranged for 
arrying twelve plates without reloading. A pres- 
ure on the bulb operates the shutter which exposes 
he plate. Then the little screw at the upper left 
land corner is turned one notch, and the plate is 
Iropped down on the bottom of the camera, leaving 
l fresh one at the proper place ready for another ex- 
>osure. 


COCO^.NUTS ON THE TREE. VIEW TAKEN WITH TELE¬ 
PHOTO LENS, SAME DISTANCE. 


the edge of the plate, leaps across through 
the air to the other pole. 

Some peculiar properties of electricity 
are thus learned; among others that elec¬ 
tricity follows the line of least resistance 
through its conductor, whether it be air 
or of another sort, but in so doing it 
selects a number of special paths mutually 
divergent from each other, and hence does 
not travel in a mass through its conductor. 
From these experiments laws are ex¬ 
pected soon to be formulated which gov¬ 
ern this freakish fluid. 

The Telephotograph. 

Many instances arise where, because of 
the remoteness of the subject to be photo¬ 
graphed, the operator secures very poor 
pictures, with only faint outlines, or at 
the best very small reproductions. To 
do away with this difficulty a new process, 
called telephotography, has come into use. 
It came about partly through the use of 







































































































820 


PHOTOGRAPHY IN 1900. 


ordinary field glasses and telescope for 
observing with the naked eye, and later 
on with photographic attachments to the 
great glasses in observatories. Now, 
however, cameras are made that may be 
carried around from place to place, and 
yet so arranged that if the view to be 
photographed is across a wide river, the 
far-seeing lens is simply adjusted, and the 
telephotograph made. 


lens, back of which is a small negative or 
concave lens. The negative lens is the 
one that does the far-seeing work, for it 
magnifies the object. This lens may be 
taken out if desired and the camera used 
for ordinary exposures. After a common 
picture has been taken, the operator may 
replace the negative lens, and upon his 
ground-glass screen will be seen the same 
subject, only a great deal nearer and 



AN ELECTROGRAPH OR PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION OF THE 
LEAP OF AN ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE BETWEEN 
THE POLES OF A STATIC MACHINE. 


Dwight L. Elmendorf has been as sue- * 
cessful, perhaps, as any one in taking 
views of this kind, and it has been largely 
due to his work in experimenting with 
telescopes that a good camera has been 
developed. An arrangement that he has 
perfected consists of a rack and pinion 
lens tube, 3^ inches long and 1 inches 
in diameter, enclosing a fine rectilinear 


larger. If the outline is not quite dis¬ 
tinct, by using the rack and pinion the 
regular lens may be moved forward or 
backward similar to an opera glass, and a 
perfect focus is obtained. Exposures 
with this kind of camera must necessarily 
be increased in length of time, for the 
reason that fewer light rays pass through 
the negative lens to the sensitive plate. 








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PHOTOGRAPHY IN 1900. 


821 


This seriously retards taking pictures of 
moving objects at a distance, but ere long 
it will doubtless be overcome. 

The uses to which this process may be 
put are various and wonderful. For 
pleasure alone the results are startling. 
Imagine yourself in the Alps, desiring to 
take a picture of a distant cap of snow 
miles away. Here is the means of grati¬ 
fying this desire. In the war between 
England and the South African Republic, 
the former country used this process for 
taking pictures of camps and fortifications 
many miles off, and which could not pos¬ 
sibly have been accomplished otherwise 
than by dangerous risk of fire from the 
Boers’ guns. As soon as an apparatus is 
perfected that will take rapidly-moving 
objects, a kinetoscope attachment will be 
made that will enable the scientist to take 
and reproduce moving pictures of wild 
animals in their native haunts, and birds 
on the wing, long before they become 
aware of the approach of their enemy. 

Microphotography 

is rapidly coming to the aid of medicine. 
Heretofore it has been doubtful just what 
conditions existed in diseased tissues, but 
now, with camera and microscopes, last¬ 
ing pictures may be made of life-destroy¬ 
ing germs. The apparatus for such 


processes is simple, and even inexperi¬ 
enced amateurs may get beautiful results 
of flowers and animal life. A light tight 
box is arranged for the camera, with a very 
long bellows. At the end is attached a 
powerful microscope, and farther up an 



IMPRESSION OF AN ELECTRIC SPARK 
ON A PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE. 

ordinary photographic lens. The box 
must be held very rigid, for long ex¬ 
posures are the rule. When the plate is 
developed, one may see in great detail 
tiny objects not risible to the naked eye. 
These, when thrown on screens from 
magic lanterns, make beautiful enlarge¬ 
ments. 







^TTTmTYTTTTTmTTTTTTTTTTTmTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTmTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTYfT?7nTrTT^rm7T?7TTTTTTTmYTTTmT^ ^3 

Recent Occurrences 

THAT HAVE MADE HISTORY. | 

£; p The Rural Postal Delivery; British War in the Soudan; Arctic and 3 
E Antarctic Exploration; Partition of China. 

£ SAAAAAAU AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA UAAAAAAAAAAAAAlUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAmAAAAAAAAAAAmiMAmAAMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAte ^ 

^muiuiiiauuiuuumuiuumuuuauiiiiiiiuuiiiuiiiiiiiiuuiumiuimuiuiii 


The Rural Postal Delivery. 

ERE is nothing so remarkable 
in the history of the postal 
department as the recent 
growth of the free rural de¬ 
livery. Within the last two years, be¬ 
cause of the wish of the people whom it 
serves, it has so implanted itself upon the 
postal administration that it can no longer 
be considered in the light of an experi¬ 
ment. Some of the advantages derived 
from it are: Increased postal receipts, 
more letters being written and received, 
and more newspapers and magazines sub¬ 
scribed for, thus keeping people in 
country parts well informed on topics of 
the day, as well as better educating them. 
Land values are increased, in general 
about $2 to $3 an acre, because of better 
means of communication. Country roads 
must be improved for the carrying of 
mails, and here lies a great benefit to the 
farmer. In one county in Indiana the 
delivery was valued so much that the 

8 9*7 

O 


farmers spent $2,600 on grading in 
order to obtain it. Possibly the greatest 
advantage to the country man is better 
prices on his produce, because he can 
keep in daily touch with the market re¬ 
ports and can take advantage at once of 
high prices to sell. At the end of 1899 
rural free delivery was in successful oper¬ 
ation over 383 routes, radiating over forty 
states and one territory. The service was 
given to over 190,000 persons at an 
annual cost of about 84 cents a person. 
This was accomplished by an expenditure 
of $150,000, which was made available by 
an act of congress July 1, 1899. 


British War in the Soudan. 

The fanatically religious Dervishes, 
followers of the Mahdi and the Khalifa of 
Soudan, for eighteen years carried on a 
warfare with the English that was most 
discouraging to all attempts at civiliza¬ 
tion. The great Colonel “Chinese” Gor- 

















1 


TRYING TO FIND THE POLES. 


don in 1879 was governor of the country, 
and tried without success to quell insur¬ 
rections. He was recalled to England, 
and at his departure new rebellion against 
the British authority broke out, headed by 
the son of a Dongola carpenter named 
Sheil Mohammed Ahmet, who called him¬ 
self El Mahdi, the prophet of God. This 
man gathered under his banner thou¬ 
sands of fanatical Mohammedans, and 
ravished the country at the sources of the 
Nile River. England sent Colonel Hicks 
with 11,000 picked men against him, but 
the expedition ended in a massacre of the 
British. England, now awake to the 
enormity of the situation, sent Gordon 
back to capture and destroy the Mahdi. 
In 1884 he arrived at Khartum, was im¬ 
prisoned, and before reinforcements 
under Gen. Sir Garnet Wolseley could 


823 

arrive, had to surrender, and was then 
treacherously killed by the Dervishes. 
The Mahdi died the next year and was 
succeeded by Khalifa Abdullahi, who 
dispensed with the Mahdi’s religious 
fervor, but lacked none of his wiliness. 
In 1896 the British renewed the war 
under General Kitchener, who, in order 
to carry the war into the enemy’s country, 
built a railway over the desert, advancing 
as fast as it was completed, thus having a 
ready communication with civilization for 
supplies. In 1897 Berber and Abu Hamed 
were taken, and September 2, 1898, Om- 
durman, the capital of the Dervishes, fell. 
The following year, November 24, 1899, 
the Khalifa was killed in battle, and Lord 
Kitchener sent to London the terse mes¬ 
sage, “The Soudan may now be declared 
open.” 



ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 


F all the baffling forces of na¬ 
ture possibly those experi¬ 
enced in polar expeditions are 
the greatest. For nearly three 
hundred years brave explorers have 
battled with icebergs and frozen seas, 
and all in the quest of those unknown 
lands about the poles. Of the many ex¬ 
peditions, successful and otherwise, those 
of Greely, Peary, Nansen, and Andree 
are possibly the most important. Amer¬ 
ica has given to the world much informa¬ 
tion on the Arctic Ocean, and Lieutenant 
Peary, of the United States navy, who is 
now in Greenland, has done as much for 
our glory in discoveries as any other. He 
made trips in 7.886, 1891, 1894 and 1898, 
striving in the main to reach the North 
Pole by traveling across the land ice of j 


Greenland. During the last trip, how¬ 
ever, from which he has not yet returned, 
he intended to try a system of food posts, 
one after the other, farther and farther 
towards the pole. Andree, who probably 
perished with his two brave companions, 
sought to reach the pole by balloon, figur¬ 
ing that the wind currents would carry 
him safely. His start was bad, however, 
and the last heard from him was a mes¬ 
sage taken from a carrier pigeon shot near 
Wadden Island, and which stated that July 
13, 1898, the party was in good health. 
Nansen, a Norwegian, sailing under 
government instructions in the “Fram,” 
used the method of drifting with cur¬ 
rents toward the pole, and reached the 
farthest known point north, 86 degrees 
and 14 minutes, or within less than 



















824 


TRYING TO FIND THE POLES. 


four degrees of the object of all explorers’ 
search. 

The Antarctic Ocean 

has not been as well explored as has its 
northern mate, but its region is full of 
interest. Three distinct points of land 
jut out of this great frozen sea toward 


rents of cold air that blow off the land. 
However, it is supposed that a great con¬ 
tinent exists there, yet to be explored. 
The latest southern exploration was that 
of the “Belgic,” sent out by the Belgian 
government. The party on this vessel 
was ice-bound below the seventieth paral- 



ALMOST AT THE NORTH POLE. 

The American flag flying from one of the series of relief and supply stations at Cape Tegetthoff. 


the north, which are known as Wilkes 
Land, Enderby Land and Graham Land. 
These three lands form almost a triangle, 
with points on each side of the earth. 
About all that is known of them is the 
intense condition of cold that exists on 
the interior, as is found by the great cur- 


lel for eleven months, the farthest point 
being 71 y 2 degrees. One important dis¬ 
covery made by them was that the south¬ 
ern magnetic pole, which governs the 
compass in the southern hemisphere, is 
some two hundred miles farther east than 
was formerly supposed. 











THE PARTITION OF CHINA. 


825 


THE PARTITION OF CHINA. 

NATIONS SCRAMBLE FOR POSSESSION 
OF THE FLOWERY KINGDOM. 


HEN the war between China 
and Japan was ended and 
China was beaten so badly 
that she had to give not only 
cash indemnity but territory as well to 
her victorious opponent, the nations of 
Europe saw that there lay before them a 
country the most populous in the world, 
rich in its resources, and lacking force of 
character so much that they at once de¬ 
cided to grab as much of this easy prize as 
they could. Japan was deeded as indem¬ 
nity Shashih, Suchow, Hang-Chow, the 
Liau-Tong peninsula, and the temporary 
possession of the port of Wei-Hai-Wei. 
Russia, France and Germany at once com¬ 
plained of this; Russia wishing Port 
Arthur, in the province of Liau-Tong, 
as a southern terminus of the Siberian 
railway. Russia got possession of Port 
Arthur with long leases. 

Germany complained of this treatment, 
and a little later, rather opportunely, oc¬ 
curred the massacres of several German 
missionaries. This was used as a good pre¬ 
text for demands upon China, and a seizure 
of ports was made by forces landed from 
German warships. After a dispute be¬ 
tween the two governments, China paid a 
sum of $450,000 to the families of the 
murdered men, and gave a ninety-nine- 


year lease of the port of Kiao Chau and 
other territory seized by Germany to that 
nation. About this time Great Britain 
was fully awake to the possibilities of the 
situation, and began dickering for her 
share of the spoils. China had to have 
money to pay the war claims of Japan, 
and the only place to get it was London. 
Eighty million dollars were advanced to 
China by England, and as security the 
port of Wei-Hai-Wei was given over. 
England now controlled the gulf of Pe- 
chi-li and the great valley of the Yang- 
tse-Kiang River, with its tributaries, 
draining 800,000 square miles. Later 
France strengthened herself along the 
Tonquin frontier on the south; she also 
acquired a lease on the south coast, 
with large rights for railway construc¬ 
tion. To offset this, England secured 
parts of Mirs Bay on the east, and Deep 
Bay on the west, as well as the island of 
Lantao. 

The partition of China is yet only just 
begun, and with such weak forces, no 
general in command of her armies, and 
vacillating methods of government, her 
unique history is threatened with severe 
trials unless her vast hordes rise with 
knowledge of their power, and throw off 
the encroaching Europeans. 














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HOW THE UNITED STATES IS DOMINATING 

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HILE the United States gov¬ 
ernment has not interfered in 
these partitions, her “sphere 
of influence’’ is not altogether 
wanting. Upon the signing of the Treaty 
of Paris, which closed the Spanish-Ameri¬ 
can war, and which gave to American 
control the resourceful Philippine Islands 
and one island in the Ladrones, in the 
Pacific, besides the other American 
acquisitions, Europe at large felt that the 
United States were overstepping the fa¬ 
mous Monroe Doctrine. Early in 1898 the 
annexation of the Hawaiian Islands had 
been accomplished by the United States, 
mainly as a war measure for protection in 
the Pacific Ocean. As it is now, the sun 
hardly sets on the American flag. Be¬ 
sides this great influence brought to bear 
on the far east through colonization and 
commerce with our dependencies and with 
pushing the war in the Philippines, we 
have made ourselves materially felt in 
Asia proper by exporting great quantities 
of supplies for the Trans-Siberian and 
Chinese Eastern railways. In Africa, as 
yet, we hold little other than protection 
over native-born American adventurers 
in the Boers* republics, but here also 
American push and energy have been 
felt. When Lord Kitchener was pushing 
826 


into the Soudan with his new military rail¬ 
way, he found it necessary to 

Bridge the Atbara River. 

American engineers, with their usual 
foresight, jumped to the spot, and by 
promising quicker work than any com¬ 
petitor landed the prize. Thirty days 
from the time of the letting of the con¬ 
tract, the steel girders for the construction 
of the bridge were leaving the harbor of 
New York on their way to Africa. 

But if we are pushing forward in war 
and in commerce, the result has not been 
without evil comment by many persons 
and nations. China, with her dread of 
the influence of the white man, has ex¬ 
pressed, through Li Hung Chang, her 
dislike for the methods of the republic 
which brought forth the great Grant who 
was so popular with the Chinese. “Had 
he yet been alive,’’ remarks Earl Li, 
“there would never have been this greedy 
expansion toward the weaker peoples’ 
lands. ’’ 

The South American republics, with 
whom we have always been on such 
friendly terms, look with fear upon what 
they think are mere aggressions. They 
now talk of binding themselves together 
for protection against any encroachments 

















































































































AMERICAN EXPANSION. 


827 


further south, for with control of Cuba, 
which they think we will never give up, 
and the absolute annexation of Puerto 
Rico, they believe that it will not be long 
before the Yankees will strive still further 
to dominate the continent. 


OUR WAR WITH SPAIN. 

After the bloodshed of years on the 
island of Cuba, the destruction of the 
U. S. S. Maine by an explosion in the 
Havana harbor wrought the people of 
the United States to such fever heat that 
nothing could come but war with Spain. 
A court of inquiry was appointed by the 
President, and the finding was that the 
explosion had been caused by a submarine 
mine. This resulted in still greater ill- 
feeling between the two countries. April 
21, 1898, Minister Woodford received his 
passports from Spain, and the next day 
the first prize of the war was captured, 
the Buena Ventura, by the United States 
gunboat Nashville. On the twenty-third, 
the President called for 125,000 volun¬ 
teers, and the next day Spain issued a 
decree stating that a state of war existed 
with the United States. May 1, the cele¬ 
brated battle of Manila occurred, in which 
Commodore, now Admiral, Dewey anni¬ 
hilated the Spanish Asiatic fleet, and took 
possession of the Philippine Islands. 
Campaigns were at once started in Cuba 
and Puerto Rico, while the Atlantic squad¬ 
rons, increased by new vessels recently 
purchased from other countries and by 
ocean greyhounds pressed into the service 
by the government, blockaded the Cuban 
ports and tried to lay a net for the fleet of 
Cervera, which was on its way to protect 
the islands. July 1, the celebrated charges 
up the heights of El Caney and San Juan 
were successfully made by the American 


forces. The next day the Spanish at¬ 
tempted to re-take the heights, but were 
unsuccessful. American losses were: 
killed, officers, 23, men, 208; wounded, 
officers, 80, men, 1,203; missing, 81 men. 
July 3, Cervera’s fleet attempted to run 
the blockade of the harbor of Santiago 
and was thoroughly overwhelmed, with a 
terrible loss of life and the capture of 
1,300 prisoners, while on the American 
side only one man was killed. July 14, 
General Toral, commander of the military 
of Santiago Province, surrendered. July 
26, M. Jules Cambon, the French Ambas¬ 
sador at Washington, in whose hands had 
been placed the affairs of Spain during 
the conflict, commenced negotiations for 
peace with the President. August 11, a 
protocol suspending hostilities was signed 
by W. R. Day, Secretary of State, and 
Jules Cambon, and the President issued a 
proclamation of temporary peace. August 
13, General Merritt and Admiral Dewey, 
by combined attack, carried Manila by 
storm, and after five hours, fighting the 
Spanish surrendered the city, with about 
7,000 prisoners. October 1, the commis¬ 
sioners for peace of the two governments 
met at Paris. December 10, the treaty of 
peace was signed by the representatives 
of the two governments. From the open¬ 
ing of the war till the date of signing the 
treaty but 233 days elapsed. 

The casualties during this war were: 


,-Killed-v ,— Wounded —„ 

Officers. Privates. Officers. Privates. 


Cuba. 

23 

237 

99 

1,332 

Puerto Rico. 

• • • 

3 

4 

36 

Manila. 


17 

10 

96 

Died of wounds 

4 

61 

— 

— 


27 

318 

113 

1,464 


The number of deaths by disease and 
accident from May 1 to September 30 was 
2,565. Total of deaths during war from 
all causes, 2,910. 


\ 














RICHES GREATER THAN 
KING SOLOMON'S. 

KLONDIKE AND CAPE NOME GOLD DISTRICTS. 
DIAMONDS OF ENORMOUS VALUE. 



T'' r ' 



Klondike. 

HE fall of 1897 brought great 
quantities of gold from Alaska 
and the bordering Canadian 
frontier, with news of still 
greater veins to be opened up. At once 
great numbers of prospectors struck out 
for that country, expecting a duplicate 
of the “days of ’49.” They were not 
disappointed, for there were found the 
richest of deposits all along the Yukon and 
Klondike rivers. However, the hardships 
to be endured were so great that they 
have turned back many prospective min¬ 
ers. 

For many years it had been known that 
Alaska was rich in gold, but that such 
great amounts would be taken out was 
never dreamed. The territory that is so 
rich in this product lies mostly just within 
the Canadian lines and between our bor¬ 
der and the 138th meridian of west longi¬ 
tude, and has for central point Dawson 
City. Circle City, with a surrounding 
gold-bearing region, lies further west and 
within the United States territory, not far 
from Fort Yukon, on the river of the 
same name. The Klondike is really only 
a creek tributary to the Yukon, while 
Lewis River, Forty Mile Creek, and Cop¬ 
per River are adjacent to it and bear 
gold. The Klondike, which names the 
district, was called Throchec by the 
82(8 


Indians, which means salmon, possibly 
because of the great number of these fish 
there. 

The Town of Dawson, 

which was named after the man who fixed 
the boundary between American and 
Canadian possessions, is new, and is chiefly 
a source of supplies and a place of meet¬ 
ing. The site is on the east bank of the 
Yukon and on the north bank of the 
Klondike River, which empties into the 
Yukon at that point. The boundary line 
is seventy miles southwest. 

The gold has been found in the small 
creeks that flow into the Klondike. First 
comes Bonanza Creek, a mile and a half 
back of Dawson. It is thirty miles long 
and very rich, but its tributaries are still 
better. Ten miles up it the Eldorado, for 
example, is the most productive streak 
that has been turned up; it is only six 
miles long, and is all staked out in claims, 
about $250 has been taken out in a 
pan, and it is estimated that the yield 
will be $20,000,000. Seven miles above 
Bonanza the Klondike receives the waters 
of Bear Creek, which is also rich in gold. 
Hunker Creek is fifteen miles up the 
Klondike, and up that is a little stream, 
about the size of a brook, which is called 
Gold Bottom. All these streams flow 
from the south, and they come from hills 
that must have lots of gold in them, for 



















































































































































































I 




































































— 






























STUDENTS OF PRACTICAL DESIGN AT WORK-SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART, BOSTON 

























































829 


RICHES GREATER THAN KING SOLOMON’S. 


other creeks that run out of them into 
Indian River show yellow, too. Indian 
River is about thirty miles south or up 
the Yukon from Dawson. Stewart River 
and Sixty Mile Creek, with their tribu¬ 
taries, all south, and Forty Mile Creek, 
with its branches, off to the northwest- 
all have gold. The average yearly yield 
of the Alaskan and Klondike mines is 
about $6,000,000. 

The Largest Nugget 

ever found in the Yukon country was 
brought to the surface 
in creek claim 34 El¬ 
dorado by Peter Gordt. 

It weighs six pounds, 
and represents $1,158 
worth of gold. 

Cape Nome District. 

The most remarkable 
gold mining at present 
in the world, if not 
in the entire history of 
gold mining, is that 
now in progress at and 
about Cape Nome, on 
Norton Sound, Behring 
Sea, Alaska, situated 
about 225 miles north 
and west of the mouth of 
the Yukon River, or 135 
miles from St. Michael’s. Gold was first 
discovered on Snake River in the fall of 
1898. In June, or early in July, 1899, some 
one of the stranded miners tenting on the 
beach, as the only unclaimed space, acci¬ 
dentally discovered gold in the sand at his 
feet. Never had such easy mining been 
heard of, never had it been found so unex¬ 
pectedly and so opportunely, and it was 
not long before everything else was de¬ 
serted for the seashore, and even women 
and boys of ten or twelve years were to 
be found as busy in the sand as the men 
were. At present it is estimated that 


1,000 to 1,200 miners are at work on the 
beach, extending west for twenty miles. 
All these work with rockers, and they 
occupy just as much territory to the man 
or group as can work it. It is not un¬ 
usual for one small square bit of beach to 
pan out $10 to $15 per hour, but, of 
course, the space is soon exhausted and the 
lucky digger must move to another spot. 

Where Does It Come From? 

This beach deposit of gold is as yet an 
unsolved problem. By some it is claimed 


that the gold in the sand, which is en¬ 
tirely “dust,” has been washed out from 
the tundra by the waves at high tide and 
deposited through hundreds of years in 
the sand. 

Cripple Creek, Colorado. 

Cripple Creek district is now at the 
height of its productive history. The 
rate of growth in output from month 
to month is greater than ever before, 
while the “gush veins,” near the sur¬ 
face, have become strong ore bodies, 
with well defined walls, at from 300 to 
800 feet in depth, with shafts extending 



HYDRAULIC MINING IN THE ALASKAN GOLD FIELDS. 











830 


RICHES GREATER THAN KING SOLOMON’S. 


to the 1,000-foot levels. The Portland 
Company has a gold production record of 
$7,000,000, with dividends to date amount¬ 
ing to $2,377,080. Its territory consists of 
over 180 acres of claims on Battle Moun¬ 
tain, and the whole property is splendidly 
and thoroughly equipped with up-to-date 
machinery and buildings. The output of 
$7,000,000 has been secured from 2 x / 2 per 
cent of the total acreage, leaving 97 x / 2 per 
cent practically untouched. The produc¬ 
tion of the mine is now being limited to 
$200,000 per month. 

The gross value of the ore marketed 
from the camp in one month reached 
$1,731,000. Of the material shipped, the 
cyanide and chlorination mills treated 
24,950 tons, ranging in value from $20 to 
$35 per ton, while the smelters handled 
11,000 tons, at an estimated value of $93 
per ton, a larger figure than ever before 
for this class of material, demonstrating a 
gain in gold contents as depth is attained 
in working the mines. 

South Africa. 

Gold was discovered in the Transvaal in 
1886, and since that time has been taken 
out in vast quantities. Cities have arisen 
as if by magic. Railways, telegraph and 
cable lines have been strung, and every¬ 
where has been felt the power of gold, 
in 1898, gold to the amount of $74,220,000 
was taken from this region, and the limit 
to the veins is not yet near. 

Diamonds. 

Though diamonds are now found in the 
greatest abundance in Brazil and South 
America, they were formerly obtained 
from India, Borneo and the Ural Moun¬ 
tains of Russia. The great stones of his¬ 
tory have almost without exception come 
from India, though recently a number of 
diamond monsters have been found in 


South Africa, of which the most noted is 
the Excelsior, weighing 970 carats. 

Occasionally diamonds come to light in 
other regions. The Piedmont plateau at 
the southeastern base of the Appalachians, 
between Virginia and Georgia, has pro¬ 
duced some ten or twelve diamonds which 
have varied in weight from one to three 
carats, to the “Dewey” diamond, which 
weighed over twenty-three carats. 

It is, however, in the territory of the 
great lakes that the greatest interest now 
centers, for in this region a very interest¬ 
ing problem of origin is being worked out. 
No less than seven diamonds, ranging 
from four to twenty-four carats, have 
been found in the clays and gravels of 
this region. 

In 1883, a diamond was brought to Mil¬ 
waukee and sold for $1. Later it was 
found to be a diamond of sixteen carats’ 
weight. The woman who found it lived 
in Eagle, Wis., and the stone was picked 
up during the excavation of a well. Ten 
years later a four-carat diamond was 
found at Oregon, Wis., by a farmer’s boy 
at play in a clay bank. A third diamond 
was found at Kohlsville. Another beauti¬ 
ful stone of six carats was found at Sauk- 
ville, Wis., and was in the possession of 
the finder sixteen years before he knew its 
value. 

Probably the 

Greatest Diamond Mines 

of the world to-day are those in and 
around Kimberley, in South Africa. 
Diamonds were discovered here in 1870, 
and since then the value of the world’s 
output has been fixed at this point. Well 
may the value of these mines be imagined 
when we learn that since their first dis¬ 
covery diamonds to the value of $400,- 
000,000 have been marketed from South 
Africa. 





COMBINATIONS OF WEALTH. 

The Greatest Problem of the Age. 

WHAT ARE WE TO DO WITH CORPORATIONS AND TRUSTS? 






HE beginning of the industrial 
combinations goes back a 
great many years. It dates 
from the abandonment of the 
spinning wheel and the knitting needle. 
When women went out of the stocking¬ 
knitting and rag-carpet business, that in¬ 
dustry was taken up by men who had 
machinery with which to carry it on more 
cheaply and more quickly. When the 
cotton-gin was invented the industrial 
combination had its beginning. When 
the machinery that makes boots and shoes 
was invented the great boot and shoe fac¬ 
tories were made possible, and the busi¬ 
ness of the individual shoemaker was 
taken from his hands and put into the 
hands of the capitalists. When the oyster 
men on the Long Island shore began to 
turn their oysters over to the owner of a 
big sloop, who took them to market, they 
economized time and made what was in 
principle a business combination like 
what are known as the trusts. The dairy 
farmer sends his milk to a co-operative 
cheese factory, where the work which was 
once done on his own place is done much 
more cheaply and much better; and he 
gets a better price for his product at a 
smaller expenditure of labor. 

These combinations are being formed 
everywhere. Cartwright’s power loom 
gives employment to half a million people 
in the United States, and their wages are 


$160,000,000 a year. Whitney’s cotton- 
gin enables us to put on the market every 
year two hundred and fifty million dol¬ 
lars’ worth of cotton goods at a price 
which makes clothing plentiful and cheap, 
but still gives employment to hundreds of 
thousands of men at good wages and 
brings to capital a fair return. 

The Old Hand Process 

of shelling corn was so slow that it would 
take one-third of the whole population of 
the United States working every day in 
the year to shell the corn crop of this 
country, if machinery had not been in¬ 
vented that does the work with marvelous 
rapidity and cheapness. The possibilities 
of economy in production are enormous. 
Invention is the foundation of industrial 
combination. These combinations have 
not only increased enormously the pro¬ 
ductive capacity of the people, but in¬ 
creased the wages of labor and the 
certainty and steadiness of employment, 
and cheapened the product of labor to the 
consumer. It is because of these com¬ 
binations that we are to-day sending 
enormous quantities of manufactured 
goods to all the countries of the world. 
It is not alone capital which has entered 
into combinations. Labor has its combi¬ 
nations, and they will increase in strength. 

The danger which confronts industrial 
combination is the danger of over-capital- 

831 

























































































































832 


COMBINATIONS OF WEALTH. 


ization. We have had some evidences of 
a disposition to over-capitalize already, 
and too much stress can not be laid on 
working- against it. It should be regu¬ 
lated by law. This danger was more 
serious once than it now appears. We 
were threatened not long ago with a 
repetition of the South Sea bubble. The 
story of 

The Trusts 

has created an epidemic of desire to 
acquire sudden wealth. At intervals the 
public hears of men who have risen from 
comparative poverty to great riches in a 
short period of time, and others wish to 
do likewise. 

Aside from the question of over-capital¬ 
ization, the trust is in a large measure on 
trial. It was not so many years ago that 
there was a bitter public sentiment 
against corporations. Every effort was 
made, especially by adverse legislation, to 
discourage them. After a time men 
began to realize the benefits of the cor¬ 
porate form, and now recognize its advan¬ 
tages. The same feeling exists to-day 
toward great industrial combinations. It 
found expression recently in Missouri, in 
the passage of a law against the depart¬ 
ment store. In one respect 

The Department Store 

is like what we know as the trust. The 
man with small capital—say ten thousand 
dollars—is doing a business of one hun¬ 
dred thousand a year, and has to make at 
least five per cent on the gross sum to pay 
the expenses of his establishment and 
support himself. Along comes a depart¬ 
ment store and goes into competition with 
him. That store does a business of a mil¬ 
lion dollars a year, and can figure on a 
fair profit if it makes only one per cent 
on its gross receipts. The one-per-cent 
store drives all the little people out of 


business, and they must either move to 
some smaller place or quit business. 

The feeling of twenty years ago against 
the Vanderbilts is being duplicated to-day 
as a result of industrial combinations. It 
is a hatred of the very wealthy, and a 
desire to deprive them of the greater part 
of their wealth. Whether it will find 
expression in stringent legislation against 
the trusts, no one can tell now. The 
American people, when they have had 
time to consider a matter carefully, are 
pretty sure to form a correct judgment 
about it. They sometimes act hastily and 
do wrong; but they are sure to come out 
right in the end. 

The Trust is on Tr'al. 

If it proves, like the corporation, to be 
inoppressive, and a necessity to the con-, 
duct of certain operations which are for 
the public good, it will live. If, on the 
other hand, it oppresses the people, they 
will very quickly put a stop to it. If it 
violates public sentiment, it cannot live— 
if it puts into the hands of a few men the 
manufacture or distribution of any article 
of prime necessity, so that the American 
people feel that they are dependent on 
any set of men for coal or steel or any¬ 
thing which is in universal use, it will die. 

The Carnegie Steel Company, with its 
capital of $250,000,000, and the Federal 
Steel Company, and the American Com¬ 
pany, are of enormous wealth and power, 
and each controls a large part of the 
trade. But they operate independently 
of each other, and it is possible for the 
other steel and iron plants also to live; 
hence there is little popular feeling 
against them. If they combined to form 
one gigantic corporation, and to crowd 
out some of the smaller though still im¬ 
portant makers of iron and steel, they 
will find public opinion operating to bring 
about legislation to restrain them, and 






SOUTH AFRICA AND THE BOERS. 


833 


eventually to break up their business, if it 
did not break up through the natural 
operation of the laws of trade. 

The Whisky Trust Met Its Fate 

without the intervention of the law-mak- 
ing power. It undertook to do so much 
for its stockholders that it actually made 
it profitable for the man of small capital 


to start in business; for if he could not 
compete with the trust he could at least 
sell out to it; and in time the building 
of distilleries to sell to the trust became a 
recognized indust^. 

It remains to be determined whether 
the regulation of the trusts is a matter for 
Congress, or, as the Attorney General 
holds, for the States which charter them. 





i-t 



South Africa and the Boers. 

England’s Conquest of the Transvaal. 

i§L 

85S8. . ... . .... ....., 



HE clash of arms in South 
Africa between the forces of 
Great Britain and those of the 
two Dutch republics, the 
Transvaal, otherwise known as the South 
African Republic, and the Orange Free 
State, is the final outcome of a state of ill- 
feeling that dates back to the beginning 
of the century. South Africa was orig¬ 
inally settled by the Dutch. Huguenot 
refugees from France followed and inter¬ 
married with the Dutch. The Boers, or 
Dutch Afrikanders, of to-day are, there¬ 
fore, a mixed race, a fact that is shown by 
the names of their leaders, that of Presi¬ 
dent Kruger, for example, being Dutch, 
and General Joubert’s being French. 
The colonists were always restive under 
the control of a European government, 
and in 1795 threw off the allegiance to 

Holland. 

53 


The British Gained Control 

the same year, and with the exception of 
the brief period from 1802 to 1806 have 
been supreme in Cape Colony ever since 
Holland renounced all claims to the Cape 
settlement in 1814, in consideration of the 
payment of $30,000,000 by England. 

From the first the Boers chafed under 
the British rule, and when the measures 
abolishing slavery throughout the empire 
were adopted, and the Boers were com¬ 
pelled in 1834 to free the native Africans 
whom they held in slavery, their dislike 
for the British was intensified into bitter 
hatred. 

The Life of the Boers 

at this time was very primitive. With 
their herds and their slaves they wan¬ 
dered from one pasture land to another, 
like the patriarchs of the Israelites, to 

















SOUTH AFRICA AND THE BOERS. 


834 

whom they loved to compare themselves. 
The British government appropriated 
$6,000,000 with which to indemnify the 
slave-holders for their losses, but payment 
was made in orders on London, which the 
Boers were compelled to discount at ruin¬ 
ous rates at the Cape. In 1835-36, imme¬ 
diately following the liberation of the 
slaves, occurred what is known as the 
“Great Trek,” or migration. About 
10,000 Boers “trekked” into the wilder¬ 
ness north of Orange River, where they 
hoped to be free from British control, and 
at liberty to treat the natives in accord¬ 
ance with their inclinations. Here they 
maintained themselves in independence 
at the cost of 

Continual Warfare with the Natives, 

until, in 1848, the British intervened to 
establish order, and took possession of the 
territory, naming it “Orange River Sover¬ 
eignty.” This action was taken at the 
solicitation of many of the inhabitants, 
who had grown weary of the struggles 
with the native tribes. The change was 
very distasteful, however, to a large party 
of the Boers, and these immediately re¬ 
volted under the leadership of Pretorius. 
Having been defeated by the English 
under Sir Harry Smith, they “trekked” 
once more, this time into the country 
north of the Vaal River, where they 
established what became known as the 

“Transvaal” Government. 

After a few years, experience in control 
of the Orange River Sovereignty, the 
British reached the conclusion that it was 
not a desirable acquisition, and in 1852, 
by terms of the Sand River Convention, 
gave the Boers liberty to organize a gov¬ 
ernment of their own. The Orange Free 
State was immediately established, and 
has maintained its independence ever 
since, unhampered by the English. The 


history of the years that follow is a record 
of constant warfare with the native tribes 
until, in 1875, threatened with extermina¬ 
tion by an outbreak which they were un¬ 
able to control, the Boers of Transvaal 
petitioned England to come to their assist¬ 
ance. England’s control of the territory 
was the price asked, and April 12, 1877, 
Transvaal was annexed to Cape Colony. 
The danger past, the Boers repented their 
bargain and revolted in 1880, defeating 
the British in three engagements, in the 
last of which, the famous battle of Majuba 
Hill, Sir George Colley was killed. By a 
convention in 1881, signed at Pretoria, 
Mr. Gladstone’s government restored 
independence to the Transvaal, now 
known as the South African Republic. 
It was clearly understood, however, that 
the Transvaal was to remain under the 
suzerainty of Great Britain. The Boers 
were not satisfied, and in 1884 negotiated 
a new agreement with Great Britain, 
known as the London Convention of 1884. 
By the terms of this agreement no re¬ 
striction was placed on the independence 
of the South African Republic, except as 
expressed in the following statement: 
“The South African Republic will con¬ 
clude no treaty or engagement with any 
state or nation other than the Orange 
Free State, nor with any native tribe to 
the eastward or westward of the Republic 
until the same has been approved by Her 
Majesty, the Queen.” 

The Discovery of Diamond Deposits 

at Kimberley in 1870, and later on of gold 
in 1886, in the Transvaal, wrought great 
changes in the condition of the South 
African settlements. A mighty tide of 
immigration set in. Railroads and cities 
were built, and from a position of isola¬ 
tion South Africa became a theater of the 
greatest industrial activity on the part of 
enterprising men from all the civilized 




SOUTH AFRICA AND THE BOERS. 


835 


countries. The city of Johannesburg 
sprang up as by magic, and now has a 
population of over 100,000. The Boers 
classed all new-comers as 

“ Uitlanders ” 

or foreigners, and viewed with alarm the 
rapid increase of their numbers. To¬ 
day the Uitlander population of the South 
African Republic is at least twice as large 
as that of the Boers. In order to main¬ 
tain themselves in control of the govern¬ 
ment the Boers denied the Uitlanders the 
privilege of the ballot. They were taxed 
heavily, and claimed to be subjected to 
other abuses, of which they complained to 
the English. Their discontent reached a 
crisis in 1896, when a band of raiders 
under the leadership of Dr. Jameson 
entered the Transvaal with the purpose 
of intervening by force of arms in behalf J 
of the Uitlanders. The attempt was a 
failure, and had the effect of intensifying 
the bad feeling between the English and 
the Boers. It was firmly believed by the 
Boers that the English government con¬ 
nived at the effort to incite rebellion, but 
this the British denied. 

Since that time agitation has been 
kept up more or less constantly by the 
Uitlanders for the redress of their griev¬ 
ances. In negotiations which preceded 
the outbreak of the hostilities, the Boers 
contended that as the word “suzerainty” 
was deliberately left out of the London 
Convention of 1884, 

British Suzerainty 

no longer existed. This the British gov¬ 
ernment refused to admit, and to empha¬ 
size its demands for reform began to 


concentrate troops on the border of the 
Transvaal. It became evident to the 
Boers that they would be compelled to 
yield or fight. They were unwilling to 
yield, and finally made a peremptory de¬ 
mand on Great Britain to withdraw her 
forces from the border of the Transvaal, 
stating that a failure to do so within forty- 
eight hours would be considered an act of 
war. The demand was refused, and the 
Boers immediately began hostilities in 
conjunction with the government of the 
Orange Free State, which served notice 
on Great Britain that it would support the 
South African Republic. 

The division of the vast continent of 
Africa is really under way, and land- 
hungry England, always in the van of 
civilization and colonization, is in pros¬ 
pect of its own vast share. At present 
fourteen countries, with population ag¬ 
gregating 50,000,000 people, the greater 
majority of whom are blacks, cover a ter¬ 
ritory 2,600,000 square miles in extent, 
and are all under the shadow of the 
Union Jack. Diamonds and gold are the 
cause of the warfare that is ravaging the 
entire continent of Africa, and hardly can 
it be wondered at when in the last thirty 
years diamonds to the value of $400,000,- 
000, and gold in 1898 to the amount of 
$74,213,953, were taken from South Africa 
alone. Foreigners with push and enter¬ 
prise are populating and improving the 
country, and wish the Boers to do like¬ 
wise. The Dutch, however, are a rather 
unprogressive lot, standing in the way of 
further encroachment this time with armed 
forces, which, it is likely, will eventually 
have to give way to the progress of Great 
Britain. 









ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


A PAGE 

Accounts .632 

Acetylene Gas.816 

Admiration, Genuine.149 

Aerial Navigation.808 

Afghanistan .495 

Africa, Partition of.740 

Age of Stars.730 

Agreement, A Partnership.. . . . . 661 

Agreement, General Form of.660 

Agreements, Business.660 

Air, Compressed.781 

Air, Liquid.701 

Alabaster, To Cleanse ..259 

Alcohol, Who Drinks It ? . . ..616 

Alps, The.616 

Alphabet, How We Get It. 21 

Amaryllis.• •.186 

Amusements, Indoor.• 604 

Animal Propensities.134 

Animals, Locomotion of.687 

Antarctic Explorations.823 

Antidotes for Poison.687 

Anti-Toxin.746 

Ankle, Sprained.329 

Air Current, How to Detect an.269 

Appendicitis.749 

Arbitration, Court of.756 

Armstrong Gun.745 

Arctic Explorations.823 

Astronomy.513, 726 

Asparagus.• . 245 

Atbara River Bridge.826 

Attention, Necessity of. 93 

Attitudes, Incorrect. 68 

Attitude. 65 

Age of any Person, How to Tell.686 

Australia . 502 

Average Rainfall in the United States.684 

Apple Sauce for Roast Goose.242 

Automobiles.705 

Automatic Vehicles.705 

Austro Hungarian Empire.471 

Artesian Wells, Failure of.274 

Arabia. 490 

Aquaria.212 

Azalea. 195 

Asps, The Poison of.142 

Arm, Movement of. 72 


PAGE 


Army and Navy Officers, Salaries of.677 

Articulation, Errors in. 56 


B 


Bacilli. ••*... 744 

Backgammon.610 

Bacteria.744 

Balloon, War.810 

Barbary States.498 

Base Ball.390 

Bear, The Great.559 

Belgium.479 

Beloochistan.495 

Beans with Pork.234 

Beans, Boston Baked. 245 

Beef or Veal Pie.• . . . . 230 

Beef, Roast, with Yorkshire Pudding.227 

Beef, Scalloped.228 

Beefsteaks, Fried.227 

Beef, Roast.227 

Beef Loaf.228 


Beauty, A Plant of. 

Beefsteak, Broiled. 

Bible, A Petrified. 

Bible, The Roman Catholic. 

Bible, Curiosities of. 

Bible Printed in Three Hundred Tongues . 

Bills of Original Entry. 

Bird Seed. . 

Birds and Other Pets, Care of. 

Bicycling. 

Biscuit. 

Biscuit, French. 

Biscuit, Lemon. 

Biscuit, Breakfast. 

Biscuit, Graham. 

Biscuit, Rye . 

Blast Furnaces. 

Blotters and Ink. 

Blue Front Amazon, The.• 

Black Bird, English. 

Blue Jay, The. 

Bloomers, Perpetual. 

Boers, Life of. 

Book-keeping. 

Boxing. 

Body, The Human. 

Box Measures.. 


. . 170 
. . 227 
. . 679 
. . 679 
. . 679 
. . 679 
. . 633 
. . 207 
. . 197 
. . 411 
. . 248 
. . 249 
. 249 
. . 249 
. . 249 
. . 249 
812, 814 
. . 23 

. . 205 
. . 202 
. . 201 
. . 191 
. . 833 
. . 630 
. . 409 
. . 616 
. . 689 


837 





































































































838 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


PAGE 

Bouillon.21G 

Bobolink.200 

Body, Culture of. 87 

Body, Attitude of the. 54 

Books of Account.632 

Books, Glue for ;.259 

Books of Original Entry.633 

Brazil.505 

Brain, Compression of the.329 

Breathing, To Induce.,.322 

Brass.259 

British India.492 

British War in the Soudan.822 

Bread.248 

Breads, Hot.• ... 348 

Breakfasts.347 

Broth, Veal.217 

Broth, Chicken.218 

Broth, Mutton. 217 

Breathing, Abrupt . 54 

Breathing, Forcible. 54 

Breathing, Tranquil. 54 

Breathing, Exercises in. 54 

Business Terms and Rules.624 

Building Societies.601 

Building Societies, Constitution of.601 

Burns, How to Treat . . . •.328 

Butter, To Make Drawn. 243 

Butter, Melted.243 

Bullfinch, The.203 

Business Lesson.• . 682 

C 

Cabinet Facts.677 

Canal Locks.734 

Cape Cairo Railway.716 

Cape Colony.501 

Cape Nome.829 

Casseiopeia.560 

Cards for Receptions.336 

Calls and Visits.338 

Cash Book.634 

Cake, Fruit.250 

Cake, Loaf.251 

Carpets, Treatment of.276 

Cake, Cream.251 

Cake, Gold.251 

Cake, Silver.251 

Cake, Caramel.251 

Cake, Velvet.251 

Cake, Elba.251 

Cake, Ice Cream.251 

Cake, Empress.251 

Cake, White.251 

Cake, Sponge.250 


PAGE 

Cake, Huckleberry.251 

Cat Bird, The.201 

Cake.248 

Cauliflower.246 

Catsup, Cucumber.242 

Catsup, Tomato.242 

Cattle Killing.786 

Calf’s Head, Boiled.230 

Cats and Monkeys.213 

Cancer in Birds.211 

Capital Letters, How to Use. 29 

Canary, The , 197 

Carnations and Picotees.190 

Carlisle Tables of Mortality.686 

Cattle, To Obtain the Weight of.689 

Cecil Rhodes.717 

Central America.508 

Celery, Stewed.246 

Chess, Laws of the Game .608 

Chess . 605 

Chess Terms.606 

Chicago Drainage Canal.735 

“ Chicago Construction ”.778 

Chili.507 

China, Partition of.825 

Chinese Eastern Railway.713 

) Choking, How to Treat.329 

Chintzes, Washing.256 

Chicken Pie.238 

Chicken, Deviled. 238 

China.490 

Chicken Cutlets.239 

Chicken, Broiled.239 

Chicken Pie. 239 

Chicken Pates.239 

Chicken, To Curry.240 

Chicken, Mode of Broiling.240 

Characters, Weak ones Despised.132 

Chickens.206 

Chaffinch, The.203 

Cheerfulness, In Wife.170 

Characters, Strong. 122 

Chest, Expanding The. 53 

Cinematograph.738 

Cities, Fictitious Names of.617 

Civilization in Africa.740 

Clothing, To Remove Stains .253 

Clothing, Receipts for Renovating.252 

Clothes, Washing . 256 

Clam Chowder.224 

Claws and Beak, Long.210 

“ Cohener ”.721 

Colonial Government of the United States . . . 802 

Combinations of Wealth.831 

Comparative Physiognomy.612 















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


Constellations, Magnificent. 

Countries of the World, The. 

Cordite. 

Corporations. 

Correspondence, The Art of. 

Corona, The Brilliant. 

Condolence, Letters of. 

Costume, Calling or Visiting. 

Conversation, Art of. 

Complexion, The. 

Cosmetics, Receipts for. 

Cosmetic Wash Powder. 

Coquetry. 

Courage. 

Corn Oysters, Green. 

Coats of Arms of States and Territories . . . . 

Cod Pie. 

Codfish Cakes. 

Codfish, Dried. 

Cooking, Receipts for. 

Constipation in Birds. 

Cockatoos. 

Cookery, Outrageous. 

Compliments, Empty. 

Courtship, Blind Errors of. 

Courtship . 

Consonants. 

Countries, Sizes of. 

Countries, Settling of. 

Countries, Discoveries of. 

Crater, a Remarkable .. 

Cricket. 

Crumpets, London. 

Crab Pie. 

Crabs, Soft Shell.•>. 

Cuba. .. 

Cuba, Government of. 

Cuba, Military Governor of. 

Curls and Ribbons. 

Culture, Physical. 

D 

Dates of First Occurrences. 

Day Book . 

Dahlias . 

Dawson City. 

Death-Dealing Machines of War. 

“ Decoherer ”. 

Desert World, A. 

Democratic Party, The. 

Deed, Warranty with Covenants. 

Deeds. 

Delsarte, Birth of . 

Delsarte What He Thought. 

Delsarte System, The. 


839 


PAGE 

Debt, Avoid.682 

Department Stores.832 

Diamonds, Great. 830 

Diamonds in South Africa.830 

Distances, Amazing.555 

Dirt in the Eye.328 

Dixey.617 

Disease, Infectious.277 

Dinner Giving.344 

Dinner Dress.346 

Diet, Avoid Bad.174 

Diseases of Birds, Proper Remedies.207 

Diffidence.172 

Dianthus.191 

Discretion.171 

Divorces, Great Number of,.136 

Discipline, Mental. 94 

Discoveries in Medicine.744 

Diphthongs. 55 

Diamond-cutting.•.595 

Digestion, Periods of.688 

Dominion of Canada, The .457 

Dogs.• . . . . 213 

Domestic Bliss, Receipt for.159 

Dollars, Weight of a Million.682 

Dollar, How Much One Saved Will Earn Each 

Day.683 

Dress for Riding.360 

Dress for Dinner.• . . 356 

Dress for Gentleman.360 

Driggs-Schredner Gun.775 

Drowning . . ..322 

Drainage, Good.265 

Dumb Bells, Exercises With.295 

Duck, Roast - . ..240 

Dwellings, Healthful.264 

Dysentery.209 

E. 

Earth’s Satellite, The.546 

Earth’s Centre.617 

Eclipse of the Sun.728 

Editors.761 

Education. 17 

Egypt.488 

Egg Dumplings for Soup.219 

Egg Bound.210 

Egg, Food in an ..689 

Eggs, Weight of.688 

El Dorado.618 

Electric Cab.706 

Electric Light, The.580 

Electricity. 573-744 

Electrical Plant Growth.725 

Electrographs.819 


PAGE 

559 

439 

773 

832 

367 

524 

375 

358 

333 

261 

260 

261 

137 

172 

245 

453 

221 

221 

221 

215 

209 

205 

174 

168 

118 

118 

55 

681 

679 

679 

554 

392 

250 

225 

225 

509 

804 

804 

355 

79 

433 

633 

102 

829 

772 

723 

548 

449 

662 

662 

79 

82 

79 












































































































840 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


PAGE 

Elocution, Principles of. 73 

Elocution. 53 

Elocution Illustrated. 73 

Emergencies, What to Do in.320 

Emphasis, Exercises in. 78 

Emphasis, Errors in. 62 

Emphasis. 62 

English Language. 21 

England.461 

Encyclopedia of Valuable Information .... 673 

Endurance, Power of.294 

English Language, The. 45 

Engagements, Breaking.148 

England, Sovereigns of.685 

Engraving, Colortype.783 

Engraving, Half-tone.782 

Epilepsy in Birds. 210 

Errors of Gesture. 66 

Errors in Writing and Speaking ....... 47 

Etiquette of Polite Society.331 

Evening Parties.350 

Exercise, Wrong Modes of.306 

Expansion, American.826 

Explosives of High Power.772 

Extravagance, The Curse of.134 

Exercises, Elementary. 55 

Execution, Mode of . 687 

Exports of Various Countries.684 

F 

Face Reading.612 

Fainting.324 

Facts, Curious.616 

Face Veil, The.356 

Fac-simile of National Hymn.451 

Feathers, To Cleanse.256 

Feet, Movement of. 67 

Feet, Position of. 65 

Filipino Revolt.758 

Finsen Light Rays.745 

Fish Supper, A.353 

Fire, Accidents by.323 

Fish, Boiled Cod.221 

Fish, Croquettes of.221 

Fish.221 

Fish, White, Baked.• . 223 

Fish, Chowder.221 

Figures, Remembering. 96 

Flowers, Language of.691 

“ Flying Dutchman ”.618 

Flying Machines.810 

Flowers, The Beautiful.180 

Flowers, Language and Sentiment.691 

Flower Language.691 

Flower Vocabulary.692 


PAGE 

Flies, To Keep from Horses.689 

Flies, To Drive from Stables.689 

Foot Racing.405 

Food, Angels’.251 

Forest Waste.741 

Fowl, Boiled.240 

Fowl, How to Cook.239 

Fowl with Oysters, Boiled.240 

Food for Birds. 212 

Force, Impassioned. 74 

Force, Declamatory. 73 

Force, Moderate. 73 

Force. 57 

Fortunes, Foundations of.682 

Food, Percentage of Nutrition. 688 

France.466 

France, Depredations by.448 

France, Chamber of Deputies.791 

France, Courts of.791 

France, Government of.789 

France, President of.790 

French Gem, Famous.594 

Frosts, Prevention of.741 

Frugality.175 

Full Dress, Occasions for.360 

Furniture, To Clean Dirty or Stained.259 

Furniture, Receipts for Renovating.258 

G 

Game Supper, A.353 

Game, How to Cook ....... .238 

Gasoline Mobile.708 

Gatling Gun. 775 

Gems, Wheat. 249 

Gems, Graham.249 

German Empire, The.468 

Germany, Chancellor of. 794 

Germany, Diet of .... .. 793 

Germany, Emperor of. 793 

Germany, Government of.792 

Gems, Rye.249 

Gems, Famous. 593 

Gentleman, The True.132 

Germicides. 744 

Germs. 744 

Gesture, Rules for. 72 

Gesture. 53 

Gloves and Shoes.356 

Gladiolus.188 

Good Manners, Charm of. 331 

“ Go to Halifax ”.618 

Gold .829 

Gold, Greatest Nugget of.829 

Gold, Cripple Creek.829 

Gold in South Africa.830 











































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS 


PAGE 

“Golden Age”.618 

Good Health, How to Preserve.262 

Goldfinch, The American.201 

Gold, Refined. 20 

Grammar, General Principles of. 39 

Grumbler, A Despicable.164 

Gravel for Birds.212 

Great Britain, Government of.794 

Great Britain, Cabinet of. . ..795 

Great Britain, Constitution of.796 

Great Britain, House of Lords of.796 

Great Britain, House of Commons of.795 

Great Canals of the World.733 

Great Governments of the World.789 

Green Linnet, The.203 

Gymnastics, Free.280 

Gravy. 227 

Greece.485 

Gymnote, The.751 


H 


Hand-Book of Law.659 

Halos, Magnificent.530 

Ham, How to Boil.336 

Ham, Baked.235 

Ham Toast.236 

Haddock, Baked.221 

Hauled Over the Coals.617 

Hand, Position and Movement of. 71 

Hawaiian Islands.806 

Hawaii.510 

Hemorrhage.323 

Heat, Inconceivable.520 

Heat, Phenomena of.529 

Head-Cheese.•.236 

Health, A Means of Good.214 

Head aud Countenance, Movement of ... . 70 

Heads of Governments, Salaries Paid to . . . 685 

Hertzian Waves.719 

Historic Ten Circles, The.470 

Holland—The Netherlands.477 

Horseless Age.705 

Hotchkiss Gun. 775 

House Beautiful, The.361 

“Hobson's Choice”.618 

House Decorations.342 

How to Remember. 90 

Housekeeper, Helps for the.214 

House Plants and Flowers.180 

Husband, The Model.162 

How to Do Business.655 

Hydraulic Power.736 

Hydrophobia.327 

Hydrophobia, Buisson Care for.748 


841 

PAGE 


I 

Ideas, Association of. 93 

Invoice Book..634 

Interrogation Marks. 33; 

Inflection. 60 

Indigo Bird, The.202 

Industry.176 

Indoor Amusements.604 

Information, Valuable.673 

Insult, A Conjugal.163 

Invitation, Notes of.363 

Income Tax, Decision on the. 449 ' 

Insects, Stings of.330 

Introductions. 332: 

“Iron Age”...618. 

Ireland.465 

Irrigation.741 


J 

Jameson, Dr. 

Japonica, Camelia.... 

Japan . 

Jewels, When to Wear . . 

John Bull. 

Jupiter. 


835. 

194 

491 

356 

618 

541 


K 

Keil Canal.734 

Kites, Scientific.809 

Kings and Queens of England, Table of . . . 463 

Kinetoscope, Edison’s. 583-739 

“ Kick the Bucket ”.618 

Klondike.828 

L 

Ladies’ Handwriting. 28 - 

Ladrone Islands.759 

Lamp, Acetylene Gas.817 

Language and Sentiment of Flowers.691 

Landlords and Tenants.664 

Largest Things in the World, The.415- 

Lard, How to Make.237 

Lawn Tennis.383 

Lace, To Whiten.256 

Lamb, Roast Forequarter of.233 

Letters, Forms for.367 

Lease of Farm and Buildings.664 

Letters, Business.377 

Legal Forms.659 

Letters of Congratulation.373 

Letters, Signs Used by Deaf and Dumb .... 34 

Lime in the Eye.328 

Light, Phenomena of.5S9 

Limbs, Broken ..209 

Linnet, The. 202: 


































































































842 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


PAGE 

Lily, The.180 

Limbs, Movement of the. 68 

Lies Never Pay.146 

Liberty Bell.618 

Liberia.500 

Light, Reflection of.589 

Linotype Machines.776 

Liquors, Percentage of Alcohol in.688 

Limitations, Statutes of.666 

Lightning Calculator.668 

Luncheons.347 

Love Letters.370 

Lunar Mountains.547 

Loisette Memory System, The. 90 

Love Making, How to be Conducted.135 

Love, How Blighted.• . • 139 

Love Killed by Quarrels.143 

Love Begets Love.148 

Loreys, The.205 

Lobster, Deviled.224 

Love and Marriage.119 

Lyddite.772 

M 

Mars.539 

Machine Guns. 775 

Man in the Moon.620 

Macaroni.244 

Marconi, Guiglielmo.719 

Marriages, Unfortunate.129 

Maiden, The Coquettish.137 

Marrying, Loving Involves.142 

Married Life Happy, How to Make.155 

Manhood, True. ••*... 161 

Mariano Islands. 759 

Marriage.118 

Marrying, Lady’s Chance of.* . . 687 

Marvels of the Railway.711 

Maxim Gun.775 

Meat Market of the World. 784 

Mexico.460 

Metals, Value of.683 

Men and Animals, Likeness Between.612 

Melody. 58 

Mercury...536 

Meteors.729 

Meteor, Largest Known.730 

Mimeograph, Edison’s.582 

Mile Racing.405 

Microbes.744 

Microscopic Photography. 522-821 

Mignonette.186 

Milky Way.727 

Mind, How It Works ’. 91 

Mines.775 


PAGE 

Monroe Doctrine. 620 

Mortgages.663 

Mortgage, General Form of.663 

Moulting.209 

Mocking Birds, Food for the.200 

Modem Illustrating.782 

Modern Newspaper.762 

Modern Wonders of Electricity.724 

Modesty.• •.171 

Money, Crazy to Make.167 

Monster Presses.769 

Mothers, Healthy.178 

Movement. 61 

Movement, Exercises in. 76 

Moving Pictures.738 

Money, Results of Saving Small Amounts . . . 683 

Months, How they get their Names.684 

Money.682 

Mortality, Tables of. 686 

Muffins, Com Meal.250 

Muffins, Plain.250 

Mutton Chop, Fried.233 

Mutton, Roast Loin of.232 

Mutton Chops, Broiled.233 

Mutton, Boiled Leg of.232 

N 

Nations, Wealth of.681 

Names of the Months, Derivations of.684 

Name, Engraving the.336 

Navy, American.*. . .776 

Nervous People, Whom to Marry.128 

Neptune. 544 

New Possessions. 757 

New Railway Construction.713 

New Studies of the Sky.726 

New Testament, Originals of.679 

Niagara Falls, Power of.736 

Nicaragua Canal.733 

Nikola Tesla.725 

Ninety Miles an Hour.717 

Nitro-Glycerine. 773 

Norway and Sweden. 475 

Nightmares and Headaches.215 

Nightingale, The. 202 

Nonpareil, The. 202 

O 

Oar and Paddle, The.305 

Oceanica. 503 

Old Legend, An. 18 

Omelet, Cauliflower.246 

Oil Gland, The.. . 209 

Ostrich-farming.501 

Opera Dress. 358 










































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


843 


Orion. 

Oriental Women, Arts of . . . 
Ornamental Penmanship . . . . 
Ornamental Pen Flourishes . . 

Orange Free State. 

Oyster Toast. 

Oysters, Shell. 

Oysters, Canned. 

Oysters, Broiled. 

Oysters, Stewed a la Delmonico 

Oysters, Deviled. 

Oysters, Escalloped. 

Oyster Stew. 

Oysters, Green Corn. 


P 

Partnership, Laws of. 

Paint, To Clean. 

Parties, Evening. 

Panama Canal. 

Pansies.. 

Pasteur Serum. 

Partridges, How to Cook . . . 

Palestine . 

Parrot, Cuban. 

Parrot, The Gray. 

Parrots, The. 

Parents, Consent of, in Marriage , 

Pauses, Exercises in. 

Pauses . 

Parenthesis, Bracket, Hyphen, etc 

Peace Conference. 

Pen Flourishes. 

Peru. 

Persons Who are Frozen . . . . 

Persia.. 

Pen, How to Hold.. 

Perch, The. 

Pea, Sweet. 

Penmanship, Specimen of ... . 

Pen Flourish. 

Philippines, The. 

Philippines, Government of . . . 

Phonograph, The. 

Phrenology. 

Photography, Wonderful. 

Photo-Engraving. 

Photographs of Lightning . . . . 

Pheasants, How to Cook. 

Portugal. 

Picture Telegraphy. 

Pilgrims, Arrival of the. 

Poison, Cutting out the. 

Poisons. 

Pipes and Ventilation. 


PAGE 


. 563 
. 124 
. 38 

. 30 

. 835 
. 223 
. 224 
. 224 
. 224 
. 224 
. 223 
. 223 
. 223 
. 245 


. 661 
. 256 
. 350 
. 733 
. 184 
. 746 
. 241 
. 489 
. 204 
. 204 


Potatoes, Scalloped. 

Potato Chips. 

Potatoes, Candied. 

Pigeon Pie. 

Pone, Sweet Potato. 

Potatoes in Cases. 

Pig’s Cheek. 

Pork Chops, Steaks and Cutlets 

Pork and Beans. 

Pigeons, Stewed. 

Pork Sausages.. . . 

Pork Fritters. 

Pork, How to Select. 

Pigs in Blanket.. . . . 

Poultry and Game. 

Pike, Boiled. 

Pigeons. 

Pitch, Exercises on. 

Pitch, Very Low. 

Pitch. 

Pitch, Middle. 

Pitch, Very High. 

Pitch, High. 

Pneumatic Tubes. 

Poisons, Antidotes for. 

Porto Rico. 


204 j Poultry, Management of 


. . 150 
. . 77 

. . 60 
. . 35 

. . 756 
. . 26 
. . 506 
. . 326 
. . 497 
. . 25 

. . 211 
. . 186 
. . 24 

. . 36 

. . 757 
. . 806 
. . 574 
. . 613 
586-818 
. . 764 
. . 820 
. . 241 
. . 484 
. . 724 
. . 444 
. . 330 
. . 327 
. . 265 


Planets, King of the. 

Plum-cake, Old-fashioned. 

Puritans, The. 

Pudding, Yorkshire. 

Punctuation, Rules of. 

Punctuation Marks. 

Punctuate, How to, Correctly. 

Pulse, The. 

Presidents, Education, Marriage, etc. . . . 
Presidents, Popular Vote for, by States . . 

Presidents, Politics of . 

Presidents, How they Died . . . 

President’s Salary . 

Presidents of France. 

Presidents, Autographs of. 

Presidents, Religion of. 

Presses, Printing. 

Projectiles of War. 

Proposal, Acceptance and Vow. 

Pronunciation. 

Q 

Queen of Jewels. 

Quail on Toast. 

R 

Rabies. 

Rabbit, Broiled. 

Railroad Signalling. 


PAGE 

. . 243 
. . 244 
. . 244 
. . 241 
. . 245 
. . 243 
. . 235 
. . 235 
. . 234 
. . 241 
. . 234 
. . 235 
. . 233 
. . 234 
. . 238 
. . 223 
. . 206 
. . 75 
. . 59 
. . 58 
. . 59 
. . 60 
. . 60 
. . 781 
. . 687 
760-802 
. . 689 
. . 541 
. . 250 
. . 442 
. . 228 
. . 31 
. . 31 
. . 31 
. . 688 
. . 674 
. . 676 
. . 676 
. . 621 
. . 677 
. . 467 
. . 452 
. . 678 
. . 769 
. . 773 
. . 151 
. . 56 


593 

241 


748 

241 

598 














































































































844 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


PAGE 


Rats, White.213 

Rabbits.212 

Rain-fall, Annual Average.684 

Republics in South Africa.500 

Ready Reckoner.668 

Revolution, Events Preceding the.446 

Red Men, Extinction of the.441 

Recent Historic Events.822 

Recesses, Cosy.362 

Reception Day, A.337 

Red Bird, The.200 

Refreshments, Serving...353 

Receptions.350 

Receipts for Everyday Use.214 

Reclaiming Bad Lands.741 

Red Front Parrot, The.205 

Religious Beliefs, Different.130 

Reporters.762 

Republic in Europe, The Smallest.685 

Riches Greater than King Solomon’s.828 

Rowing.407 

Rouge, Oriental.261 

Rolls, Light.249 

Rolls, French.250 

Rolls, Bakers’.250 

Roast Quail or Woodcock.241 

Robin, The.201 

Robin, The Japanese.204 

Roentgen Rays.. . 586 

Rose, The.. 196 

Royalty, What it Costs England.685 

Rural Postal Delivery.822 

Russian Empire, The.472 

Russia, Government of.796 

Russia, Czar of.797 

Russia, Holy Synod of.797 

Russia, Senate of.798 

Rubbish and Disease.264 

S 

Samonan Islands.759 

Sandwich Islands...510 

Saturn.542 

Salutations.332 

Sales Book ..634 

Satin, How to Wash.252 

Salad, Potato.246 

Salad, Chicken.247 

Salad, Fruit.247 

Salad, Sardine.247 

Salad, Banana.247 

Salad, Beet.247 

Salad, Cucumber.247 

Salad, Lobster.247 

Salad, Salmon.248 


PAGE 

Salad, Tomato.248 

Salad, Veal. 248. 

Salad, Orange.248 

Salad Dressing.248 

Sauerkraut.246 

Sauce, Chili.242 

Sauce, Roast Beef.242 

Sauce, Current.242 

Sauce, Bread.242 

Sauce, Egg.242 

Sauce, Celery.242 

Sauce, Lemon.243 

Sauce, Mint.243 

Sausage, Mississippi.235 

Salmon or Halibut, Baked.223 

Salmon, Thick Cream Sauce for.221 

Salmon, Puree of.221 

Salaries Paid to Heads of Governments .... 685 

Scientific Farming.741 

Scotland.464 

Scab, in Birds.210 

Scalds and Burns.328 

Search Lights.* *.777 

Self-Culture. 19 

Self-Command, Perfect. 173 

Self-Sacrifice, Examples of.169 

Sentences, Construction of. 42 

Sections and Paragraphs. 37 

Semi-colons, Colons and Periods. 33 

Shadow-pictures. 591 

Shortcake, Strawberry . ..251 

Shell Parakeet, The.205 

Sparrow, The Java. 203- 

Signs and Abbreviations in Business.630 

Silver Question, The.621 

Signalling, Railroad.598 

Silver. 259' 

Siam. 496- 

Siskin, The.202 

Simpletons, Conceited.164 

Size of Universe.727 

Skin and Bone Grafting.750 

Skylark, The.203 

“ Sky Scrapers”.778 

Slaw, Cold. 247 

Slaw, Cabbage.246 

Smelts, How to Fry.221 

Smokeless Powder. 773 : 

Snakes, Bites of. 330 

Sneezing.. . 210 

Snow-Drop, The.183 

Smallest Republic .... 685 

Small Inventions, Getting Rich by . . . . . . 683 
Solar System, Our. 536 


Sounds of English Language, Table of ... . 55 


















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


Soup, Philadelphia Pepper Pot. 

Soup, Dried Bean. 

Soup, Corn . 

Soup, Green Pea. 

Soup, Vermicelli. 

Soup, Bisque. 

Soup, Julienne. 

Soup, Mock Turtle. 

Soup, Clam .• . . . 

Soup, Wine. 

Soup, White. 

Soup, Bean . 

Soup, Gumbo. 

Soup, Rice. 

Soup, Friar’s Duck. 

Soup, Noodle . 

Soup, Macaroni. 

Soup, Vegetable. 

Soup, Potato . 

Soup, French Tomato. 

Soups . 

Soup, Ox-Tail. 

Soup, Turtle. 

Soup, Celery and Potato . 

Soup, Beef Heart.. 

Soup, Beef. 

Soup, White Stock. 

Soup, Tomato . 

Soup, Oyster. 

Soup, Cream Celery. 

South Africa and the Boers. 

Sovereigns of England. 

Spell, How to, Correctly. 

Sporting Boat, Pneumatic. 

Spain. 

Sports and Pastimes. 

Spare-rib, Roast . .. 

Speaker, The Graceful. 

Speaker, The Awkward. 

Statutes of Limitations. 

States and Territories, Fictitious Names of . . 

Steel Rolling Mills. 

Stereotyping . . • . 

Stockbrokers’ Technicalities. 

Stock Yards at Chicago. 

Stars, Infinite Clusters of. 

Star Spangled Banner, Fac-simile of. 

Strawberry Shortcake. 

Strength, Feats of. 

Stones, How to Cleanse Precious. 

Stew, Brunswick. 

Stew, Irish. 

Starling, European. 

Stress. Vanishing. 

Style of Composition, The Best. 


845 

PAGE 


Sub-Marine Navigation.752 

Sulu, Sultan of.758 

Sun’s Eternal Day, The.518 

Sunstroke . ’.324 

Sun’s Form, The.530 

Sun-Spots, Rapid Movement of.517 

Sun, Vast Size of.514 

Sun, Eclipse of the.523 

Supper Parties.353 

Sun, The.728 

Sun Eruptions.525 

Swing and Stirrups, The.• 303 

Swimming and Climbing.305 

Synopsis, Make a . 96 

Synonyms and Anonyms. 98 

T. 

Table Decorations.345 

Tagalas, The.757 

Tallest Building.778 

Tennis Court.383 

Temperaments, Balance of.126 

Telephone, The.578 

Tea, Five O’Clock.349 

I Telegraphing, Swift.724 

Telephotography. 819 

Telescope, Yerkes.730 

Terrapins, How to Cook Maryland Style . . . 225 
Temperaments Adapted to Each Other .... 127 

Temperament, The Mental.127 

Temperaments, The.121 

Temperament, The Motive.122 

Temperature, Annual Average.684 

Thumb, Dislocated.329 

Things Not Generally Known.616 

Thrush, The Brown.201 

Thrush, The English.202 

Time, Exercises on. 75 

Tomato Toast.245 

Tomato Relish. 245 

Tomatoes, Fried.245 

Tomatoes, Stuffed.246 

Tomatoes and Onions, Green.245 

Torpedoes.775 

Trans-Siberian Railway . ..713 

Transvaal Government.834 

Traveling in the Air.808 

True Motto, The. 18 

Troopial, The.204 

Trunk, Movement of the. 69 

Trusts.832 

Training of Mind and Body. 17 

Turkey or Chicken, Roast.238 

Tulips.190 

Turbines of Niagara Falls.73? 


PAGE 

220 

220 

220 

220 

220 

220 

220 

219 

219 

219 

219 

219 

219 

219 

219 

218 

218 

218 

218 

218 

216 

217 

217 

218 

217 

217 

216 

216 

216 

218 

883 

685 

27 

620 

483 

382 

235 

57 

57 

666 

622 

812 

768 

623 

784 

558 

450 

251 

284 

259 

238 

233 

201 

74 

43 






















































































































846 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 


PAGE 


Tutuila.760 

Type Setting..776 


U 


Ushers at Weddings.342 

United States.440 

Uranus. 543 

United States of Colombia.508 

Uncle Sam.623 

United States officers, Salaries of.677 

United States of America, Government of . . . 

United States, President of.798 

United States, Constitution of.799 

United States, Congress of.800 

United States, Senate of.800 

United States, House of Representatives of . . 800 

United States Supreme Court.801 

Uitlanders.835 


V 


Varnish, Furniture ,.258 

Venus.537 

Venison, Roast.237 

Venezuela.504 

Ventilation, Best Methods of.268 

Velvet, How to Wash.257 

Vegetables, How to Cook.243 

Veal, To Roast.229 

Veal Cutlets. 229 

Veal Chops.229 

Veal, Fillet of.230 

Veal, Loin of, Roasted.230 

Veal Pot-Pie.230 

Vermin on Birds.211 

Vice-Presidents, Birth, Election, Death, etc. . . 675 

Violets.184 

Visiting Cards, Specimens of. 40 

Votes for Presidents.675 

Voice, Loss of, in Birds.210 

Vocal Culture. 53 

Voyaging at the Sea Bottom.751 

Vowel Sounds. 55 


W 

Wanderers in Space. 

War with Spain . 

Water Supply, The.. . . 

Wax Plant. 

Water for Birds. 

Washington, D. C., Facts About . . 

Weddings. 

Weather Signals. 

Weather, The. 

Wedding Anniversaries. 

Weddings, Home. 

Wedding Tour, The. 

Wedding, A Home. 

Week Days, Names of. 

Weight of a Million Dollars . . . . 

Wealth of Principal Nations . . . . 

White Man’s Greed for Land . . . . 

Will, General Form of. 

Wireless Light. 

Wireless Telegraphy. 

Writing, Plain, the Best. 

Write and Speak, How to Correctly 

Winds and Storms. 

Wills and Testaments. 

Wives, How Good, are Spoiled . , 

Writer, Position of .. 

White Mice. 

Women, Arts of. 

Worlds, Brotherhood of. 

Women, Masculine 

WorM, Political Divisions of . . . 

White House. 

Wife, The Model. 


X-Rays in Surgery 


X 


Yeast, Potato 
Yeast, Apple 
Yeast. Hop . 

Zeotrope 


Y 


Z 




PAGE 

564 
, 827 
. 272 
. 186 
. 212 
„ 678 
. 341 
. 596 
. 596 
. 343 
. 342 
. 161 
. 156 
. 684 
. 682 
. 681 
. 746 
. 665 
. 725 
. 719 
. 27 

. 21 
. 597 
. 665 
. 133. 
. 23 

. 213 
. 124 
. 516 
. 129 
. 681 
. 678 
. 176 


746 


248 

249 
248 


738 



































































































































